LIBRARY 

OF  TIIK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


OK 

Mrs.  SARAH  P.  WALS  WORTH. 


Received  October, 
^Accessions  No.Oo  /^Q.      Class  No. 


ARTS  &  SCIENCES 

- 

Olnstratedby  .i.i|»-iinb  o.l'  l«i  >  cli-R,m 


PHIL  ABELPHIA . 


Riixter. 


*} 

!ft 

TH1 

if)  \ 

ijn»i 

-> 


AMERICAN  EDITION 


OF  THE 


BRITISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OR 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS  AND  SCIENCES, 

COMPRISING 

AN  ACCURATE  AND  POPULAR  VIEW 

OF  THE  PRESENT 

IMPROVED   STATE  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE, 


BY  WILLIAM  NICHOLSON, 

Author  and  Proprietor  of  the  Philosophical  Journal,  and  various  other  Chemical,  Philosophical  and 
Mathematical  Works. 


ILLUSTRATED    WITH 

UPWARDS  OF  180  ELEGANT  ENGRAVINGS. 

VOLI     >^^ 

THB 

BESIT7] 


:      <::-:'  ••-;'7"  v 


PHILADELPHIA 

PUBLISHED  BY  MITCHELL,  AMES,  AND  WHITE, 

ALSO, 

BY  INGRAM  AND  LLOYD,  NASHVILLE. 

W.  Brown,  Printer,  Prune  Street 

18*9. 


A  £"5" 


v,  / 


UFIVJIESIT? 


PREFACE. 


THK  experience  of  more  than  a  century  lias  eminently 
proved  the  advantages  of  such  works  as  exhibit,  under  an 
alphabetical  arrangement,  the  complete  circle  of  human 
knowledge.  Dictionaries  of  language,  of  general  terms, 
and  of  particular  branches  of  science  and  art,  have  been 
multiplied  by  the  labours  of  men  fully  qualified  to  display 
the  subjects  they  have  undertaken  to  discuss  ;  and  the 
first  characters  in  the  various  nations  of  Europe  have 
been  proud  to  rank  their  names  and  unite  their  exertions 
in  the  production  of  immense  works,  containing  every 
subject  which  can  engage  the  intellectual  research  or  ac- 
tive occupation  of  man.  The  order  of  the  alphabet  has 
been  so  skilfully  combined  with  that  order  which  is  in- 
dicated by  the  natural  relations  of  the  materials,  that 
works  of  this  description  have  been  received  with  the 
most  striking  approbation;  and,  notwithstanding  the  great 
labour  and  expense  required  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid 
improvements  and  discoveries  of  modern  times,  the  num- 
ber of  Dictionaries  of  all  descriptions  have  been  so  great, 
that  it  would  be  difficult,  and  perhaps  useless,  even  to 
name  them,  and  point  out  their  respective  merits. 

From  the  great  Encyclopedias,  each  of  which  may  be 
said  to  constitute  an  entire  library,  to  those  smaller  com- 
positions intended  for  mere  reference  : — from  the  hurried 
compilations  of  book-makers  to  those  elaborate  and  lu- 
minous works,  in  which  men  of  the  highest  reputation 


IV  PREFACE. 

have  recorded  their  comprehensive  views,  and  their  most 
striking  discoveries,  it  is  not  difficult  to  observe  and  de- 
duce the  distinct  and  separate  utilities  of  each,  and  the 
duties  to  be  expected  from  the  editors  and  proprietors  of 
such  undertakings.  Among  the  most  obvious  of  these,  it 
is  indispensable  that  a  new  work  should  be  called  for,  by 
circumstances  which  point  out  advantages  of  size,  plan, 
and  materials,  not  before  adopted,  and  that  the  means  to 
be  employed,  in  the  actual  performance,  should  be  such 
as  must  determine  its  worth  and  authority  with  every  de- 
scription of  readers. 

We  are  already  in  possession  of  the  large  Cyclopedia 
of  Dr.  lti<;r;s,  which  has  advanced  to  its  twelfth  volume, 
by  a  progress  that  insures  its  regular  completion,  and  in 
a  style  of  execution  which  is  truly  honourable  to  the  skill 
and  diligence  of  those  who  have  undertaken  it  ;  to 
the  activity  and  enterprise  of  the  proprietors,  and  to  a 
nation  which  has  ever  taken  the  lead  in  science  and  the 
arts.  On  the  smaller  dictionaries  it  is  needless  to  en- 
large. After  various  deliberate  consultations  between 
the  Proprietors,  the  Editor,  and  the  principal  gentle- 
men engaged  in  the  different  departments,  it  was  conclud- 
ed, that  a  new  Dictionary,  appropriated  exclusively  to 
the  Jlrts  and  Sciences,  and  containing  a  dense,  accurate 
and  ample  exhibition  of  our  whole  knowledge  respecting 
them,  might  with  the  greatest  advantage  be  comprehend- 
ed in  the  limits  of  six  large  octavo  volumes.  It  was 
accordingly  decided,  that  the  undertaking  should  be  en- 
tered upon  with  vigour  and  activity,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  utmost  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  means  by 
which  alone  it  was  possible  to  insure  the  value  of  the  in- 


PREFACE.  V 

tended  work.  The  year  preceding  its  appearance  was 
employed  in  digesting  the  plan,  establishing  correspon- 
dences, investigating  the  various  sources  of  information, 
and  settling  the  order  and  disposition  of  the  materials  ; 
and  it  was  not  until  after  those  materials  were  in  conside- 
rable forwardness,  and  the  whole  arrangement  was  be- 
fore the  Editor,  that  the  Proprietors  thought  themselves 
enabled  to  disclose  their  views,  and  express  their  confi- 
dence in  the  public  support. 

If  the  value  of  a  composition  of  the  magnitude  and  ex- 
tent of  the  British  Encyclopedia  could  be  seen  at  once 
by  a  cursory  or  even  by  a  diligent  examination  :  or  if  the 
variety  of  subjects  it  comprehends  would  admit  of  the 
supposition,  that  a  decision  on  its  merits  could  be  made, 
in  a  reasonable  time,  by  general  readers,  it  might  then 
be  consistent  with  the  .becoming  reserve  of  men,  speaking 
of  their  own  labours,  to  submit  them  wholly  to  the  ulti- 
mate voice  of  a  discerning  public.  But  when  by  compi- 
lation from  the  works  of  authors,  standing  high  in  cele- 
brity for  knowledge  and  for  talents  ;  by  the  occasional 
abridgment  and  elucidation  of  the  products  of  these  re- 
searches ;  and  by  the  insertion,  in  almost  every  sheet,  of 
treatises  or  disquisitions  composed  expressly  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  whole  composition  of  a  Dictionary  of  Science 
shall  bear  the  marks  of  originality,  it  becomes  a  duty  in 
the  Editor,  with  regard  to  himself  and  the  other  writers, 
that  he  should,  to  a  certain  extent,  point  out  what  has 
been  done  in  this  respect. 

It  would  be  truly  gratifying  to  the  Editor,  if  he  might 
attempt  in  this  place  to  express  his  sentiments  of  the  trea- 
tises which  have  passed  under  his  view  in  the  conduct 


VI  PREFACE. 

and  disposition  of  the  present  work,  and  declare  his  obli- 
gations individually  to  each  of  the  writers  who  have 
honoured  him  with  their  assistance  in  the  completion  of 
the  undertaking ;  but  he  fears  that  the  language  of  ap- 
probation which  he  would  in  justice  feel  himself  compell- 
ed to  use,  might  be  misconstrued  into  an  unbecoming  en- 
deavour to  enhance,  beyond  its  merits,   the  value   of  the 
publication.     Some  of  the  authors  of  the  British  Ency- 
clopedia have  chosen  to  reserve  their  names.      The  Edi- 
tor has  written  and  composed   upwards  of  two  hundred 
articles  on  Chemistry,  Natural  Philosophy,  and  Mecha- 
nics, and  practical  subjects  relating  to  them,  besides  seve- 
ral of  the  lives  of  great  men.     The   Mathematical  Arti- 
cles, including  the  mixed  subjects  of  Astronomy,  Optics, 
Phonics,  Statics,  and  many  others,  were  drawn  up  by  a 
popular  author,  who  is  well  known  for  his  writings  on 
those  subjects.     The  article  Conic  Sections  was  written 
by  JAMES  IVORY,  Esq.  of  the  Royal  Military  College  of 
Marlow.     To  the  Rev.  Dr.  CARPENTER,  of  Exeter,  our 
readers  are  indebted  for  the  articles  Grammar,  Language, 
Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy,  Understanding,  the  Ori- 
gin of  Writing,  and  many  others  connected  with  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  mind.     For  the  articles  Criticism,  History, 
Poetry,  and  Rhetoric,  our  obligations  are  due  to  the  Rev. 
WM.  SHEPHERD,  author  of  the  life  of  Poggio  Bracciolini. 
To  J.  J.  GRELLIEK,  Esq.  of  the  Royal  Exchange  Insu- 
rance Company,  are  to  be  ascribed  many  valuable  articles 
on  Political  Economy,  the  Doctrine  of  Annuities,  Rever- 
sions, Assurance,  &c. 

In  our   Medical   Department,  the  articles  Dietetics, 
Diseases  and  Treatment  of  Infancy,   Materia  Medica, 


PREFACE.  Vll 

Medicine,  Midwifery,  and  Pharmacy,  were  written  by  J. 
M.  GOOD,  Esq.  the  learned  translator  of  "  Lucretius," 
and  author  of  many  works  in  medicine,  and  the  sciences 
connected  with  it.  Those  on  Anatomy,  Comparative 
Anatomy,  the  Natural  History  of  Man,  Physiology,  Sur- 
gery, &c.  were  drawn  up  by  W.  LAWRENCE,  Esq.  of 
St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital. 

To  a  very  ingenious  pupil  of  Dr.  SMITH,  the  celebrat- 
ed President  of  the  Linnean  Society,  we  are  indebted  for 
the  introductory  treatise  on  Botany.  Dynamics,  Hy- 
draulics, Music,  Fortification,  Perspective,  and  many 
other  articles  in  Mathematics,  and  Experimental  Philo- 
sophy ;  and  also  those  on  Farriery  and  Gardening;  were 
composed  by  Capt.  WILLIAMSON,  a  gentleman  well 
known  to  the  literary  and  philosophical  world.  The  ar- 
ticles Distillery  and  Galvanism  were  written  by  Mr.  SYL- 
VESTER of  Derby,  whose  discoveries  in  the  latter  new  and 
promising  department  of  experimental  research  are  well 
known  to  philosophers.  To  W.  Y.  OTTLEY,  Esq.  we 
acknowledge  ourselves  indebted  for  the  article  Painting. 
And  to  Mr.  J.  P.  MALCOLM,  author  of  "  The  Antiquities 
of  London,"  are  to  be  ascribed  those  on  Heraldry,  To- 
pography, and  other  articles  connected  with  the  Arts. 

JAMES  PARKINSON,  Esq.  author  of  an  elaborate  and  ex- 
extensive  work  on  the  "  Organic  Remains  of  a  former 
World,"  composed  the  articles  Geology,  Oryctology, 
Rocks,  and  Shells,  which  appear  in  this  Dictionary* 
Those  on  Dyeing,  and  on  the  Manufacture  of  Cotton,  de- 
duced from  actual  observation,  with  several  others  relating 
to  practical  Mechanics,  and  subjects  of  a  mixed  nature, 
were  furnished  by  W.  BOSWELL,  Esq.  ;  and  those  on 


Vlii  PREFACE. 

Weaving  and  Short-hand  by  Mr.  NIGHTINGALE.  Mr. 
PETER  NICHOLSON  is  the  author  of  the  treatises  on  Ar- 
chitecture and  Building  :  and  the  processes  of  particular 
Arts  and  Manufactures  were  either  communicated  by  pro- 
fessional men,  or  in  various  instances  drawn  up  under 
their  inspection. 

When  the  reader  shall  have  directed  his  attention  to 
the  ample  quantity  of  original  and  excellent  matter  con- 
tained in  the  articles  here  pointed  out,  besides  others 
more  concise,  and  interspersed  through  the  work,  he  will 
be  enabled  to  form  some  judgment  of  its  utility  and  com- 
parative cheapness. 

It  is  now  a  year  since  the  Proprietors  and  Conductors 
of  this  work  solicited  the  public  encouragement,  with  a 
full  determination  to  spare  no  exertions  in  performing  the 
duties  required  in  their  arduous  undertaking.  The  event, 
they  trust,  has  gratified  their  expectation.  The  British 
Encyclopedia  was  commenced,  has  been  regularly  con- 
tinued, and  is  now  completed  in  six  handsome  volumes, 
agreeably  to  the  Prospectus.  In  the  typographical  exe- 
cution of  this  Dictionary,  and  in  the  engravings  with 
which  it  is  illustrated,  they  feel  confident  they  may  claim 
a  superiority  over  every  other  work  of  the  same  kind. 
An  extensive  sale  has  already  given  proof  of  the  appro- 
bation they  have  laboured  to  deserve;  and  they  trust,  that 
as  the  British  Encyclopedia  continues  to  increase  in  cir- 
culation, it  will  maintain  the  reputation  it  has  already 
acquired. 


U  JU  J  V   J5  XV  a  1  A  ^ 


THE 


BRITISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA, 


ABA 

A  The  first  letter  of  the  alphabet,  and 
9  one  of  the  five  vowels,  is  pronounc- 
ed variously;  sometimes  open,  as  in  the 
words  talk,  walk  ,•  and  at  others  close,  as 
in  take,  wake. 

A  is  also  used,  on  many  occasions,  as  a 
character,  mark,  or  abbreviation.  Thus, 
in  the  calender,  it  is  the  first  of  the  domi- 
nical letters ;  among  logicians,  it  denotes 
an  universal  affirmative  proposition ;  as  a 
numeral,  A  signified  1  among  the  Greeks; 
but  among  the  Romans,  it  denoted  500, 
and  with  a  dash  over  it,  thus  A~,  5000.  A, 
a,  or  aa,  among  physicians,  denote  ana,  or 
an  equal  weight  or  quantity,  of  several 
ingredients. 

AAM,  or  HAAM,  a  liquid  measure  used 
by  the  Dutch,  equal  to  288  pints  English 
measure. 

ABACK,  in  sea  language,  signifies  the 
situation  of  the  sails  when  their  surfaces 
are  flatted  against  the  mast.  They  may 
be  brought  aback,  either  by  a  sudden 
change  of  wind,  or  an  alteration  in  the 
ship's  course.  They  are  laid  aback,  to 
effect  an  immediate  retreat,  without  turn- 
ing either  to  the  right  or  left,  to  avoid 
some  immediate  danger  in  a  narrow 
channel,  or  when  she  has  advanced  be- 
yond her  station  in  the  line  of  battle. 

ABACUS,  in  architecture,  the  upper- 
most member  of  the  capital  of  a  column. 
In  the  Greek  Doric,  it  is  a  plane  square 
fillet.  In  the  Ionic,  and  Corinthian, 
moulded  and  enriched. 

ABACUS,  among  ancient  mathemati- 
cians., was  a  table  strewed  over  with  dust, 
or  sand,  on  which  they  drew  their  figures 
or  schemes. 

ABACUS,  in  arithmetic,  an  instrument 
for  facilitating  operations  by  means  of 
counters.  Its  form  is  various ;  but  tbut 

VOL.  I, 


ABA 

chiefly  used  in  Europe  is  made  by  draw- 
ing parallel  lines,  distant  from  each  other 
at  least  twice  the  diameter  of  a  counter  5 
which,  placed  on  the  lowermost  line,  sig- 
nifies 1 ;  on  the  second,  10 ;  on  the  third, 
100  :  on  the  fourth,  1000  ;  and  so  on.  A- 
gain,  a  counter,  placed  in  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  lines,  signifies  only  the  half  of 
what  it  would  do  on  the  next  superior  line. 

ABACUS,  pythagoricus,  a  multiplication- 
table,  or  a  table  of  numbers  ready  cast  up, 
to  facilitate  operations  in  arithmetic. 

ABACUS,  logisticus,  is  also  a  kind  of  mul- 
tiplication-table, in  form  of  a  right-angled 
triangle. 

ABACUS,  harmonious,  among  musicians, 
denotes  the  arrangement  of  the  keys  of  a 
musical  instrument. 

ABACUS,  Grecian,  an  oblong  frame,  over 
which  are  stretched  several  brass  wires,, 
strung  with  little  ivory  balls,  by  the  vari- 
ous arrangements  of  which  all  kinds  of 
computations  are  easily  made. 

ABACUS,  C%z'ne$e,orSchwanpan,consis{% 
of  several  series  of  beads  strung  on  brass 
wires,  stretched  from  the  top  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  instrument,  and  divided  in  the 
middle  by  a  cross  piece  from  side  to  side. 
In  the  upper  space  every  string  has  two 
beads,  which  are  each  counted  for  fivej 
and  in  the  lowest  space  every  string  has 
five  beads  of  different  values,  the  first 
being  counted  as  1,  the  second  as  10,  the 
third  as  100,  and  so  on. 

ABAFT,  in  sea-language,  a  term  appli- 
ed to  any  thing  situated  towards  the  stern 
of  a  vessel :  thus  a  thing  is  said  to  be  abaft 
the  fore-mast,  or  main-mast,  when  placed 
between  the  fore-mast,  or  main-mast,  and 
the  stern. 

ABAFT  the  beam,  denotes  the  relative 
situation  of  any  object  with  the  ship,  when 
the  obiect  is  placed  in  any  part  of  that 

A 


ABE 


ABE 


arch  of  the  horizon,  which  is  contained 
between  a  line  at  right  angles  with  the 
keel  and  that  point  of  the  compass  which 
is  directly  opposite  the  ship's  course. 

ABAS,  a  weight  used  in  Persia  for 
weighing  pearls,  being  one  eighth  part 
lighter  than  the  European  carat. 

ABASED,  in  heraldry,  is  said  of  the 
•wings  of  eagles,  &c.  when  the  tip  looks 
downwards  to  the  point  of  the  shield,  or 
when  the  wings  are  shut ;  the  natural  way 
of  bearing  them  being  spread. 

ABATE,  in  law,  signifies  to  break  down 
or  destroy,  as  to  abate  a  nuisance,  and  to 
abate  a  castle.  It  means  to  defeat  and 
overthrow,  on  account  of  some  error  or 
exception. 

ABATEMENT,  in  heraldry,  something 
added  to  a  coat  of  arms,  in  order  to  lessen 
its  true  dignity,  and  point  out  some  imper- 
fection or  stain  in  the  character  of  the 
person  who  bears  it. 

ABATEMENT,  in  law,  signifies  the  re- 
jecting a  suit,  on  account  of  some  fault 
cither  in  the  matteror  proceeding.  Hence, 
plea  in  abatement  is  some  exception  al- 
leged, and  proved,  against  the  plaintiff's 
writ,  declaration,  &c.  and  praying  that  the 
plaint  may  abate  or  cease;  which  being 
granted,  all  writs  in  the  process  must  be- 
gin de  novo. 

AB  ATOR,  in  law,  one  who  enters  into  a 
house  or  lands,  void  by  the  death  of  the 
last  possessor,  before  the  true  heir  ;  and 
therefore  keeps  him  out,  till  he  brings  the 
writ  intrusione. 

ABDOMEN,  in  anatomy,  the  lower  part 
of  the  trunk  of  the  body,  reaching  from 
the  thorax  to  the  bottom  of  the  pelvis. 
See  ANATOMY. 

ABDOMINALES,  in  natural  history,  an 
order  of  fishes,  having  ventral  fins  placed 
behind  the  pectoral  in  the  abdomen,  and 
the  branchia  ossiculated.  This  order 
comprehends  sixteen  genera,  viz. 
Amia  Cobitis  Atherina 

Clupea         Esox          Cyprinus 
Elops  Loricaria  Exocoetus 

Fistularia      Salmo        Mugil 
Polynemas  Teuthis     Silurus 
Argentina 

ABDUCTOR,  or  ABDUCENT,  in  anato- 
my, a  name  given  to  several  muscles,  on 
account  of  their  serving  to  withdraw,open, 
or  pull  back  the  parts  to  which  they  are 
affixed.  See  ANATOMY. 

ABERRATION,  in  astronomy,  an  ap- 
parent motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  pro- 
duced by  the  progressive  motion  of  light 
and  the  earth's  annual  motion  in  her  orbit. 
Since  light  proceeds  always  in  right  lines, 
when  its  motion  is  perfectly  undisturbed, 


if  a  fine  tube  were  placed  so  as  to  receive 
a  ray  of  light  passing  exactly  through  its 
axis  when  at  rest,  and  then,  remaining  in 
the  same  direction,  were  moved  trans- 
versely with  great  velocity,  it  is  evident 
that  the  side  of  the  tube  would  strike 
against  the  ray  of  light  in  its  passage;  and 
that,  in  order  to  retain  it  in  the  axis,  the 
tube  must  be  inclined,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  the  light,  instead  of  coming  in  its 
actual  direction,  had  also  a  transverse 
motion,  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  of 
the  tube.  The  axis  of  a  telescope,  or  even 
of  the  eye,  may  be  considered  as  resem- 
bling such  a  tube,  the  passage  of  the  light 
through  the  refracting  substances  not  al- 
tering the  necessary  inclination  of  the  axis, 
In  various  parts  of  the  earth's  orbit,  the 
aberration  of  any  one  star  must  be  differ- 
ent in  quantity  and  in  direction  ;  it  never 
exceeds  20"  each  way,  and  therefore  in- 
sensible in  common  observations.  If  A  B 
and  AC  (Plate  Acoustics,  &c.  fig.  1)  re- 
present  the  comparative  velocity  of  light 
and  of  the  earth,  in  their  respective  direc- 
tions, a  telescope  must  be  placed  in  the 
direction  BC  in  order  to  see  the  star  D, 
and  the  star  will  appear  at  E.  This  dis- 
covery was  made  by  Dr.  Bradley,  in  his 
observations  to  determine  the  annual  pa- 
rallax of  the  fixed  stars,  or  that  which 
arises  from  the  motion  of  the  earth  in  its 
orbit  round  the  sun. 

ABERRATION  of  the  planets,  is  equal  to 
the  geocentric  motion  of  the  planet,  the 
space  which  it  appears  to  move,  as  seen 
from  the  earth,  during  the  time  that  light 
employs  in  passing  from  the  planet  to  the 
earth.  Thus,  with  regard  to  the  sun,  the 
aberration  in  longitude  is  constantly  20", 
which  is  the  space  moved  by  the  earth  in 
the  time  8'  7",  which  is  the  time  that  light 
takes  to  pass  from  the  sun  to  the  earth. 
Hence,  the  distance  of  the  planet  from  the 
earth  being  known,  it  will  be,  as  the  dis- 
tance of  the  sun  is  to  the  distance  of  the 
planet,  so  is  8'  7"  to  the  time  of  light  pass- 
ing from  the  planet  to  the  earth ;  then 
computing  the  planet's  geocentric  motion 
in  this  time,  will  give  the  aberration  of  the 
planet,  whether  it  be  in  longitude,  lati- 
tude, right  ascension,  or  declination.  The 
aberration  will  be  greatest  in  longitude, 
and  but  very  small  in  latitude,  because  the 
planets  deviate  very  little  from  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic.  InjMercury  it  is  only  4^" 
and  much  less  in  the  other  planets.  The 
aberration  in  declination  and  right  ascen- 
sion depends  on  the  situation  of  the  pla- 
net in  the  zodiac.  The  aberration  in  lon- 
gitude, being  equal  to  the  geocentric  mo- 
tion, will  be  more  or  less,  according  as 


ABO 


ABR 


that  motion  may  be.  It  will  be  least  whea 
the  planet  is  stationary ;  and  greatest  in 
the  superior  planets,  when  they  are  in 
opposition ;  but  in  the  inferior  planets, 
the  aberration  is  greatest  at  the  time  of 
their  superior  conjunction. 

ABERRATION,  in  optics,  a  deviation  of 
the  rays  of  light,  when  reflected,  whereby 
they  are  prevented  from  meeting  in  the 
same  point.  Aberrations  are  of  two  kinds; 
one  arising  from  the  figure  of  the  reflect- 
ing body,  the  other  from  the  different  re- 
frangibility  of  the  rays  themselves  :  this 
last  is  called  the  Newtonian  aberration, 
from  the  name  of  the  discoverer. 

ABETTOR,  or  ABBETTOR,  in  law,  the 
person  who  promotes  or  procures  a  crime 
to  be  committed  :  thus,  an  abettor  of  mur- 
der is  one  who  commands  or  counsels  an- 
other to  commit  it.  An  abettor,  accord- 
ing as  he  is  present  or  absent  at  the  time 
of  committing  the  fact,  is  punishable  as  a 
principal  or  accessary.  See  ACCESSARY. 

An  abettor  is  the  same  with  one  who  is 
deemed  arta.ndpart,bythe.  law  of  Scotland. 

ABEYANCE,  in  law,  is  that  which  is  in 
expectation,  remembrance,  and  intend- 
ment  of  law.  By  a  principle  of  law,  in 
every  land  there  is  a  fee  simple  in  some- 
body, or  it  is  in  abeyance;  that  is,  though 
at  present  it  be  in  no  man,  yet  it  is  in  ex- 
pectaacy,  belonging  to  him  that  is  next  to 
enjoy  the  land.  Where  no  person  is  seen 
or  known,  in  whom  the  inheritance  can 
rest,  it  may  be  in  abeyance,  as  in  limita- 
tion to  several  persons,  and  the  survivor, 
and  the  heirs  of  such  survivor,  because  it 
is  uncertain  who  will  be  the  survivor,  yet 
the  freehold  cannot,  because  there  must 
be  a  tenant  to  the  pracipe  always. 

ABJURATION,  in  law,  is  used  for  re- 
nouncing, disclaiming,  and  denying  the 
Pretender  to  have  any  mannerof  right  to 
the  throne  of  these  kingdoms ;  and  that 
upon  oath,  which  is  required  to  be  taken 
upon  divers  pains  and  penalties  by  many 
statutes,  particularly  1  W.  and  M.  13  W. 
HI.  1  Anne,  1  Geo.I. 

ABOLITION,  in  law,  denotes  the  re- 
pealing any  law  or  statute,  and  prohibit- 
ing some  custom,  ceremony,  &c.  Some- 
times also  it  signifies  leave  granted  by  the 
king,  or  a  judge,  to  a  criminal  accuser,  to 
forbear  any  farther  prosecution. 

Abolition  is  also  used  by  ancient  civi- 
lians and  lawyers,  for  desisting  from,  or 
annulling,  a  legal  prosecution;  for  remit- 
ting the  punishment  of  a  crime;  and  for 
cancelling  or  discharging  a  public  debt. 

ABOMASUS,  ABOMASUM,  or  ABOMASI- 
TTS,  in  comparative  anatomy,  names  used 
for  the  fourth  stomach  of  ruminating1 


leasts,  or  such  as  chew  the  cud.  Thest 
have  four  stomachs,  the  first  of  which  is 
called  "venter  /  the  second,  reticulum  ,•  the 
third,  omasus;  and  the  fourth,  a&omawg. 
This  last  is  the  place  where  the  chyle  is 
formed,  and  from  which  the  food  descends 
immediately  into  the  intestines. 

ABORTION,  in  medicine,  an  untimely 
or  premature  birth  of  a  foetus,  otherwise 
called  a  miscarriage ;  but  if  this  happen 
before  the  second  month  of  pregnancy, 
it  is  only  called  a  false  conception.  See 
MEDICINE,  MIDWIFERY,  &c. 

ABORTION,  in  law,  if  caused  by  giving 
a  potion  to,  or  striking,  a  pregnant  wo- 
man, was  murder,  but  now  is  said  to  be  a 
great  misprision  only,  and  not  murder, 
unless  the  child  be  born  alive,  and  die 
thereof. 

ABOUT,  in  military  affairs,  a  word  to 
express  the  movement,  by  which  a  body 
of  troops  changes  its  front,  by  facing  ac- 
cording to  any  given  word  of  command. 

ABRA,  a  silver  coin  of  Poland,  nearly 
equivalent  to  the  English  shilling1.  See 
COIN. 

ABREAST,  a  sea  term,  expressing  the 
situation  of  two  or  more  ships,  that  lie 
with  their  sides  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
their  heads  advanced.  When  the  line  of 
battle  at  sea  is  formed  abreast,  the  whole 
squadron  advances  uniformly.  Abreast 
•within  the  ship,  denotes  on  a  line  with  the 
beam,  or  by  the  side  of  any  object  aboard. 

ABRIDGEMENT,  in  law,  the  shorten- 
ing a  count,  or  declaration  :  thus,  in  as- 
size, a  man  is  said  to  abridge  his  plaint, 
and  a  woman  her  demand  in  action  of 
dower,  if  any  land  is  put  therein,  which  is 
not  in  the  tenure  of  the  defendant;  for,  on 
a  plea  of  non-tenure,  in  abatement  of  the 
writ,  the  plaintiff  may  leave  out  those 
lands,  and  pray  that  the  tenant  may  an- 
swer to  the  remainder.  The  reason  is, 
that  these  writs  run  in  general,  and  there- 
fore shall  be  good  for  the  rest. 

ABROMA,  in  botany,  a  word  signifying 
not  fit  for  food,  is  used  in  opposition  to 
Theobroma,  is  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  of  Columniferx, 
and  the  eighteenth  class  of  Polyadelphia 
Dodecandria.  There  are  two  species,  viz. 
the  maple-leaved  abroma,  which  is  a  tree 
with  astraighttrunk,yieldinga  gum  when 
cut,  and  filled  with  a  white  pith  like  the 
elder;  it  flowers  from  June  to  October, 
and  its  fruit  ripens  in  September  and  Oc- 
tober ;  it  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales 
and  the  Philippine  islands,was  introduced 
into  Kew  gardens  about  1770,  and  is  a 
hot-house  plant,  requiring  great  heat,  and 
much  water:— and  Wheler's  Abroma,  go 


ABS 


ACA 


tailed  by  Koenig,  in  compliment  to  Ed- 
ward Wheler,  Esq.  of  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil in  Bengal ;  this  is  a  shrub  with  a  brown 
bark,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  is 
not  known  in  Europe.  There  is  but  one 
of  the  species  known  in  Europe,  which  is 
propagated  with  us  by  cuttings.  The 
plant  requires  a  strong  heat,  and  abun- 
dance of  water.  The  seeds  rarely  arrive 
at  a  state  fit  for  propagation. 

ABRUS,  in  botany,  from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  soft  or  delicate,  so  called  from 
the  extreme  tenderness  of  the  leaves,  is 
a  genus  of  the  natural  order  of  Legumino- 
sx,  and  the  seventeenth  class  of  Diadel- 
phia  Decandria.  There  is  one  species, 
viz.  the  Abrus  precatorius.  It  grows  na- 
turally in  both  Indies,  Guinea,  and  Egypt. 
It  is  a  perennial  plant,  rising  to  the  height 
of  eight  or  ten  feet.  Its  leaflets  have  the 
taste  of  liquorice,  whence  it  is  called,  in 
the  West  Indies,  Jamaica  ivild  liquorice, 
and  used  for  the  same  purpose.  There 
are  two  varieties,  one  with  a  white,  and 
the  other  with  a  yellow  seed.  The  seeds 
are  commonly  strung,  and  worn  as  orna- 
ments in  the  countries  where  the  plant 
grows  wild;  and  they  are  frequently 
"brought  to  Europe  from  Guinea,  and  the 
"East  and  West  Indies,  and  wrought  into 
various  forms  with  other  hard  seeds  and 
shells.  They  are  also  used  for  weighing 
precious  commodities,  and  strung  asbeacls 
for  rosaries,  whence  the  epithet  precato- 
rius. They  are  frequently  thrown,  with 
other  West  India  seeds,  on  the  coast,  of 
Scotland.  This  plant  was  cultivated  by 
Bishop  Compton.  at  Fulham,  before  1680. 
Jt  is  propagated  by  seeds,  sown  on  a  good 
hot-bed  in  spring,  and  previously  soaked 
for  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  in  water. 
When  the  plants  are  two  inches,  each  of 
them  should  be  transplanted  into  a  sepa- 
rate pot  of  light  earth,  and  plunged  into 
hot-beds  of  tanner's  bark,  and  shaded 
from  the  sun.  They  will  flower  the  se- 
cond year,  and  sometimes  ripen  their 
seeds  in  England. 

ABSCESS,  in  medicine  and  surgery, 
an  inflammatory  tumour,  containing  pu- 
rulent ma;ter.  See  SURGERY. 

ABSCISSE,  in  conic  sections,  the  part 
of  the  diameter  of  a  curve  line  intercept- 
ed between  the  vertex  of  that  diameter 
am!  the  point  where  any  ordinatf,  or 
semi-ordinate,  to  that  diameter  falls. 
From  this  definition  it  is  evident,  that 
there  are  an  .nfinite  number  of  variable 
abscisses  in  the  same  curve,  as  well  as  an 
infinite  number  of  ordinates. 

In  the  parabola,  one  ordmate  has  but 
one  abscisse ;  in  an  ellipsis,  it  has  two ;  in 


an  hyperbola,  consisting  of  two  parts,  it 
has  also  two  ;  and  in  curves  of  the  second 
and  third  order,  it  may  have  three  and 
four.  See  CONIC  SECTIONS. 

ABSCISSION,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  of 
speech,  whereby  the  speaker  stops  short 
in  the  middle  of  his  discourse  :  e.  g.  one 
of  her  age  and  beauty,  to  be  seen  alone, 
at  such  an  hour,  with  a  man  of  his  cha- 
racter. I  need  say  no  more. 

ABSINTHIUM.     See  ARTEMISIA. 

ABSORBENTS,  in  the  materiamedica, 
such  medicines  as  have  the  power  of  dry- 
ing up  redundant  humours,  whether  ap- 
plied to  ulcers,  or  taken  inwardly.  See 
MATERIA  MEDICA  and  PHARMACY. 

ABSORBENT  vessels,  in  anatomy,  are 
those  which  take  up  any  fluid  from  the 
surface  of  the  body,  or  of  any  cavity  in  it, 
and  carry  it  into  the  blood.  They  are  de- 
nominated according  to  the  liquids  which 
they  convey,  as  Lacteah,  or  Lymphatics  ,• 
the  former  conveying  chyle,  a  milky 
fluid,  from  the  intestines ;  the  latter  a 
lymph,  a  thin  pellucid  liquor,  from  the 
places  whence  they  take  their  origin. 
The  lymphatics  also  take  up  any  fluids 
that  are  extravasated,  and  likewise  sub- 
stances rubbed  on  the  skin,  as  mercury, 
and  convey  them  into  the  circulation. 

ABSTRACT  idea,  among  logicians,  the 
idea  of  some  general  quality  or  property, 
considered  simply  in  itself,  without  any 
respect  to  a  particular  subject:  thus,  mag- 
nitude, equity,  &c.  are  abstract  ideas, 
when  we  consider  them  as  detached  from 
any  particular  body  or  person.  Various 
controversies  have  been  maintained  re- 
specting the  existence  of  abstract  ideas; 
but  all  these  disputes  seem  to  be  merely 
verbal.  It  is  certainly  impossible  to  pos- 
sess an  idea  of  an  animal,  which  shall  have 
no  precise  colour,  figure,  magnitude,  or 
the  like  ;  but  it  is  an  useful  artifice  of  the 
understanding,  to  leave  these  out  in  our 
general  reasonings.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
a,  b,  c,  &c.  of  the  algebraists  are  usefully 
applied  to  denote  numbers,  though  un- 
doubtedly they  are  only  general  signs. 

ABUCCO,  ABOCCO,  or  AROCCIII,  a 
weight  used  in  the  kingdom  of  Pegu. 

ABUNDAN  T  numbers,  those  whose 
parts  added  together  make  more  than  the 
whole  number  :  thus,  the  aliquot  parts  of 
20,  viz.  1,  2,  4,  5, 10,  make  22. 

ACACIA,  in  botany,  a  species  of  mi- 
mosa. .See  MIMOSA. 

ACACIA,  in  the  materia  medica  of  the 
ancients,  a  gum  made  from  the  Egyptian 
acacia-tree,  and  thought  to  be  the  same 
with  our  gum  arable. 

ACADEMICS,  a  sect  of  philosophers', 


ACA 


ACA 


who  followed  the  doctrine  of  Socrates  and 
Plato,  as  to  the  uncertainty  of  knowledge, 
and  the  incomprehensibility  of  truth. 

Academic,  in  this  sense,  amounts  to 
much  the  same  with  Platonist ;  the  differ- 
ence between  them  being  only  in  point  of 
time.  They  who  embraced  the  system  of 
Plato,  among  the  ancients,  were  called 
Academici;  whereas  those  who  have  done 
the  same,  since  the  restoration  of  learn- 
ing, have  assumed  the  denomination  of 
Platonists.  We  usually  reckon  three  sects 
of  Academics ;  though  some  make  five. 
The  ancient  Academy  was  that  which  was 
founded  by  Plato,  and  consisted  of  those 
followers  ofthis  eminent  philosopher, who 
taught  the  doctrine  of  their  master  with- 
out mixture  or  corruption.  The  first  of 
these  was  Speusippus ;  he  was  succeeded 
byXenocrates.  After  his  death  the  direc- 
tion of  the  academy  devolved  upon  Pole- 
mo,  and  then  upon  Crates,  and  terminated 
with  Grantor.  After  the  death  of  Crates, 
a  new  tribe  of  philosophers  arose,  who,  on 
account  of  certain  innovations  in  their 
manner  of  philosophising,  which  in  some 
measure  receded  from  the  Platonic  sys- 
tem, without  entirely  deserting  it,  have 
been  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of 
the  Second,  or  Middle  Academy.  The 
first  preceptor  who  appears  in  this  class, 
and  who,  in  consequence  of  the  innova- 
tions which  he  introduced  into  the  Pla- 
tonic school,  has  been  commonly  consi- 
dered as  the  founder  of  this  academy,  is 
Arcesilaus.  Before  the  time  of  Arcesi- 
laus,  it  was  never  denied,  that  useful  opi- 
nions may  be  deduced  from  the  senses. 
Two  sects  arose  about  this  time,  which 
threatened  the  destruction  of  the  Platonic 
system ;  one  was  founded  by  Pyrrho, 
which  held  the  doctrine  of  universal  scep- 
ticism; and  the  otherby  Zeno,which  main- 
tained the  certainty  of  human  knowledge, 
and  taught  with  great  confidence  a  doc- 
trine essentially  different  from  that  of 
Plato.  In  this  situation,  Arcesilaus  thought 
it  necessary  to  exercise  a  cautious  reserve 
with  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  his  master, 
and  to  conceal  his  opinions  from  the  vul- 
gar, under  the  appearance  of  doubt  and 
uncertainty.  Professing  to  derive  his  doc- 
trine concerning  the  uncertainty  of  know- 
ledge from  Socrates,  Plato,  and  other 
philosophers,  he  maintained,  that  though 
there  is  a  real  certainty  in  the  nature  of 
things,  every  thing  is  uncertain  to  the  hu- 
man understanding,  and  consequently  that 
all  confident  assertions  are  unreasonable. 
He  thought  it  disgraceful  to  assent  to  any 
proposition,  the  truth  of  which  is  not  fully 
established;  and  maintained,  that,  in  ail 


questions,  opposite  opinions  may  be  sup- 
ported by  arguments  of  equal  weight. 
He  disputed  against  the  testimony  of  the 
senses,  and  the  authority  of  reason  ;  ac- 
knowledging, at  the  same  time,  that  they 
furnish  probable  opinions  sufficient  forthe 
conduct  of  life.  However,  his  secret  de- 
sign seems  to  have  been  to  establish  the 
doctrine  of  Plato,  that  the  knowledge  de- 
rived from  sensible  objects  is  uncertain, 
and  that  the  only  true  science  is  that 
which  is  employed  upon  the  immutable 
objects  of  intelligence,  or  ideas. 

After  the  death  of  Arcesilaus,  the  Pla- 
tonic school  was  successively  under  the 
care  of  Lacydes,who  is  said  to  have  found- 
ed a  new  school,  merely  because  he 
changed  the  place  of  instruction,  and  held 
it  in  the  garden  of  Attalus,  within  the  li- 
mits of  the  Academic  grove,  and  of  Evan- 
der  and  Egesinus.  Arcesilaus,  however, 
had  opposed  the  Stoics,  and  other  dogma- 
tical philosophcrs,with  such  violence,  and 
extended  his  doctrine  of  uncertainty  so 
far,  as  to  alarm  not  only  the  general  body 
of  philosnphers,who  treated  him  as  a  com- 
mon enemy  to  philosophy,  but  even  the 
governors  of  the  state,  who  apprehended 
that  his  opinions  would  dissolve  all  the 
bonds  of  social  virtue  and  of  religion.  His 
successors,  therefore,  found  it  difficult  to 
support  the  credit  of  the  academy;  and 
Carneades,  one  of  the  disciples  of  this 
school,  relinquished,  at  least  in  words, 
some  of  the  more  obnoxious  tenets  of 
Arcesilaus. 

From  this  period  the  Platonic  school 
assumed  the  appellation  of  the  New  Aca- 
demy, which  may  be  reckoned  the  third 
in  order  from  its  first  establishment.  Tt 
was  the  doctrine  ofthis  academy,  that  the 
senses,  the  understanding,  and  the  imagi- 
nation frequently  deceive  us,  and  there- 
fore  cannot  be  infallible  judges  of  truth  ; 
but  that,  from  the  impressions  produced 
on  the  mind,  by  means  of  the  senses,  call- 
ed by  Carneades  phantasies,orim3ges,we 
infer  appearances  of  truth,or  probabilities, 
These  images  do  not  always  correspond 
to  the  real  nature  of  things,  and  there  is 
no  infallible  method  of  determining  when 
they  are  true  or  false  ;  and  consequently 
they  afford  no  certain  criterion  of  truth. 
But,  with  respect  to  the  conduct  of  life, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness,  probable 
appearances  are  a  sufficient  guide,  be- 
cause it  is  unreasonable  not  to  allow  some 
degree  of  credit  to  those  witnesses  who 
commonly  give  a  true  report. 

ACADEMY,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
largo  \  U!a  in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Athens, 
where  the  sect  of  philosophers  called  Aca- 


ACA 


ACA 


demies  held  their  assemblies.  It  took  its 
name  from  one  Academus,  or  Ecademus, 
a  citizen  of  Athens ;  as  our  modern  acade- 
mies take  theirs  from  it.  This  term  was 
also  used  metaphorically,  to  denote  the 
sect  of  Academic  philosophers.  See  ACA- 
DEMICS. 

ACADEMT,  in  a  modern  sense,  signifies 
a  society  of  learned  men,  established  for 
the  improvement  of  arts  or  sciences. 
See  SOCIETY. 

ACJENA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Te- 
trandria  Monogynia  class  and  order  of 
plants.  There  is  but  a  single  species, 
which  is  a  Mexican  plant. 

ACALYPHA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  Monoecia  Mono- 
delphia  class,  and  the  natural  order  of 
Tricoccae,  called  the  Tick-fruit.  There 
are  fourteen  species :  the  A.  virginica, 
grows  naturally  in  Virginia,  and  in  Cey- 
lon: the  A.  virgata  is  a  native  of  the  warm- 
est countries,  and  grows  plentifully  in  Ja- 
maica ;  its  leaves  resemble  those  of  the 
annual  nettle,  and  sting  as  much.  Most 
of  the  other  species  are  natives  of  the 
West  Indies.  The  plants  have  no  beauty 
to  recommend  them,  and  are  preserved 
in  some  botanic  gardens  merely  on  ac- 
count of  variety. 

ACANTHA,  among  botanists,  a  name 
given  to  the  prickles  of  thorny  plants. 

ACANTHA  is  also  used  by  zoologists  for 
the  spines  of  certain  fishes,  as  those  of  the 
echinus  marinus,  &c. 

ACANTHACEOUS,  among  botanists, 
an  epithet  given  to  all  the  plants  of  the 
thistle  kind,  on  account  of  the  prickles 
with  which  they  are  beset. 

ACANTHONOTUS,  in  natural  history, 
a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  order  Abdomina- 
les:  the  generic  character  is,  body  elon- 
gated, without  dorsal  fin ;  spines  several, 
on  the  back  and  abdomen.  There  is  but 
one  species,  the  nasus,  about  30  inches 
long,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  Tlie 
eyes  are  large,  and  the  nostrils  conspicu- 
ous :  the  body,  which  is  of  a  moderate 
width  for  about  the  third  of  its  length, 
gradually  decreases  or  tapers  towards  the 
extremity:  both  head  and  body  are  cover- 
ed with  small  scales,  and  are  of  a  bluish 
tinge,  with  a  silvery  cast  on  the  abdomen: 
the  pectoral  fins  are  brown,  and  of  a  mo- 
derate size  :  the  ventral  rather  .small,  and 
of  a  similar  colour:  the  lateral  line  is 
straight,  and  situated  nearer  to  the  back 
than  to  the  abdomen:  along  the  lower  part 
of  the  back  are  ten  strong  but  short  spines, 
and  beneath  the  abdomen  twelve  or  thir- 
teen others,  which  are  followed  by  asmall 
anal  fin.  (See  plate  I.  Ichthyology,  fig.  1.) 


ACANTHURUS,  in  natural  history,  a 
genus  of  fishes,  of  the  order  Thoracici,  of 
which  the  gen.  character  is,  teeth  small, 
in  most  species  lobated:  tail  aculeated  on 
each  side :  general  habit  and  appearance 
like  the  genus  Chaetodon,  which  see.  This 
genus  consists  of  such  species  of  the  Lin- 
naean  genus  Chaetodon,  as,  in  contradiction 
to  the  principal  character  of  that  genus, 
have  moderately  broad  and  strong  teeth, 
rather  than  slender  and  setaceous  ones : 
they  are  also  furnished  on  each  side  the 
tail  with  a  strong  spine.  There  are  twelve 
species,  of  which  the  principal  is  A.  uni- 
cornis ;  this  is  the  largest  of  the  genus, 
growingto  the  length  of  three  feetor  more. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Indian  and  Arabian 
seas,  in  the  latter  of  which  it  is  generally 
seen  in  large  shoals  of  two  or  three  hun- 
dred each,  swimming  with  great  strength, 
and  feeding  principally  on  different  kinds 
of  sea- weed.  This  fish  was  described  by 
Grew,  in  his  Museum  of  the  Royal  Socie- 
ty, under  the  name  of  the  Lesser  Unicorn 
fish.  Fine  specimens  are  to  be  found  in 
the  British  and  Leverian  museums. 

ACANTHUS,  BEAR'S  BREECH,  or 
BRANK-URSINE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Didynamia  Angiospermia  class,  and  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  of  Personatac. 
There  are  ten  species  :  1.  The  smooth 
acanthus,  with  white  flowers,  proceeding 
from  about  the  middle  to  the  top  of  the 
stalk,  is  the  species  used  in  medicine  un- 
der the  name  of  Branca  ursina,  or  Brank- 
ursine.  It  is  a  native  of  Italy,  about  Na- 
ples, of  Sicily,  Provence,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Archipelago,  and  is  cultivated  in 
our  gardens,  and  flowers  in  June  and  July. 
Turner  (in  his  Herbal  in  Hort.  Kew.)  in- 
forms us,  that  it  was  cultivated  in  Sion 
gardens  so  long  ago  as  the  year  1551.  The 
leaves,  and  particularly  the  roots,  abound 
with  a  soft,  insipid  mucilage,  which  may 
be  readily  extracted,  either  by  boiling  or 
by  infusion.  Rectified  spirit  digested  on 
the  leaves,  extracts  from  them  a  fine  deep 
green  tincture,  which  is  more  durable 
than  that  which  is  communicated  to  spirit 
by  other  herbs.  Brank-ursine  is  seldom 
or  ever  used  medicinally  in  this  country. 
But  where  it  is  common  it  is  employed  for 
the  same  purposes  to  which  the  Althaea, 
or  marsh-mallow,  and  other  mucilaginous 
vegetables,  are  applied  among  us.  In  fo- 
reign countries  the  cow-parsnip  is  said  to 
be  substituted  for  it,  though  it  possesses 
very  different  properties.  The  leaves  of 
this  species  of  acanthus  accidentallygrow- 
ing  round  a  basket  covered  with  a  tile, 
gave  occasion  to  Callimachus  to  invent  the 
Corinthian  capital  in  architecture.  2,  The 


ACA 


ACA 


thistle-leaved  acanthus  was  found  by 
Sparrman  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
has  many  leaves,  proceeding  immediately 
from  the  root,  resembling  those  of  the 
thistle.  3.  The  prickly  acanthus  grows 
wild  in  Italy  and  Provence,  and  flowers 
from  July  to  September.  Its  leaves  are 
divided  into  segments,  terminated  with  a 
sharp  spine,  which  renders  this  plant  trou- 
blesome to  those  who  handle  it.  4.  The 
acanthus  of  Dioscorides,  as  Linnaeus  sup- 
poses it  to  be,  grows  naturally  in  the  East, 
on  Lebanon,  Sic.  5.  The  holly-leaved 
acanthus  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  about 
four  feet  high,  and  separating  into  many 
branches,  with  leaves  resembling  those 
of  the  common  holly,  and  bearing  white 
flowers,  similar  to  those  of  the  common 
acanthus,  but  smaller.  6,  7,  8,  9.  These 
species,  viz.  the  entire-leaved,  procum- 
bent, forked,  and  Cape  acanthi,  are  na- 
tives of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  10.  The 
Madras  acanthus  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies. 

The  smooth  and  prickly  acanthi  are  pe- 
rennial plants,  and  may  be  propagated  ei- 
ther by  seeds,  which  should  be  sown  in  a 
light  dry  soil  towards  the  end  of  March, 
and  left  to  grow,  about  six  inches  asunder, 
till  autumn,  when  they  should  be  trans- 
planted where  they  are  to  remain  :  or  by 
roots,  which  may  be  planted  either  in 
spring  or  autumn  for  the  third  sort;  but  the 
others  must  only  be  removed  in  the  spring, 
because,  if  they  are  transplanted  in  au- 
tumn, they  may  be  in  danger  of  being  de- 
stroyed by  a  cold  winter.  These  plants 
take  deep  roots,  and  when  they  are  once 
established  in  a  garden,  they  cannot  be 
easily  eradicated.  The  5th  and  10th  spe- 
cies are  too  tender  to  thrive  out  of  a  stove 
in  England,  and  cannot  be  propagated, 
except  by  seeds,  which  do  not  ripen  in 
Europe.  The  other  sorts  must  be  treat- 
ed in  the  same  manner  with  Cape  plants. 

ACANTHUS,  in  architecture,  an  orna- 
ment representing  the  leaves  of  the  herb 
acanthus,  and  used  in  the  capitals  of  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  orders.  See 
ARCHITECTURE. 

ACARNA,  in  botany,  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  Syngenesia  JEqualis  class  and 
order:  receptacle  chaffy:  down  feathery: 
calyx  imbricate,  invested  with  scales,  co- 
rol.  floscular.  There  are  seven  species. 

ACARUS,  the  tick  or  mite,  in  natural 
history,  so  called,  because  it  is  deemed  so 
small  that  it  cannot  be. cut,  is  a  genus  of 
insects  belonging  to  the  order  of  Aptera, 
in  the  Linnaean  system.  Gmelin,  in  the 
last  edition  of  Linnseus's  system,  has 
eighty-two  species  ;  of  which,  some  are 


inhabitants  of  the  earth,  others  of  water ; 
some  live  on  trees  and  plants,  other* 
among  stones,  and  others  on  the  bodies 
of  other  animals,  and  even  under  their 
skin.  The  generic  character  is,  legs  eight; 
eyes  two,  situated  on  each  side  the  head ; 
feelers  two,  jointed  ;  egg-shaped.  The 
most  familiar  species  are,  1.  the  A.  siro, 
or  common  cheese-mite,  which  is  a  fa- 
vourite subject  for  microscopic  observa- 
tions. This  insect  is  covered  with  hairs 
or  bristles,  which  resemble  in  their  struc- 
ture the  awns  of  barley,  being  barbed  on 
each  side  with  numerous  sharp-pointed 
processes.  The  mite  is  oviparous  :  from 
the  eggs  proceed  the  young  animals,  re- 
sembling the  parents  in  all  respects,  ex- 
cept in  the  number  of  legs,  which  at  first 
amount  only  to  six,  the  pair  from  the  head 
not  making  their  appearance  till  after 
casting  the'ir  first  skin.  The  eggs  in  warm 
weather  hatch  in  about  a  week,  and  the 
young  animal  may  sometimes  be  seen  for 
a  day  together  struggling  to  get  rid  of  its 
egg-shell.  The  mite  is  a  very  voracious 
animal,  feasting  equally  upon  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  It  is  also  extremely 
tenacious  of  life  ;  for,  upon  the  authority 
of  Leewenhoek,  though  highly  discredit- 
able  to  his  sense  of  humanity,  we  are  as- 
suredthat  a  mite  lived  eleven  weeks  glued 
to  a  pin,  in  order  for  him  to  make  observa- 
tions on.  2.  The  A.  exculcerans,  or  itch 
mite,  is  a  species  of  considerable  curiosity, 
on  account  of  the  structure  of  its  limbs :  it 
is  slightly  rounded,  and  of  a  flattened 
shape,  with  the  thighs  of  the  two  upper 
pair  of  legs  extremely  thick  and  short : 
the  two  lower  pair  of  legs  have  thick 
thighs,  proceeding  from  a  very  slender 
base,  and  are  extended  into  a  long,  stout, 
curved,  and  sharp-pointed  bristle.  Dr. 
Bononio,  an  Italian  physician,  was  the 
first  who  contended  that  the  itch  was  oc- 
casioned by  this  insect,  an  account  of 
which  may  be  found  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,  No.  283.  Dr.  Baker  is  in- 
clined to  think  that  it  constitutes  the /wo- 
ra,  a  species  of  itch  distinct  from  others 
confounded  with  it.  3.  A.  autumnalis,  or 
harvest-bug,  of  a  bright  red  colour,  with 
the  abdomen  beset  on  its  hind  part  with 
numerous  white  bristles.  It  attaches  itself 
to  the  skin,  and  is  with  difficulty  disen- 
gaged. On  the  part  where  it  fixes,  it 
causes  a  tumour,  about  the  size  of  a  small 
bead,  accompanied  by  a  severe  itching. 
The  tick  is  of  this  species,  which  is  to  be 
found  on  dogs  and  other  animals.  Many 
of  the  acari  attach  themselves  to  insect* 
of  a  larger  kind,  and  hence  they  take  their 
names,  as  A.  coleopterous,  found  on  the' 


ACC 


ACC 


black  beetle.     (See  plate  I.  Entomology, 
%.  Land 2.) 

These  insects,  which  are  often  very 
troublesome  on  plants,  and  in  hot-houses, 
may  be  effectually  destroyed  by  the  fol- 
lowing1 mixture.  Take  two  ounces  of  soft 
green  soap,  one  ounce  of  common  turpen- 
tine, and  one  ounce  of  flour  of  sulphur  ; 
pour  upon  these  ingredients  a  gallon  of 
boiling  water,  work  the  whole  together 
with  a  whisk,  and  let  the  mixture  be  used 
warm.  This  mixture  may  also  be  of  use 
for  preventing  the  mildew  on  the  peach 
and  apricot ;  but  it  should  never  be  used 
on  fruit-trees  near  the  time  when  their 
fruits  are  ripening.  A  strong  ley  made  of 
wood-ashes  will  likewise  destroy  the  aca- 
ri ;  but  plants  are  greatly  injured  by  this, 
and  by  briny  and  spirituous  compositions. 

ACAULOSE,  or  ACAULOUS,  among  bo- 
tanists, a  term  used  for  such  plants  as  have 
no  caulis  or  stem.  See  CATJLIS. 

ACCEDAS  adatriam,  in  law,  a  writ  ly- 
ing where  a  man  hath  received,  or  fears 
false  judgment,  in  a  hundred-court,  or 
court  baron.  It  is  issued  out  of  the  Chan- 
cery, and  directed  to  the  sheriff",  but  re- 
turnable in  the  King's-bench  or  Common- 
pleas.  It  lies  also  for  justice  delayed,  and 
is  said  to  be  a  species  of  the  writ  Recor- 
dare. 

ACCELERATION,  in  mechanics,  de- 
notes the  augmentation  or  increase  of  mo- 
tion in  accelerated  bodies. 

The  term  acceleration  is  chiefly  used  in 
speaking  of  falling  bodies,  or  the*  tenden- 
cy of  heavy  bodies  towards  the  centre  of 
the  earth  produced  by  the  power  of  gravi- 
ty ;  which,  acting  constantly  and  uniform- 
ly upon  them,  they  must  necessarily  ac- 
quire every  instant  a  new  increase  of  mo- 
tion. See  GRAVITATION. 

ACCELERATOR.     See  ASTATOMY. 

ACCENT,  among  grammarians,  is  the 
raising  or  lowering  of  the  voice  in  pro- 
nouncing certain  syllables  of  words. 

We  have  three  kinds  of  accents,  viz. 
the  acute,  the  grave,  and  circumflex.  The 
acute  accent,  marked  thus  ('),  shews  that 
the  voice  is  to  be  raised  in  pronouncing 
the  syllables  over  which  it  is  placed.  The 
grave  accent  is  marked  thus  (v),  and 
points  out  when  the  voice  ought  to  be 
lowered.  The  circumflex  accent  is  com- 
pounded of  the  other  two,  and  marked 
thus  (-~  or  *)  :  it  denotes  a  quavering  of 
the  voice  between  high  and  low.  Some 
call  the  long  and  short  quantities  of  sylla- 
bles accents ;  but  erroneously. 

ACCENT,  in  music,  a  term  applicable  to 
every  modulation  of  the  voice,  both  in 
speaking  and  in  singing.  It  is  to  the  stu- 


dy of  this  that  the  composer  and  perform- 
er  should  unceasingly  apply;  since,  with- 
out accent,  there  can  be  no  music,  because 
there  can  be  no  expression. 

ACCEPTANCE,  in  common  law,  the 
tacitly  agreeing  to  some  act  before  done 
by  another,  which  might  have  been  de- 
feated without  such  acceptance.  Thus,  if 
a  husband  and  wife,  seized  of  land  in  right 
of  the  wife,  make  a  joint  lease  or  feofF- 
ment,  reserving  rent,  and  the  husband 
dies  ;  after  which  the  widow  receives,  or 
accepts  the  rent ;  such  receipt  is  deemed 
an  acceptance,  confirms  the  lease  of  feoft- 
ment,  and  bars  her  from  bringing  the 
writ  cniinvita. 

ACCEPTANCE,  among  merchants,  is  the 
signing  or  subscribing  a  bill  of  exchange, 
by  which  the  acceptor  obliges  himself  to 
pay  the  contents  of  the  bill. 

Bills  payable  at  sight  are  not  accepted, 
because  they  must  either  be  paid  on  being 
presented,  or  else  protested  for  want  of 
payment. 

The  acceptance  of  bills  payable  at  a 
fixed  day,  at  usance,  or  double  usance, 
&c.  need  not  be  dated :  because  the  time 
is  reckoned  from  the  date  of  the  bill ;  but 
it  is  necessary  to  date  the  acceptance  of 
bills  payable  at  a  certain  number  of  days 
after  sight,  because  the  time  does  not  be- 
gin to  run  till  the  next  day  after  that  ac- 
ceptance: this  kind  of  acceptance  is  made 
thus,  Accepted  such  a  day  and  yeary  and 
signed.  See  EXCHANGE. 

ACCESSARY,  or  ACCESSORY,  in  com- 
mon law,  is  chiefly  used  for  a  person 
guilty  of  a  felonious  ofl'ence,  not  princi- 
pally, but  by  participation  ;  as,  by  advice, 
command,  or  concealment.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  accessaries  ;  before  the  fact,  and 
after  it.  The  first  is  he  who  commands,  or 
procures,  another  to  commit  felony,  and 
is  not  present  himself;  for  if  he  be  pre- 
sent, he 'is  a  principal. 

The  second  is  he  who  receives,  assists, 
or  comforts  any  man  that  has  done  mur- 
der, or  felony,  whereof  he  has  knowledge. 
A  man  may  also  be  accessary  to  an  acces- 
sary, by  aiding,  receiving,  Sec.  an  accessa- 
ry in  felony.  An  accessary  in  felony  shall 
have  judgment  of  life  and  member,  as 
well  as  the  principal,  who  did  the  felony: 
but  not  till  the  principal  be  first  attainted, 
and  convicted,  or  outlawed  thereon. 
Where  the  principal  is  pardoned  without 
attainder,  the  accessary  cannot  be  arraign- 
ed; it  being  a  maxim  in  law,  Ubi  non  est 
principalis,  non  potest  esse  accessorius. 
But  if  the  principal  be  pardoned,  or  have 
his  clergy  after  attainder,  the  accessary 
shall  be  arraigned.  4  and  5  W.  and  M. 


ACC 


ACE 


tap.  4 ;  and  by  stat.  1  Anne,  cap.  9,  it  is 
enacted,  that  where  the  principal  is  con- 
victed of  felony,  or  stands  mute,  or  chal- 
lenges above  twenty  of  the  jury,  it  shall 
be  lawful  to  proceed  agai»st  the  accessa- 
ry in  the  same  manner  as  if  the  principal 
had  been  attainted  ;  and  notwithstanding 
such  principal  shall  be  admitted  to  his 
clergy,  pardoned,  or  delivered,  before 
attainder.  In  some  cases,  also,  if  the  prin- 
cipal cannot  be  taken,  then  the  accessary 
may  be  prosecuted  for  a  misdemeanor, 
and  punished  by  fine,  imprisonment,  &.c. 
stat.  ib.  see  stat.  5  Anne>  cap  31.  In  the 
lowest  and  highest  offences  there  are  no 
accessaries,  but  all  are  principals ;  as  in 
riots,  routs,  forcible  entries,  and  other 
trespasses,  which  are  the  lowest  offences. 
So  also  in  the  highest  offence,  which  is, 
according  to  our  law,  high  treason,  there 
are  no  accessaries.  Cok.  Littlet.  71. 

ACCIDENT.     See  LOGIC. 

ACCIPITRES,  or  rapacious  birds,  in 
the  Linnxan  system  of  ornithology,  the 
first  order  of  birds;  the  characters  of 
which  are,  that  the  bill  bends  downwards, 
that  the  upper  mandible  is  dilated  a  little 
on  both  side  stewards  the  point,  or  armed 
with  a  tooth-like  process,  and  that  the 
nostrils  are  wide  ;  the  legs  are  short  and 
strong ;  the  feet  are  of  the  perching  kind, 
having  three  toes  forwards  and  one  back- 
wards; the  toes  are  warty  under  the 
joints,  with  claws  hooked,  and  sharp  at  the 
points.  The  body,  head,  and  neck,  are 
musculous,  and  the  skin  very  tough.  The 
birds  of  this  order  subsist  by  preying  on 
other  animals,  and  on  dead  carcases,  and 
they  are  unfit  for  food.  They  live  in  pairs, 
and  are  monogamous;  and  build  their 
nests  in  lofty  situations.  The  female  is 
generally  larger  and  stronger  than  the 
male,  and  usually  lays  four  eggs  at  a  time. 
This  order  corresponds  to  that  of  Ferae, 
and  comprehends  four  generas,  viz.  VUL- 
TUR,  FALCO,  STIUX,  and  LANIUS,  which 
see. 

ACCOMPANIMENT,  in  heraldry,  de- 
ndtes  any  thing  added  to  a  shield  by  way 
of  ornament,  as  the  belt,  mantling,  sup- 
porters, &c. 

Accompaniment  is  also  used  for  several 
bearings  about  a  principal  one,  as  a  saltier, 
bend  fess,  &c. 

ACCOMPLICE,  in  law,  a  person  who 
was  privy  to,  or  aiding  in,  the  perpetra- 
tion of  some  crime.  See  ACCESSARY. 

ACCORD,  in  law,  a  verbal  agreement 
between  two  or  more,  where  any  one  is 
injured  by  a  trespass,  or  other  offence 
committed,  to  make  satisfaction  to  the  in- 
jured party ;  who,  after  the  accprd  is  per- 

VOL.L 


formed,  will  be  barred  in  law  from  brings 
ing  any  new  action  against  the  aggressor 
for  the  same  trespass.  It  is  safest,  how- 
ever, in  pleading,  to  allege  satisfaction, 
and  not  accord  alone ;  because,  in  this 
last  case,  a  precise  execution  in  every 
part  thereof  must  be  alleged;  whereas, 
in  the  former,  the  defendant  needs  only 
say,  that  he  paid  the  plaintiff' such  a  sum 
in  full  satisfaction  of  the  accord,  which  he 
received. 

ACCOUNTANT-^wiernJ,  in  the  court 
of  Chancery,  an  officer  appointed  by  act 
of  parliament  to  receive  all  monies  lodged 
in  court,  and  convey  the  same  to  the  bank 
of  England  for  better  security.  The  sa- 
lary of  this  officer  and  his  clerks  is  to  be 
paid  out  of  the  interest  made  of  part  of  the 
money,  it  not  being  allowable  to  take 
fees  in  this  office.  Counterfeiting  the  hand 
of  the  accountant-general  is  felony,  with- 
out clergy,  by  12  Geo.  I.  c.  32. 

ACCOUTREMENTS,  in  a  military 
sense,  signify  the  furniture  of  a  soldier, 
such  as  puffs,  belts,  pouches,  cartridge, 
boxes,  &c. 

ACCROCHE7,  in  heraldry,  denotes  a 
thing's  being  hooked  into  another. 

ACER,  maple,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monoecia  order  and  Polygamia  class  of 
plants,  and  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
of  Trihilata.  There  are  25  species.  See 
MAPLE. 

ACETATES,  in  chemistry,  a  genus  of 
salts  formed  by  the  acetic  acid.  They 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  following 
properties:  they  are  decomposed  by  heat? 
the  acid  being  partly  driven  off,  partly 
destroyed : — they  are  very  soluble  in  wa- 
ter:— when  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid, 
and  distilled  in  a  moderate  heat,  acetic 
acid  is  disengaged : — when  they  are  dis- 
solved in  water,  and  exposed  to  the  open 
air,  their  acid  is  gradually  decomposed. 

ACETIC  acid,  in  chemistry.    This  acid 
is  employed  in  different  states,  which  have. 
been  distinguished  from  each  other  by  pe- 
culiar names.     When  first  prepared,  it  is 
called  vinegar  ;  when  purified  by  distilla- 
tion, it  assumes  the  name  of  distilled  vi- 
negar, usually  called  acetous  acid :  when 
concentrated  as  much  as  possible  by  cer- 
tain processes,  it  is  called  in  the  shops  ra- 
dical vinegar;  but  by  chemists  it  is  deno- 
minated acetic  acid.     One  hundred  part* 
of  acetic  acid  are  composed  of 
50.19  oxygen 
13.94  hydrogen 
35. 87  carbon 

10U.OO 


ACH 


ACH 


ACETITES,  a  genus  of  salts  formed  by 
the  acetous  acid. 

ACETOUS  acid.     See  ACETIC  ACID. 

AC  HANI  A,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monadelphia  Polyandria  class,  and  the 
natural  order  of  Columniferae.  There  are 
three  species,  viz.  the  A.  malvaviscus, 
scarlet  achania,  or  bastard  hibiscus,  which 
is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  Jamaica ;  culti- 
vated here  in  1714  by  the  Dutchess  of 
Beaufort,and  flowering  through  the  great- 
est part  of  the  year  :  the  mollis,  or  woolly 
achania,  a  native  of  South  America  and  the 
West  India  islands,  found  in  Jamaica  by 
Houstoun,  in  1730,  and  introduced  in  1780 
by  B.  Bewick,  Esq.  and  flowering  in  Au- 
gust and  September :  and  the  pilosa,  or 
hairy  achania,  a  native  of  Jamaica,  intro- 
duced in  1780  by  Mr.  G.  Alexander,  and 
flowering  in  November.  Achania  is  gene- 
rally propagated  by  cuttings,  which  are 
planted  in  pots  of  light  earth,  plunged  in- 
to a  gentle  hot-bed,  and  kept  from  the  air 
till  they  take  root,  when  they  should  be 
gradually  inured  to  the  open  air.  They 
must  be  preserved  in  winter  in  a  moderate 
stove ;  and,  kept  warm  in  summer,  they 
•Will  flower,  and  sometimes  ripen  fruit. 

ACHERNER,  in  astronomy,  a  star  of 
the  first  magnitude  in  the  southern  extre- 
mity of  the  constellation  Eridanus.  See 
the  article  BRIDA^US. 

ACHILLEA,  milfoil,  in  botany,  so  call- 
ed from  Achilles,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  botany  from 
his  master  Chiron,  and  to  have  used  this 
plant  for  the  cure  of  wounds  and  ulcers ; 
a  genus  of  the  Syngenesia  Polygamia  Su- 
perflua  class  of  plants,  and  of  the  natural 
order  of  Composite  Discoidese.  There  are 
27  species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable 
are  the  ptarmica,  or  sneezewort,  M.  grow- 
ing wild  in  all  the  temperate  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, found  in  Britain,  not  uncommonly  in 
meadows,  by  the  sides  of  ditches,  on  the 
balks  of  corn  fields,  in  moist  woods  and 
shady'  places.  The  shoots  are  put  into 
salads,  and  the  roots,  being  hot  and  biting, 
are  used  for  the  tooth-ache,  whence  the 
plant  has  been  called  bastard  pelhtory, 
and,  on  account  of  the  form  of  the  leaf, 
goose-tongue  :  the  powder  of  the  dried 
leaves,  used  as  snuff,  provokes  sneezing, 
whence  the  name  :  in  Siberia,  a  decoction 
of  the  whole  herb  is  said  to  be  successfully 
used  in  internal  hemorrhages ;  of  this  plant 
there  is  a  variety  with  double  flowers,  call- 
ed batchelor's  buttons;  it  flowers  in  July 
and  August,  and  makes  a  tolerable  ap- 
pearance ;  and  the  millet'ollum,  common 
M.  cr  yarrow,  abundant  in  pastures  and 
fey  the  sides  of  roads,  flowering  from  June 


to  September:  mixed  instead  of  hop*  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Dalecarlia  in  their  ale, 
in  order  to  give  it  an  inebriating  quality  : 
recommended  by  Anderson,  in  his  Essays 
on  Agriculture,  for  cultivation,  though 
thought  to  be  a  noxious  weed  in  pastures; 
the  bruised  herb,  fresh,  is  recommended 
by  Linnaeus  as  an  excellent  vulnerary  and 
styptic,  and  by  foreign  physicians  in  he- 
morrhages, and  thought  by  Dr.  Hill  to  be 
excellent  in  dysenteries,  'when  adminis- 
tered in  the  form  of  a  strong  decoction. 
An  ointment  is  made  of  it  for  the  piles, 
and  for  the  scab  in  sheep  ;  and  an  essen- 
tial oil  is  extracted  from  the  flowers ;  but 
it  is  not  used  in  the  present  practice. 

ACHRAS,  or  SAPOTA-PLUM,  in  botany, 
a  genus  of  the  Hexandria  Monogyniu 
class,  and  of  the  natural  order  of  Dumo- 
sae.  There  are  four  species,  viz.  The 
mammosa,  or  mamme  sapota,  otherwise 
called  nippled  S.  or  American  manne- 
lade  ;  growing  in  America  to  the  height 
of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  with  leaves  a  foot 
long,  and  three  inches  broad  in  the  mid- 
dle, cream-coloured  flowers,  and  large 
oval  fruit,  containing  a  thick,  lusciou* 
pulp,  called  natural  marmelade.  This  tree 
is  planted  for  the  fruit  in  Jamaica,  Barba- 
does,  Cuba,and  most  of  the  WestJIndia  isl- 
ands, and  was  cultivated  here  by  Mr.  Mil- 
ler in  1739.  Of  this  there  is  a  variety  call- 
ed the  bully,  or  nisberry  bully-tree,  be- 
cause it  is  the  tallest  of  all  the  trees  in  the 
woods :  it  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
timber  trees  in  Jamaica.  2.  The  sapota^ 
which  grows  to  the  height  of  sixty  or  se- 
venty feet,  without  knots  or  branches,  and 
bears  a  round,  yellow  fruit,  bigger  than  a. 
quince,  which  smells  well,  and  is  of  an  a- 
greeable  taste.  It  is  common  at  Panama, 
and  some  other  places  in  the  Spanish 
West  Indies,  but  not  to  be  found  in  many 
of  the  English  settlements.  It  was  culti- 
vated here  by  Mr.  Miller  in  1739.  3.  The 
dissecta,  or  cloven-flowered  S.  cultivated 
in  Malabar  for  the  fruit,  which  is  of  the 
form  and  size  of  an  olive,  having  a  pulp 
of  a  sweetish  acid  flavour.  Its  leaves  are 
used  for  cataplasms  to  tumours,  bruised 
and  boiled  with  the  root  of  curcuma  and 
the  leaves  of  ginger ;  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  the  Philippine  islands,  and  pro- 
bably growing  in  China,  and  found  by 
Forster  flowering  in  September,  in  the 
island  of  Tongatabu.  4.  The  salicifolia, 
or  white  willow  S.  called  in  Jamaica  the 
white-bully-tree,  or  galimeta  wood,  which 
supplies  good  Umber.  The  bark  of  che 
sapota  and  mamnosa  is  very  astringent, 
and  is  called  corner  Jamaicensis.  Th'-s  was 
once  supposed  to  be  the  true  Jesuits  barfc* 


ACI 


ACO 


but  its  effects  on  the  negroes  has  been 
pernicious.  These  trees  cannot  be  pre- 
served in  England  but  with  great  care 
and  much  heat. 

ACHROMATIC,  an  epithet  expressing 
a  want  of  colour,  introduced  into  astro- 
nomy by  De  la  Lande. 

ACHROMATIC  telescopes,  are  telescopes 
contrived  to  remedy  the  aberrations  in 
•colours.  They  were  invented  by  Mr. 
John  Dolland,  optician.  See  OPTICS,  TE- 
LESCOPE. 

ACHYRANTHES,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Pentandria  Monogynia  class  of 
plants,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of 
Miscellanese.  There  are  eleven  species, 
but  they  have  but  little  beauty,  and  are 
only  preserved  in  botanic  gardens. 

ACHYRONIA,in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Diadelphia  Decandria  class  and  order:  ca- 
lyx five-toothed;  the  lower  tooth  elonga- 
ted and  cloven;  leg'ume  compressed,  ma- 
ny-seeded; one  species,  viz.  A.  villosa,  a 
shrub  found  in  New  Holland,  with  long 
silky  hairs :  leaves  lanceolate,  acute,  en- 
tire, with  silky  hair  round  the  margin. 

ACIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Mono- 
delphia  Dodecandria  class  and  order :  ca- 
lyx five-parted,  five  petals,  drupe  dry,  co- 
riaceous, fibrous,  one-seeded.  Two  spe- 
cies,trees  sixty  feet  high, found  in  GuiaR-a. 

ACICARPHA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Polygamia  Necessaria  class  and  order: 
receptacle  chaffy,  the  chaff  uniting  with 
the  seeds  after  flowering  ;  seeds  naked  ; 
florets  tubular  ;  calyx  five-parted.  One 
species,  found  in  Buenos  Ayres. 

ACID,  in  chemistry,  a  term  originally 
synonymous  with  sour,  and  applied  only 
to  bodies  distinguished  by  that  taste ;  but 
it  now  comprehends  under  it  all  substan- 
ces possessed  of  the  following  properties. 
Acids,  when  applied  to  the  tongue,  excite 
the  sensation  of  sour;  they  change  the 
blue  colours  of  vegetables  to  a  red ;  they 
unite  with  water  in  almost  any  proportion; 
they  combine  with  all  the  alkalies,  and 
most  of  the  metallic  oxides  and  earths, 
and  form  with  them  those  compounds 
called  in  chemistry  salts.  Every  acid  does 
not  possess  all  these  properties,  but  they 
all  possess  a  sufficient  number  to  distin- 
guish them  from  other  substances.  See 
CHEMISTRY. 

ACID1FIABLE  base,  or  RADICAL,  any 
substance  capable  of  uniting,  without  de- 
composition, with  such  a  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen as  to  become  possessed  of  acid  pro- 
perties. Almost  all  the  acids  agree  with 
each  other  in  containing  oxygen,  but  they 
differ  in  their  bases,  which  determine  the 
species  of  the  acid.  Sulphur  combined 


with  certain  portions  of  oxygen  forms  sul- 
phurous or  sulphuric  acid,  according  to 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  absorbed. 

ACIDOTON,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monoecia  Polyandria  class  and  order ;  it 
has  male  and  female  flowers  on  the  same, 
or  a  different  tree.  There  is  but  one  spe- 
cies, viz.  A.  urens,  a  native  of  Jamaica, 
which  grows  to  the  height  of  eight  or 
nine  feet. 

ACIPENSER,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
order  Cartilagenei :  the  characters  are, 
that  the  head'is  obtuse,  the  mouth  is  un- 
der the  head,retractile,  and  without  teeth; 
that  the  four  cerri  are  below  the  front, 
and  before  the  mouth ;  the  aperture  of 
the  gills  is  at  the  side,  the  body  is  elonga- 
ted, and  angulated  with  many  series  of 
scuta,  or  scaly  protuberances.  These  may 
be  ranked  among  the  larger  fish  ;  are  in- 
habitants of  the  sea,  but  ascend  rivers  an- 
nually; the  flesh  of  all  of  them  is  delicious; 
from  the  roe  is  made  caviar,  and  from  the 
sounds  and  muscular  parts  is  made  isin- 

flass ;  they  feed  on  worms,  and  other 
shes ;  the  females  are  larger  than  the 
males.  There  are  five  species:  A.  sturio, 
or  common  sturgeon,  inhabits  European, 
Mediterranean,  Red,  Black,  and  Caspian 
seas,  and  annually  ascends  rivers  in  the 
spring.  (See  plate  I.  Ichthyology,  fig.  2.) 
A.  schypa,  inhabits  the  Caspian  sea,  and 
large  lakes  of  Siberia.  A.  ruthenus,  and 
A.  stellatus,  both  inhabit  the  Caspian  sea. 
A.  hufo,  inhabits  the  Danube,  WoJga,  and 
other  Russian  rivers,  and  also  the  Caspian. 
The  skin  of  this  species  is  so  hard  and 
tough,  as  to  be  used  for  carriage  traces. 
See  STUHGEOX. 

ACNIDA,  Virginia  hemp,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  Pentandria  Pentagynia  class 
and  order.  There  is  but  a  single  species, 
viz.  A.  cannabina,  which  is  a  native  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  some  other  parts  of  America; 
it  is  seldom  cultivated  in  Europe. 

ACONITUM,  aconite,  wolf's-bane,  or 
monk's-hood,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  Trigynia  order  and  Polyandria 
class,  and  pertaining  to  the  natural  order 
of  Multisiliquje.  In  the  last  edition  of 
Linnaeus,  by  Gmelin,  this  genus  compre- 
hends fourteen  species  ;  most  of  the  spe- 
cies of  aconite  have  been  deemed  poison- 
ous. The  ancients  were  so  surprised  at 
their  pernicious  effects,  that  they  were 
afraid  to  touch  the  plants;  and  hence 
sprung  many  superstitious  precautions 
about  the  manner  of  gathering  them. 
Theophrastus  relates  that  there  was  a 
mode  of  preparing  the  aconite  in  his  days, 
so  that  it  should  only  destroy  at  the  end 
of  one  or  two  years.  But  some  have 


ACO 


AGO 


questioned  whether  the  aconite  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  Dioscorides,  Pliny,  and  other 
ancient  writers,  be  the  same  with  ours,  or 
should  be  referred  to  the  genus  of  Ranun- 
culus It  is  confidently  affirmed  that  the 
huntsmen  on  the  Alps,  who  hunt  the 
wolves  and  other  wild  animals,  dip  their 
arrows  into  the  juice  of  these  plants,which 
renders  the  wounds  occasioned  by  them 
mortal.  A  decoction  of  the  roots  has  been 
used  to  kill  bugs  ;  and  the  powder,  dis- 
guised in  bread,  or  some  other  palatable 
vehicle,  has  been  employed  to  destroy 
rats  and  mice.The  A.  napellus,  or  common 
monk's-hood,  has  been  long  known  as 
one  of  the  most  virulent  of  all  vegetable 
poisons.  Linnaeus  says  that  it  is  fatal  to 
swine  and  goats,  but  does  no  injury  to 
horses,  who  eat  it  dry.  He  also  informs 
us,  from  the  Stockholm  Acts,  that  an  ig- 
norant surgeon  died  in  consequence  of 
taking  the  fresh  leaves,  which  he  pre- 
scribed to  a  patient.  The  effluvia  of  the 
herb  in  full  flower  have  produced  swoon- 
ing fits,  and  a  temporary  loss  of  sight. 
The  leaves  and  shoots  of  this  plant,  used 
as  salad,  instead  of  celery,  have  proved 
fatal  in  several  instances.  But  the  most 
powerful  part  of  the  plant  is  the  root. 
Matthiolus  relates,  that  it  was  given  by 
way  of  experiment  to  four  condemned  cri- 
minals, two  at  Rome,  in  1524,  and  two  at 
Prague,  in  1561,  two  of  whom  soon  died, 
and  the  other  two,  with  great  difficulty, 
were  recovered.  The  juice  applied  to  the 
wound  of  a  finger,  not  only  produced  pain 
m  the  arm  and  hand,  but  cardialgia,  anxi- 
ety, sense  of  suffocation,  syncope,  &c.  and 
the  wounded  part  sphacelated  before  it 
came  to  suppuration.  Dodonaeus  says 
that  five  persons  at  Antwerp  died  in  con- 
sequence of  eating  it  by  mistake.  The 
effects  of  this  plant  are,  convulsions,  gid- 
diness, insanity,  violent  evacuations,  both 
upwards  and  downwards,  faintings,  cold 
sweat,  and  even  death  itself.  Neverthe- 
less it  has  been  used  for  medical  purpo- 
ses. The  Indians  are  said  to  use  aconite, 
corrected  in  cow's  urine,  with  good  suc- 
cess against  fevers.  There  is  one  species 
of  it  which  has  been  deemed  an  antidote 
to  those  that  are  poisonous,  called  antho- 
ra,  and  those  that  are  poisonous  are  called 
thora.  The  taste  of  the  root  of  the  species 
denominated  anthora  is  sweet,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  bitterness  and  acrimony,  and  the 
smell  is  pleasant.  It  purges  violently 
when  fresh,  but  loses  its  qualities  when 
dried.  This  is  poisonous  as  well  as  the 
others  .though  in  a  slighter  degree,  and 
"^  -.el  in  the  present  practice.  The 

•<n  who  ventured  to  introduce  the 


common  tnonk's-hood  into  medicine  w,aa 
Dr.  Stoerck.  Stoerck  recommends  two 
grains  of  the  extract  to  be  rubbed  into  a 
powder,  with  two  drams  of  sugar,  and  to 
begin  with  ten  grains  of  this  powder  two 
or  three  times  a-day.  The  extract  is  often 
given  from  one  grain  to  ten  for  a  dose  ; 
and  some  have  considerably  increased  the 
quantity.  Instead  of  the  "extract,  a  tinc- 
ture has  been  made  of  the  dried  leaves, 
macerated  in  six  times  their  weight  of 
spirits  of  wine,  and  forty  drops  given  for 
a  dose. 

ACORN,  an  ornamental  piece  of  wood, 
in  the  shape  of  a  cone,  fixed  to  the  top  of 
the  spindle  of  a  mast-head,  above  the 
vane,  to  keep  it  from  coming  off  the  spin- 
dle. 

ACORUS,  in  botany,  the  sweet  flag,  or 
sweet  rush,  a  genus  of  the  Monogynia  or- 
der, and  Hexandria  class  of  plants,  and 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  Piperitx, 
There  are  two  species,  viz.  the  A.  cala- 
mus, or  common  sweet  rush,  of  which 
there  are  two  varieties,  the  vulgaris,  or 
European  sweet  rush,  or  calamus  aroma- 
ticus,  and  the  Asiaticus  or  Indian  calamus 
aromaticus.  The  common  calamus  aro- 
maticus  grows  naturally  on  the  banks  of 
the  rivers,  and  in  shallow  standing  waters ; 
and  is  found  in  many  parts  of  England, 
but  is  much  more  plentiful  in  the  stand- 
ing  waters  of  Holland,  and  is  common  ii\ 
many  other  parts  of  Europe.  Th  e  Indian 
calamus,  which  grows  not  only  in  marsh 
ditches,  but  in  more  elevated  and  dry  pla- 
ces, in  Malabar,  Ceylon,  Amboyna,  and 
other  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  differs  but 
little  from  the  European,  except  that  it  is 
more  tender  and  narrow,  and  of  a  more 
hot  and  pungent  taste ;  and  A.  gramineus, 
or  Chinese  sweet-grass,  has  the  roots  in 
tufts,  with  a  few  thready  fibres.  The 
whole  herb  has  an  aromatic  smell  when 
bruised,  resembling  the  English  sweet- 
flag,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by  the 
shortness  of  that  portion  of  its  stalk  which 
is  above  the  spadix,  as  well  as  by  all  its 
parts,  except  the  florets,  being  five  times 
smaller  than  in  that  plant.  It  is  probably 
a  native  of  China,  and  cultivated,  for  the 
sake  of  its  smell,  in  pots,  near  the  habita- 
tions of  the  Chinese.  The  sweet  flag  will 
succeed  very  well  in  moist  garden  ground, 
but  never  produces  its  spikes,  unless  it 
grows  in  water.  The  dried  roots  of  the 
calamus  aromaticus  are  commonly  import- 
ed from  the  Levant,  though  those  grown 
in  England  are  equally  good.  They  have 
a  strong  aromatic  smell,  and  a  warm  pun- 
gent taste ;  the  flavour  is  much  improved 
by  drying.  The  powdered  root  mig-hi 


ACOUSTICS. 


perhaps  supply  the  place  of  foreign  spices; 
and  indeed  it  is  the  only  native  aromatic 
plant  of  northern  climates.  It  is  carmina- 
tive and  stomachic,  and  often  used  as  an 
ingredient  in  bitter  infusions. 

ACOTYLEDONES,  in  botany  ,plants  so 
called  because  their  seeds  are  not  furnish- 
ed with  lobes,  and  of  course  put  forth  no 
seminal  leaves.  All  mosses  are  of  this 
kind.  See  COTYLEDOXES. 

ACOUSTICS,  in  physics,  is  that  science 
which  instructs  us  in  the  nature  of  sound. 
ft  is  divided  by  some  writers  into  diacous- 
tics,  which  explains  the  properties  of  those 
sounds  that  come  distinctly  from  the  so- 
norous body  to  the  ear ;  and  catacoustics, 
which  treats  of  reflected  sounds ;  but  this 
distinction  is  not  necessary.  In  the  infan- 
cy of  philosophy,  sound  was  held  to  be  a 
separate  existence  ;  it  was  conceived  to 
be  wafted  through  the  air  to  our  organs 
of  hearing,  which  it  was  supposed  to  affect 
in  a  manner  resembling  that  in  which  our 
nostrils  are  affected  when  they  give  us  the 
sensation  of  smell.  Yet,  even  in  those 
early  years  of  science,  there  were  some, 
and  in  particular,  the  celebrated  founder 
of  the  Stoic  school,  who  held  that  sound, 
that  is,  the  cause  of  sound,  was  only  the 
particular  motion  of  external  gross  matter, 
propagated  to  the  ear,  and  there  produc- 
ing that  agitation  of  the  organ,  by  which 
the  soul  is  immediately  affected  with  the 
sensation  of  sound.  Zeno  says, "  Hearing 
is  produced  by  the  air  which  intervenes 
between  the  thing  sounding  and  the  ear. 
The  air  is  agitated  in  a  spherical  form,  and 
moves  off  in  waves,  and  falls  on  the  ear, 
in  the  same  manner  as  water  undulates  in 
eirclesVhen  a  stone  has  been  thrown  into 
it."  The  ancients  were  not  remarkable 
for  precision,  either  of  conception  or  ar- 
gument, in  their  discussions,  and  they 
were  contented  with  a  general  and  vague 
view  of  things.  Some  followed  the  opinion 
of  Zeno,  without  any  farther  attempts  to 
give  a  distinct  conception  of  the  explana- 
tion, or  to  compare  it  with  experiment. 
But  in  latter  times,  during  the  ardent  re- 
searches into  the  phenomena  of  nature, 
this  became  an  interesting  subject  of  in- 
quiry. The  invention  of  the  air-pump 
gave  the  first  opportunity  of  deciding,  by 
experiment,  whether  the  elastic  undula- 
tions of  air  were  the  causes  of  sound;  and 
the  trial  fully  established  the  point;  for  a 
bell  rung  in  vacuo  gave  no  sound,  and  one 
rung  in  condensed  air  gave  a  very  loud 
one.  It  was  therefore  received  as  a  doc- 
trine in  general  physics,  that  air  was  the 
vehicle  of  sound.  The  celebrated  Galileo, 
the,  parent  of  mathematical  philosophy, 


discovered  the  nature  of  that  connection 
between  the  lengths  of  musical  chords  and 
the  notes  which  they  produced,  which  had 
been  observed  by  Pythagoras,  or  learned 
by  him  in  his  travels  in  the  East,  and  which 
he  made  the  foundation  of  a  refined  and 
beautiful  science,  the  theory  of  music. 
Galileo  shewed,  that  the  real  connection 
subsisted  between  the  tones  and  the  vibra- 
tions of  these  chords,  and  that  their  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  acuteness  corresponded 
to  the  different  frequency  of  their  vibra- 
tions. The  very  elementary  and  familiar 
demonstration  which  he  gave  of  this  con- 
nection did  not  satisfy  the  curious  mathe- 
maticians of  that  inquisitive  age,  and  the 
mechanical  theory  of  musical  chords  was 
prosecuted  to  a  great  degree  of  refine- 
ment. In  the  course  of  this  investigation, 
it  appeared  that  the  chord  vibrated  in  a 
manner  precisely  similar  to  a  pendulum, 
vibrating  in  a  cycloid.  It  must  therefore 
agitate  the  air  contiguous  to  it  in  the  same 
manner :  and  thus  there  is  a  particular 
kind  of  agitation  that  the  air  can  receive 
and  maintain,  which  is  very  interesting. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  took  up  this  question 
as  worthy  of  his  notice  ;  and  endeavoured 
to  ascertain  with  mathematical  precision 
the  mechanism  of  this  particular  class  of 
undulations,  and  gave  us  the  principal 
theorems  concerning  the  undulations  ot' 
elastic  fluids,  which  make  the  47,  &c.  Pro- 
positions of  Book  II.  of  his  Principles  of 
Natural  Philosophy.  They  have  been 
considered  as  giving  the  doctrines  con- 
cerning the  propagation  of  sound.  Most 
sounds,  we  all  know,  are  conveyed  to  us 
by  means  of  the  air.  In  whatever  manner 
they  either  float  upon  it,  or  are  propelled 
forward  in  it,  certain  it  is,  that,  without 
the  vehicle  of  this  or  some  other  fluid,  we 
should  have  no  sounds  at  all.  Let  the  air 
be  exhausted  from  a  receiver,  and  a  bell 
will  emit  no  sound  ;  for,  as  the  air  conti- 
nues to  grow  less  dense,  the  sound  dies 
away  in  proportion,  so  that  at  last  its 
strongest  vibrations  are  almost  totally  si- 
lent. Thus  air  is  a  vehicle  for  sounds 
However,  we  must  not,  with  some  philo> 
sophers,  assert,  that  it  is  the  only  vehicle; 
that,  if  there  were  no  air,  we  should  have 
no  sounds  whatsoever ;  for  it  is  found,  by 
experiment,  that  sounds  are  conveyed 
through  water  with  the  same  facility  with 
which  they  move  through  air.  A  bell  run<£ 
in  water  returns  a  tone  as  distinct  as  if 
rung  in  air.  This  was  observed  by  Dr, 
Derham.  who  also  remarked,  that  the  tone 
came  a  quarter  deeper.  It  appears,  from 
the  experiments  of  naturalists,  that  fishes 
have  a  strong  perception  of  sounds,  even 


ACOUSTICS. 


at  the  bottom  of  deep  rivers,  from  hence 
it  would  seem  not  to  be  very  material  in 
the  propagation  of  sounds,  whether  the 
fluid  which  conveys  them  be  elastic  or 
otherwise.     Water,  which,  of  all  substan- 
ces that  we  know,  has  the  least  elasticity, 
yet  serves  to  carry  them  forward :  and  if 
we  make  allowance  for  the  difference  of 
its  density,  perhaps  the  sounds  move  in  it 
with  a   proportionable   rapidity  to  what 
they  are  found  to  do  in  the  elastic  fluid  of 
air.  But  though  air  and  water  are  both  ve- 
hicles of  sound,  yet  neither  of  them,  ac- 
cording to  some  philosophers,  seems  to  be 
so  by  itself,  but  only  as  it  contains  an  ex- 
ceedingly subtle  fluid,capable  of  penetrat- 
ing the  most  solid  bodies.  One  thing,  how- 
ever, is  certain,  that  whatever  sound  we 
hear  is  produced  by  a  stroke,  which  the 
sounding  body  makes  against  the  fluid, 
whether  air  or  water.     The  fluid,  being 
struck  upon,  carries  the  impression  for- 
ward to  the  ear,  and  there  produces  its 
sensation.  Philosophers  are  so  far  agreed, 
that  they  all  allow  that  sound  is  nothing 
more   than  the  impression  made  by  an 
elastic  body  upon  the  air  or  water,  and 
this  impression   carried  along  by  either 
fluid  to  the  organ  of  hearing.     But  the 
manner  in  which  this  conveyance  is  made 
5s  still   disputed:  whether  the  sound  is 
diffused  into  the  air,  in  circle  beyond  cir- 
cle, like  the  waves  of  water  when  we  dis- 
turb the  smoothness    of  its  surface  by 
dropping  in  a  stone ;  or  whether  it  travels 
tdong,  like  rays  diffused  from  a  centre, 
somewhat  in  the  swift  manner  that  elec- 
tricity runs  along  a  rod  of  iron ;  these  are 
the   questions    which  have    divided  the 
learned.  Newton  was  of  the  first  opinion, 
lie  has  explained  the  progression  of  sound 
by  an  undulatory,  or  rather  a  vermicular, 
motion  in  the  parts  of  the  air.  If  we  have 
an  exact  idea  of  the  crawling  of  some  in- 
sects, we  shall  have  a  tolerable  notion  of 
the  progression  of  sound  upon  this  hypo- 
thesis.   The  insect,  for  instance,  in  its 
motion,  first  carries  its  contractions  from 
the  hinder  part,  in  order  to  throw  its  fore 
part  to  the  proper  distance,  then  it  carries 
its  contractions  from  the  fore  part  to  the 
hinder,  to  bring  that  forward.  Something 
similar  to  this  is  the  motion  of  the  air  when 
struck  upon  by  a  sounding  body.  All  who 
have  remarked  the  tone  of  a  bell,  while 
its  sounds  are  decaying  away,  must  have 
an  idea  of  the  pulses  of  sound,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Newton,  are  formed  by  the  air's 
alternate  progression  and  recession.  And 
it  must  be  observed,  that  as  each  of  these 
pulses  is  formed  by  a  single  vibration  of 
the  string,  they  must  be  equal  to  each 


other;  for  the  vibrations  of  the  string  are 
known  to  be  so.  Again,  as  to  the  veloci- 
ty with  which  sounds  travel,  this  Newton 
determines,  by  the  most  difficult  calcula- 
tion that  can  be  imagined,  to  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  thickness  of  the  parts  of 
the  air,  and  the  distance  of  these  parts 
from  each  other.  From  hence  he  goes  on 
to  prove,  that  eachlittle  part  moves  back- 
ward and  forward  like  a  pendulum  ;  and 
from  thence  he  proceeds  to  demonstrate, 
that  if  the  atmosphere  were  of  the  same 
density  every  where  as  at  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  in  such  a  case,  a  pendulum,  that 
reached  from  its  highest  surface  down  to 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  would,  by  its  vi- 
brations, discover  to  us  the  proportion  of 
the  velocity  with  which  sounds  travel. 
The  velocity  with  which  each  pulse  would 
move,  he  shows,  would  be  as  much  great- 
er than  the  velocity  of  such  a  pendulum 
swinging  with  one  complete  vibration,  as 
the  circumference  of  a  circle  is  greater 
than  the  diameter.  From  hence  he  calcu- 
lates that  the  motion  of  sound  will  be  979 
feet  in  one  second.  But  this  not  being 
consonant  to  experience,  he  takes  in  ano- 
ther consideration,  which  destroys  entire- 
ly the  rigour  of  his  former  demonstration, 
namely,  vapours  in  the  airland  then  hnds 
the  motion  of  sound  to  be  1142  feet  in 
one  second,  or  near  13  miles  in  a  minute, 
a  proportion  which  experience  had  esta- 
blished nearly  before.  Many  other  theo- 
ries on  this  subject  have  been  advanced 
by  ingenious  men,  but  our  limits  do  not 
allow  to  enter  farther  into  them. 

Since  by  experiment  it  has  been  proved 
that  sound  travels  at  about  the  rate  f?1142 
feet  in  a  second,  and  that  no  obstacleshin- 
der  its  progress,  a  contrary  wind  only  a 
small  matter  diminishing  its  velocity,  the 
method  of  calculating  its  progress  is  easily 
made  known.  When  a  gun  is  discharged 
at  a  distance,  we  see  the  fire  long  before 
we  hear  the  sound.  If  then  we  know  the 
distance  of  the  place,  and  know  the  time 
of  the  interval  between  our  first  seeing  the 
fire  and  hearing  the  report,  this  will  shew 
us  exactly  the  time  that  the  sound  has 
been  travelling  to  us.  For  instance,  if 
the  gun  is  discharged  a  mile  off,  the  mo- 
ment the  flash  is  seen  you  take  a  watch. 
and  count  the  seconds  till  you  hear  the 
sound,  the  number  of  seconds  is  the  time 
the  sound  has  been  travelling  a  mile. 
We  are  also  enabled  to  find  the  distance 
between  objects  that  would  be  otherwise 
immeasurable.  For  example  ;  suppose 
you  see  the  flash  of  a  gun  in  the  night  at 
sea,  and  tell  seven  seconds  before  you  hear 
the  report,  it  follows  tkerefore  that  the 


ACOUSTICS. 


cfistance  is  seven  times  1142  feet.  In  like 
manner,  if  you  observe  the  number  of  se- 
conds between  the  lightning  and  the  re- 
port of  the  thunder,  you  know  the  distance 
of  the  cloud  from  whence  it  proceeds. 
But,  according  to  another  philosopher,Dr. 
Thomas  Young,  the  velocity  of  sound  is 
not  quite  so  great.  "  It  has  been  demon- 
strated," he  observes,  "  by  M.  De  La 
Grange  and  others,  that  any  impression 
whatever,communicatedto  one  particle  of 
an  elastic  fluid,will  be  transmitted  through 
that  fluid  with  an  uniform  velocity,  de- 
pending on  the  constitution  of  the  fluid, 
without  reference  to  any  supposed  laws 
of  the  continuation  of  that  impression. 
Their  theorem  for  ascertaining  this  velo- 
city is  the  same  as  Newton  has  deduced 
from  the  hypothesis  of  a  particular  law  of 
continuation  :  but  it  must  be  confessed, 
that  the  result  differs  somewhat  too  wide- 
ly from  experiment,  to  give  us  full  con- 
fidence in  the  perfection  of  the  theory. 
Corrected  by  the  experiments  of  various 
observers,  the  velocity  of  any  impression 
transmitted  by  the  common  air  may,  at 
an  average,  be  reckoned  1130  feet  in  a 
second."  Phil.  Trans,  vol.  xc. 

Dr.  Derham  has  proved  by  experiment, 
that  all  sounds  whatever  travel  at  the  same 
rate.  The  sound  of  a  gun,  and  the  strik- 
ing of  a  hammer,  are  equally  swift  in  their 
motions ;  the  softest  whisper  flies  as  swift- 
ly, as  far  as  it  goes,  as  the  loudest  thun- 
der. To  these  we  may  add,  that  smooth 
and  clear  sounds  proceed  from  bodies 
that  are  homogeneous,  and  of  an  uniform 
figure  ;  and  harsh  or  obtuse  sounds,  from 
such  as  are  of  a  mixed  matter  and  irregu- 
lar figure.  The  velocity  of  sounds  is  to 
that  of  a  brisk  wind  as  fifty  to  one.  The 
strength  of  sounds  is  greastest  in  cold  and 
dense  air,  and  least  in  that  which  is  warm 
and  rarefied.  Every  point,  against  which 
the  pulses  of  sound  strike,  becomes  a  cen- 
tre, from  which  a  new  series  of  pulses  are 
propagated  in  every  direction.  Sound 
describes  equal  spaces  in  equal  times. 

There  is  probably  no  substance  which 
is  not  in  some  measure  a  conductor  of 
sound  ;  but  sound  is  much  enfeebled  by 
passing  from  one  medium  to  another.  If 
a  man,  stopping  one  of  his  ears  with  his 
finger,  stops  the  other  also  by  pressing1  it 
against  the  end  of  a  long  stick,  and  a  watch 
be  applied  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  stick 
or  of  a  piece  of  timber,  be  it  ever  so  long, 
the  beating  of  the  watch  will  be  distinctly 
heard  ;  whereas,  in  the  usual  way,  it  can 
scarcely  be  heard  at  the  distance  o1'  15  or 
18  feet.  The  same  effect  will  take  place 
if  he  stops  both  his  ears  with  his  hands, 


and  rests  his  teeth,  his  temple,  or  the  car- 
tilaginous part  of  one  of  his  ears,  against 
the  end  of  the  slick.  Instead  of  a  watch, 
a  gentle  scratch  may  be  made  at  one  end 
of  a  pole  or  rod,  and  the  person  who  keeps 
the  ear  in  close  contact  with  the  other 
end  of  the  pole  will  hear  it  very  plainly. 
Thus,  persons  who  are  dull  of  hearing 
may,  by  applying  their  teeth  to  some  part 
of  an  harpsichord,  or  other  sounding  body, 
hear  the  sound  much  better  than  other- 
wise. 

If  a  person  tie  a  poker  or  any  other  piece 
of  metal  on  to  the  middle  of  a  strip  of  flan- 
nel about  a  yard  long,  then  press  with  his 
thumbs  or  fingers  the  ends  of  the  flannel 
into  his  ears,  while  he  swings  the  poker 
against  any  obstacle,  as  an  iron  or  steel 
fender,  he  will  hear  a  sound  very  like  that 
of  a  large  church  bell. 

Sound,  like  light,  after  it  has  been  re- 
flected from  several  places,  may  be  col- 
lected in  one  point,  as  into  a  focus  ;  and 
it  will  be  there  more  audible  than  in  any 
other  part,  even  that  at  the  place  from 
whence  it  proceeded.  On  this  principle 
it  is  that  a  whispering  gallery  is  construct- 
ed. The  form  of  a  whispering  gallery 
must  be  that  of  a  concave  hemisphere,  a"s 
ABC,  plate  Acoustics,  fig.  2. ;  and  if  a  low 
sound  or  whisper  be  uttered  at  A,  the  vi- 
brations expanding  themselves  everyway 
will  impinge  on  the  points  D,  D,D,  &c. 
and  from  thence  be  reflected  to  E,  E,  E, 
and  from  thence  to  the  points  F  and  G,  tilt 
at  last  they  all  meet  in  C}  where  the  sound 
will  be  the  most  distinctly  heard.  The 
augmentation  of  sound,  by  means  of  speak- 
ing-trumpets, is  usually  illustrated  in  the 
following  manner:  Let  ABC,  fig.  3.  be  the 
tube,  BD  the  axis,  and  B  the  mouth-piece 
for  conveying  the  voice  to  the  tube.  Then 
it  is  evident,  when  a  person  speaks  atB  in 
the  trumpet,  the  whole  force  of  his  voice 
is  spent  upon  the  air  contained  in  the  tube, 
which  will  be  agitated  through  its  whole 
length,  and,  by  various  reflections  from  the 
side  of  the  tube  to  the  axis,  the  air  along- 
the  middle  part  of  the  tube  will  be  greatly 
condensed,  and  its  momentum  propor- 
tionably  increased,  so  that  when  it  comes 
to  agitate  the  air  at  the  orifice  of  the  tube 
AC,  its  force  will  be  as  much  greater  than 
what  it  would  have  been  without  the  tube, 
as  the  surface  of  a  sphere,  whose  radius 
is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  tube,  is  great- 
er than  the  surface  of  the  segment  of  such 
sphere,  whose  base  is  the  orifice  of  the 
tube.  For  a  person  speaking  at  B,  with- 
out the  tube,  will  have  the  force  of  his 
voice  spent  in  exciting  concentric  super- 
ficies of  air  all  round  the  point  B;  and  when 


ACOUSTICS. 


tlvose  superficies  or  pulses  of  air  are  dif- 
fused as  far  as  D  every  way,  it  is  plain  the 
force  of  the  voice  will  there  be  diffused 
through  the  whole  superficies  of  a  sphere 
•whose  radius  is  BD  ;  but  in  the  trumpet 
it  will  be  so  confined,  that  at  its  exit  it 
will  be  diffused  through  so  much  of  that 
spherical  surface  of  air  as  corresponds  to 
the  orifice  of  the  tube.  But  since  the 
force  is  given,  its  intensity  will  be  always 
inversely  as  the  number  of  particles  it  has 
to  move  ;  and  therefore  in  the  tube  it  will 
be  to  that  without,  as  the  superficies  of 
such  a  sphere  to  the  area  of  the  large  end 
of  the  tube  nearly.  But  it  is  obvious,  Dr. 
~M.  Young  observes,  that  the  confinement 
of  the  voice  can  have  little  effect  in  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  sound,  as  this 
strength  depends  on  the  velocity  with 
which  the  particles  move.  Were  this  rea- 
soning conclusive,  the  voice  should  issue 
through  the  smallest  possible  orifice  ;  cy- 
lindrical tubes  would  be  preferable  to  any 
that  increased  in  diameter  ;  and  the  less 
the  diameter,  the  greater  would  be  the 
effect  of  the  instrument;  because  the  plate 
or  mass  of  air  to  be  moved  would,  in  that 
case,  be  less,  and  consequently  the  effect 
of  the  voice  the  greater;  all  which  is  con- 
tradicted by  experience.  The  cause  of 
the  increase  of  sound  in  thes6  tubes  must 
therefore  be  derived  from  some  other 
principles :  and  among  these  we  shall  pro- 
bablyfind,  that  what  the  ingenious  Kircher 
has  suggested  is  the  most  deserving  of  our 
attention.  He  tells  us,  that  "the  augmen- 
tation of  the  sound  depends  on  its  reflec- 
tion from  the  tremulous  sides  of  the  tube; 
which  reflections,  conspiring  in  propa- 
gating the  pulses  in  the  same  -direction, 
must  increase  its  intensity."  Newton  also 
seems  to  have  considered  this  as  the  prin- 
cipal cause,  in  the  scholium  of  Prop.  50, 
B.  II.  Princip.  when  he  says,  "  We  hence 
Tsee  why  sounds  are  so  much  increased  in 
stentorophonic  tubes,  for  every  reciprocal 
motion  is,  in  each  return,  increased  by  the 
generating  cause."  Farther,  when  we 
speak  in  the  open  air,  the  effect  on  the 
tympanum  of-a  distant  auditor  is.produced 
merely  by  a  single  pulse.  But  when  we 
use  a  tube,  all  the  pulses  propagated  from 
the  mouth,  except  those  in  the  direction 
of  the  axis,  strike  against  the  sides  of  the 
tube,  and  every  point  of  impulse  becoming 
a  new  centre,  from  whence  the  pulses  are 
progagatedin  all  directions,  a  pulse  will 
Mi-rive  at  the  ear  from  each  of  those  points. 
Thus,  by  the  use  of  a  tube,  a  greater  num- 
ber of  pulses  are  propagated  to  the  ear, 
«nd  consequently  the  sound  increased. 
'The  confinement  too  of  the  voice  may  have 


a  little  effect,  though  not  such  as  is  ascrib^ 
ed  to  it  by  some  ;  for  the  condensed  pul- 
ses produced  by  the  naked  voice  freely 
expand  every  way ;  but  in  tubes,  the  late- 
ral expansion  being  diminished,  the  direct 
expansion  will  be  increased,  and  conse- 
quently the  velocity  of  the  particles,  and 
the  intensity  of  the  sound.  The  substance 
also  of  the  tube  has  its  effect ;  for  it  is 
found,  by  experiment,  that  the  more  elas- 
tic the  substance  of  the  tube,  and  conse- 
quently the  more  susceptible  it  is  of  these 
tremulous  motions,  the  stronger  is  the 
sound.  If  the  tube  be  laid  on  any  non- 
elastic  substance,  it  deadens  the  sound, 
because  it  prevents  the  vibratory  motion 
of  the  parts.  The  sound  is  increased  iu 
speaking-trumpets,  if  the  tube  be  suspend- 
ed in  the  air;  because  the  agitations  are 
then  carried  on  without  interruption. 
These  tubes  should  increase  in  diameter 
from  the  mouth-piece,  because  the  parts 
vibrating  in  directions  perpendicular  to 
the  surface  will  conspire  in  impelling  for- 
ward the  particles  of  air,  and  consequent- 
ly, by  increasing  their  velocity,  will  in- 
crease the  intensity  of  the  sound  :  and  the 
surface  also  increasing,  the  number  of 
points  of  impulse  and  of  new  propaga- 
tion will  increase  proportionably.  The  se- 
veral causes,  therefore,  of  the  increase  of 
sound  in  these  tubes,  Dr.  Young  concludes 
to  be,  1.  The  diminution  of  the  lateral, 
and  consequently  the  increase  of  the  di- 
rect expansion  and  velocity  ofthe  included 
air.  2.  The  increase  of  the  number  of 
pulses  by  increasing  the  points  of  new 
propagation.  3.  The  reflections  of  the 
pulses  from  the  tremulous  sides  of  the 
tube,  which  impel  the  particles  of  air  for- 
ward, and  thus  increase  their  velocity. 

An  umbrella,  held  in  a  proper  position 
over  the  head,  may  serve  to  collect  the 
force  of  a  distant  sound  by  reflection,  in 
the  manner  of  a  hearing-trumpet ;  but  its 
substance  is  too  slight  to  reflect  any  sound 
perfectly,  unless  the  sound  fall  on  it  in  a 
very  oblique  direction.  Th  ?.  exhibition 
of  tiie  Invisible  Girl  is  said  to  depend  on 
the  reflection  of  sound;  but  the  deception 
is  really  performed  by  conveying  the  sound 
through  pipes,  artfully  concealed,  and 
opening  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the 
trumpet,  from  which  it  seems  to  proceed. 

When  a  portion  of  a  pulse  of  a  sound 
is  separated  by  any  means  from  the  rest 
of  the  spherical  or  hemispherical  surface 
to  which  it  belongs,  and  proceeds  through 
a  wide  space,  without  being  supported  on 
either  side,  there  is  a  certain  degree  of 
divergence,  by  means  of  which  it  some- 
times becomes  audible  in  every  part  of  the 


ACOUSTICS. 


medium  transmitting  it :  but  the  sound 
thus  diverging  is  comparatively  very  faint. 
Hence,  in  order  that  a  speaking-trumpet 
may  produce  its  full  effect,  it  must  be  di- 
rected in  a  right  line  towards  the  hearer ; 
and  the  sound  collected  into  the  focus  of 
a  concave  mirror  is  far  more  powerful 
than  at  a  little  distance  from  it,  which 
could  not  happen,  if  sound,  in  all  cases, 
tended  to  spread  equally  in  all  directions. 
It  is  said  that  the  report  of  a  cannon  ap- 
pears many  times  louder  to  a  person  to- 
wards whom  it  is  fired,  than  to  one  placed 
in  a  contrary  direction.  It  must,  says  Dr. 
Young,  have  occurred  to  every  one's  ob- 
servation, that  a  sound,  such  as  that  of  a 
mill  or  a  fall  of  water,  has  appeared  much 
louder  after  turning  a  corner,  when  the 
house  or  oilier  obstacle  no  longer  inter- 
vened. Indeed  the  whole  theory  of  the 
speaking-trumpet  would  fall  to  the  ground 
if  it  were  demonstrable  that  sound  spreads 
equally  in  all  directions.  In  windy  wea- 
ther, it  may  be  often  observed,  that  the 
sound  of  a  distant  bell  varies  almost  in- 
stantaneously in  its  strength,  so  as  to  ap- 
pear twice  as  remote  at  one  time  as  an- 
other. Now,  if  sound  diverged  equally  in 
all  directions,  the  variation  produced  by 
the  wind  would  not  exceed  one-tenth  of 
the  apparent  distance  ;  but  on  the  suppo- 
sition ot  a  motion  nearly  rectilinear,  it  may 
easily  happen  that  a  slight  change  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind  shall  convey  a  sound, 
either  directly  or  after  reflection,  in  very 
different  degrees,  to  the  same  spot. 

The  decay  of  sound  is  the  natural  con- 
sequence of  its  distribution  throughout  a 
larger  and  larger  quantity  of  matter,  as  it 
proceeds  to  diverge  every  way  from  its 
centre.  The  actual  velocity  of  the  parti- 
cles of  the  medium  transmitting  it,  appears 
to  diminish,  simply  in  the  same  proportion 
as  the  distance  from  the  centre  increases  ; 
consequently,  their  energy,  which  is  to  be 
considered  as  the  measure  of  the  strength 
of  sound,  must  vary  as  the  square  of  the 
distance ;  so  that,  at  the  distance  of  ten 
feet  from  the  sounding  body,  the  velocity 
of  the  particles  of  the  medium  becomes 
one-tenth  as  great  as  at  the  distance  of  one 
foot ;  and  their  energy,  or  the  strength  of 
the  sound,  only  one-hundredth  as  great. 

An  echo  is  a  reflection  of  sound  strik- 
ing against  some  object,  as  an  image  is 
reflected  in  a  glass :  but  it  has  been  dis- 
puted, what  are  the  proper  qualities  in  a 
body  for  thus  reflecting  sounds.  It  is  in 
general  known,  that  caverns,  grottoes, 
mountains,  and  ruined  buildings,  return 
this  reflection  of  sound.  We  have  heard 
of  a  very  extraordinary  echo,  at  a  ruined 

VOL.  I. 


fortress  near  Louvain,  in  Flanders.  If  a 
person  sung,  he  only  heard  his  own  voice 
without  any  repetition  ;  on  the  contrary, 
those  who  stood  at  some  distance  heard 
the  echo,  but  not  the  voice  ;  but  then  they 
heard  it  with  surprising  variations,  some- 
times louder,  sometimes  softer,  now  more 
near,  then  more  distant.  There  is  an  ac- 
count, in  the  Memoirs  of  the  French  Aca- 
demy, of  a  similar  echo  near  Rome.  It 
has  been  already  observed,  that  every 
point  against  which  the  pulses  of  sound 
strike  becomes  the  centre  of  a  new  series 
of  pulses,  and  sound  describes  equal  dis- 
tances in  equal  times;  therefore,  when 
any  sound  is  propagated  from  a  centre, 
and  its  pulses  strike  against  a  variety  of 
obstacles,  if  the  sum  of  the  right  lines 
drawn  from  that  point  to  each  of  the  ob- 
stacles, and  from  each  obstacle  to  a  second 
point,  be  equal,  then  will  the  latter  be  a 
point  in  which  an  echo  will  be  heard. 
Thus,  let  A,  fig  4,  be  the  point  from  which 
the  sound  is  propagated  in  all  directions, 
and  let  the  pulses  strike  against  die  ob- 
stacles C,  U,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  &c.  each  of 
these  points  becomes  a  newcencre  of  pul- 
ses by  the  first  principles,  and  therefore 
from  each  of  them  one  series  of  pulses  will 
pass  through  the  point  B.  Now,  if  the 
several  sums  of  tin-  right  lines  A  G  -f-  C  B, 
A  iJ-f-DlT,  ~ 


A   E  -f- 


A  G  -f-  G  B, 


A  H-f  li  B,  A  1  +  1  B,  &c.  be  all  equal 

to  each  other,  it  is  obvious  that  the  pulses 
propagated  from  A  to  these  points,  and 
again  from  these  points  to  B,  will  all  ar- 
rive at  B  at  the  same  instant,  according  to 
the  second  principle  ;  and,  therefore,  if 
the  hearer  be  in  that  point,  his  ear  will  at 
the  same  instant  be  struck  by  all  these 
pulses.  Now,  it  appears,  from  experiment, 
that  the  ear  of  an  exercised  musician  can 
alone  distinguish  such  sounds  as  follow 
one  another  at  the  rate  of  9  or  10  in  a  se- 
cond, or  any  slower  rate  :  and  therefore, 
for  a  distinct  perception  of  the  direct  and 
reflected  sound,  there  should  intervene 
the  interval  of  4-  of  a  second  ;  but  in  this 

1142 
time  sound  describes      •        or    127   feet 

nearly.  And,  therefore,  unless  the  sum  of 
the  lines  drawn  from  each  of  the  obstacles 
to  the  point  A  and  B  exceeds  the  interval 
AB  by  127  feet,  no  echo  will  be  heard  at 
B.  Since  the  several  sums  of  the  lines 
drawn  from  the  obstacles  to  the  points  A 
and  B  are  of  the  same  magnitude,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  curve  passing  through  all 
the  points,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  &c.  will  be 
an  ellipse.  Hence  all  the  points  of  the 
obstacles  which  produce  an  echo  must 
C 


ACOUSTICS. 


lie  in  the  surface  of  the  oblong  spheroid, 
generated  by  the  revolution  of  this  ellipse 
round  its  major  axis.  See  COMC  SEC- 
TIONS. As  there  may  be  several  sphe- 
roids of  different  magnitudes,  so  there  may 
be  several  different  echoes  of  the  same 
original  sound.  And  as  there  may  hap. 
pen  to  be  a  greater  number  of  reflecting 
points  in  the  surface  of  an  exterior  Sphe- 
roid than  in  that  of  an  interior,  a  second  or 
a  third  echo  may  be  much  more  powerful 
than  the  first,  provided  that  the  superior 
number  of  reflecting  points,  that  is,  the 
superior  number  of  reflecting  pulses  pro- 
pagated to  the  ear,  be  more  than  sufficient 
to  compensate  for  the  decay  of  sound 
which  arises  from  its  being  propagated 
through  a  greater  space.  This  is  finely 
illustrated  in  the  celebrated  echoes  at  the 
lake  of  Killarney,  in  Kerry,  where  the  first 
return  of  the  sound  is  much  inferior  in 
Strength  to  those  which  immediately  suc- 
ceed it.  From  what  lias  been  laid  down 
it  appears,  that,  for  the  most  powerful 
echo,  the  sounding  body  should  be  in  one 
focus  of  the  ellipse,  which  is  the  section 
of  the  echoing  spheroid,  and  the  hearer  in 
the  other.  However,  an  echo  may  be 
heard  in  other  situations,  though  not  so 
favourably  ;  as  such  a  number  of  reflect- 
ed pulses  may  arrive  at  the  same  time  at 
the  ear,  as  may  be  sufficient  to  excite  a 
distinct  perception.  Thus  a  person  often 
hears  the  echo  of  his  own  voice  ;  but  for 
this  purpose  he  should  stand  at  least  63 
or  64  feet  from  the  reflecting  obstacle, 
according  to  what  has  been  said  before. 

If  a  bell,  a,  fig.  5,  be  struck,  and  the 
undulations  of  the  air  strike  the  wall  c  d 
in  a  perpendicular  direction,  they  will  be 
reflected  back  in  the  same  line  ;  and  if  a 
person  be  situated  between  a  and  c,  as  at 
x,  he  would  hear  the  sound  of  the  bell  by 
means  of  the  undulations  as  they  went  to 
the  wall,  and  he  would  hear  it  again  as 
they  came  back,  after  the  reflection,which 
would  be  the  echo  of  the  sound.  So  a 
person  standing  at  x  might,  in  speaking  in 
the  direction  of  the  wall  cd,  hear  the  echo 
of  his  own  voice.  But  in  both  cases  the 
distance  c  x  must  be  63  or  64  feet.  If  the 
undulations  strike  against  the  wall  oblique- 
ly, they  will  be  reflected  off  obliquely  on 
the  other  side  ;  if,  for  instance,  a  person 
stand  at  m,  and  there  be  any  obstacle  be- 
tween that  place  uid  the  bell,  so  as  to  pre» 
vent  him  hearing  the  direct  sound,  he  may 
nevertheless  hear  the  echo  from  the  wall 
erf,  provided  the  direct  sound  fall  in  that 
sort  of  oblique  direction,  so  as  to  force  the 
reflected  undulations  along  the  line  c  m. 

At  the  common  rate  of  speaking,  we  do 


not  pronounce  above  three  syllables  and  a, 
half,  that  is,  seven  half  syllables,  in  a  se- 
cond ;  therefore,  that  the  echo  raay  return 
just  as  soon  as  three  syllables  are  ex- 
pressed, twice  the  distance  of  the  speaker 
from  the  reflecting  object  must  be  equal 
to  1000  feet ;  for  as  sound  describes  1142 
feet  in  a  second,  6-7tha  of  that  space,  that 
is,  1000  feet  nearly ,will be  described  while 
six  half,  or  three  whole,  syllables  are  pro- 
nounced ;  that  is,  the  speaker  must  stand 
near  500  feet  from  the  obstacle.  And,  in 
general,  the  distance  of  the  speaker  from 
the  echoing  surface,  for  any  number  of 
syllables,  must  be  equal  to  the  seventh 
part  of  the  product  of  1142  feet  multiplied 
by  the  number.  In  churches  we  never 
hear  a  distinct  echo  of  the  voice,  but  a 
confused  sound,  when  the  speaker  utters 
his  words  too  rapidly  ;  because  the  great- 
est difference  of  distance  between  the  di- 
rect and  reflected  courses  of  such  a  num- 
ber of  pulses  as  would  produce  a  distinct 
sound  is  never  in  any  church  equal  to  127 
feet,  the  limit  of  echoes.  But  though  the 
first  reflected  pulses  may  produce  no  echo, 
both  on  account  of  their  being  too  few  in 
number,  and  too  rapid  in  their  return  to 
the  ear,  yet  it  is  evident,  that  the  reflect- 
ing surface  may  be  so  formed,  as  that  the 
pulses  which  come  to  the  ear,  after  two 
reflections  or  more,  may,  after  having  de- 
scribed 127  feet  or  more,  arrive  at  the  ear 
in  sufficient  numbers,  and  also  so  nearly 
at  the  same  instant,  as  to  produce  an  echo, 
though  the  distance  of  the  reflecting  sur- 
face from  the  ear  be  less  than  the  limit  of 
echoes  This  is  confirmed  by  a  singular 
echo  in  a  grotto  on  the  banks  of  the  little 
brook  called  the  Dinan,  about  two  miles 
from  Castlecomber,  in  the  county  of  Kil- 
kenny. As  you  enter  the  cave,  and  con- 
tinue speaking  loud,  no  return  of  the  voice 
is  perceived ;  but  on  your  arriving  at  a 
certain  point,  which  is.  not  above  14  or  15 
feet  from  the  reflecting  surface,  a  very 
distinct  echo  is  heard.  Now  this  echo 
cannot  arise  from  the  first  course  of  pul- 
ses that  are  reflected  to  the  ear,  because 
the  breadth  of  the  cave  is  so  small,  that 
they  would  return  too  quickly  to  produce 
a  distinct  sensation  from  that  of  the  origi- 
nal sound  :  it  therefore  is  produced  by 
those  pulses,  which,  after  having  been  re- 
flected several  times  from  one  side  of  the 
grotto  to  the  other,  and  having  run  over 
a  greater  space  than  127  feet,  arrived  at 
the  ear  in  considerable  numbers,  and  not 
more  distant  from  each  other  in  point  of 
time  than  the  ninth  part  of  a  second.  M. 
De  la  Grange  demonstrated,  that  all  im- 
pressions are  reflected  by  an  obstacle  ter- 


ACOUSTICS. 


tninating  an  elastic  fluid,  with  the  same  ve- 
locii)  with  which  they  arrived  at  that  ob. 
stacle.  When  the  walls  of  a  passage,  or 
of  an  unfurnished  room,  are  smooth  and 
perfectly  parallel,  any  explosion,  or  a 
stamping  with  the  foot,  communicates  an 
impression  to  the  air,  which  is  reflected 
from  one  wall  to  the  other,  and  from  the 
second  again  towards  the  ear,  nearly  in 
the  same  direction  with  the  primitive  im- 
pulse :  this  takes  place  as  frequently  in 
a  second,  as  double  the  breadth  of  the  pas- 
sage is  contained  in  1130  feet;  and  the 
ear  receives  a  perception  of  a  musical 
sound,  thus  determining  its  pitch  by  the 
breadth  of  the  passage.  On  making 
the  experiment,  the  result  will  be  found 
accurately  to  agree  with  this  explanation. 
If  the  sound  is  predetermined,  and  the  fre- 
quency of  vibrations  such,  as  that  each 
pulse,  when  doubly  reflected,  may  coin- 
cide with  the  subsequent  impulse,  pro- 
ceeding directly  from  the  sounding  body, 
the  intensity  of  the  sound  will  be  much 
increased  by  the  reflection ;  and  also  in 
a  less  degree,  if  the  reflected  pulse  coin- 
cides with  the  next  but  one,  the  next  but 
two,  or  more  of  the  direct  pulses  The  ap- 
propriate notes  of  a  room  may  readily  be 
discovered  by  singing  the  scale  in  it ;  and 
they  will  be  found  to  depend  on  the  pro- 
portion of  its  length  or  breadth  tollSOfeet. 

By  altering  our  situation  in  a  room,  and 
expressing  a  sound,  or  hearing  the  sound 
of  another  person,  in  different  situations, 
or  when  different  objects  are  alternately 
placed  in  the  room,  that  sound  may  be 
heard  louder  or  weaker,  and  more  or  less 
distinct.  Hence  it  is,  that  blind  persons, 
who  are  under  the  necessity  of  paying 
great  attention  to  the  perceptions  of  their 
sense  of  hearing,  acquire  the  habit  of  dis- 
tinguishing, from  the  sound  even  of  their 
own  voices,  whether  a  room  is  empty  or 
furnished  ;  whether  the  windows  are  open 
or  shut ;  and  sometimes  they  can  even  dis- 
tinguish whether  any  person  be  in  the 
room  or  not.  A  great  deal  of  furniture  in 
a  room  checks,  in  a  great  measure,  the 
sounds  that  are  produced  in  it,  for  they 
hinder  the  free  communication  of  the  vi- 
brations of  the  air  from  one  part  of  the 
room  to  the  other.  The  fittest  rooms  for 
declamation,  or  for  music,  are  such  as 
contain  few  ornaments  that  obstruct  the 
sound,  and  at  the  same  time  have  the  least 
echo  possible. 

A  strong  and  continued  sound  fatigues 
the  ear.  The  strokes  of  heavy  hammers, 
of  artillery,  &c.  are  apt  to  make  people 
deaf  for  a  time  :  and  it  has  been  known 
that  persons,  who  have  been  long  exposed 


to  the  continued  and  confused  noise  of  cer- 
tain manufactories,  or  of  water-falls,  or 
other  noisy  places,  can  hear  what  is  spo- 
ken to  them  much  better  in  the  midst  of 
that  noise  than  elsewhere. 

We  shall  conclude  this  article  with  an 
experiment  or  two,  for  the  amusement  of 
the  younger  part  of  our  readers. 

Experiment  1,.  Place  a  concave  mir- 
ror, AB,  fig.  6,  of  two  feet  in  diameter,  in 
a  perpendicular  direction,  and  at  the  dis- 
tance of  about  five  or  six  feet  from  a  par- 
tition EF,  in  which  there  is  an  opening 
equal  in  size  to  the  mirror ;  against  this 
opening  must  be  placed  a  picture,  painted 
in  water-colours,  on  a  thin  cloth,  that  the 
sound  may  easily  pass  through  it.  Be- 
hind the  partition,  at  the  distance  of  a  few 
feet,  place  another  mirror  GH,  of  the  same 
size  as  the  former,  and  directly  opposite 
to  it.  At  the  point  C  is  to  be  placed  the 
figure  of  a  man,  seated  on  a  pedestal,  with 
his  ear  exactly  in  the  focus  of  the  first 
mirror;  his  lower  jaw  must  be' made  to 
open  by  a  wire,  and  shut  by  a  spring. 
The  wire  must  pass  through  the  figure, 
and  under  the  floor,  to  come  up  behind 
the  partition.  Let  a  person,  properly  in- 
structed, be  placed  behind  the  partition, 
near  the  mirror;  any  one  may  now  whisper 
into  the  ear  of  the  image,  with  the  assur- 
ance of  being  answered.  The  deception  is 
managed  by  giving  a  signal  to  the  person 
behind  the  partition,  who,  by  placing  his 
ear  to  the  focus  I  ofthe  mirror  GH, will  hear 
distinctly  what  the  other  said,  and  moving 
the  jaw  ofthe  statue  by  the  concealed  wire 
will  return  the  answer  directly,  which 
will  be  heard  distinctly  by  the  first  speaker. 

Ex.  2.  Let  two  heads"  of  plaster  of  Pa- 
ris be  placed  on  pedestals,  on  opposite 
sides  of  a  room.  A  tin  tube  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  must  pass  from  the  ear  of  one 
head  through  the  pedestal  under  the  floor, 
and  go  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  other. 
When  a  person  speaks  low  into  the  ear 
of  one  bust,  the  sound  is  reverberated 
through  the  length  ofthe  tube,  and  will  be 
distinctly  heard  by  any  one  who  shall 
place  his  ear  to  the  mouth  ofthe  other. 
The  end  ofthe  tube  which  is  next  the  ear 
of  the  one  head  should  be  considerably 
larger  than  that  end  which  comes  to  the 
mouth  ofthe  other.  If  there  be  two  tubes, 
one  going  to  the  ear,  and  the  other  to  the 
mouth  of  each  head,  two  persons  may 
converse  together,  by  applying  their 
mouth  and  ear  reciprocally  to  the  mouth 
and  ear  of  the  busts,  while  other  people, 
standing  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  be- 
tween the  heads,  will  not  hear  any  part  of 
the  conversation. 


ACR 


ACR 


Ex.  3.  Fig.  7  is  a  representation  of  the 
Eolian  harp,  which  was  probably  invented 
by  Kircher.  This  instrument  may  be 
made  by  almost  any  carpenter ;  it  con- 
sists of  a  long  narrow  box  of  very  thin  deal, 
about  five  or  six  inches  broad,  and  two 
inches  deep,  with  a  circle  in  the  middle 
of  the  upper  side,  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter,  in  which  is  drilled  small  holes. 
On  this  side  seven,  ten,  or  more  strings 
of  very  fine  gut  are  stretched  over  bridg- 
es at  each  end,  like  the  bridge  of  a  fiddle, 
and  screwed  up  or  relaxed  with  screw- 
pins.  The  strings  are  all  turned  to  one 
and  the  same  note  ;  and  the  instrument  is 
placed  in  some  current  of  air,  where  the 
wind  can  pass  over  its  strings  with  free- 
dom. A  window,  of  which  the  width  is 
exactly  equal  to  the  length  of  the  harp, 
with  the  sash  just  raised  to  give  the  air 
admission,  is  a  proper  situation.  When 
the  air  blows  upon  these  strings  with  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  force,  it  will  excite  dif- 
ferent tones  of  sound ;  sometimes  the 
blast  brings  out  all  the  tones  in  full  con- 
cert, and  sometimes  it  sinks  them  to  the 
softest  murmurs. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  these  in- 
struments ;  one,  invented  by  the  Rev.  W. 
Jones,  has  the  striags  fixed  to  a  sounding- 
board,  or  belly,  within  a  wooden  case, 
and  the  wind  is  admitted  to  them  through 
an  horizontal  aperture.  In  this  form  the 
instrument  is  portable,  and  may  be  used 
any  where  in  the  open  air.  The  tension 
of  the  strings  must  not  be  great,  as  the 
air,  if  gentle,  has  not  sufficient  power  to 
make  them  vibrate,  and  if  it  blows  fresh, 
the  instrument  does  not  sing,  but  scream. 
See  HARMONICS. 

ACQUITTAL,  in  law,  is  a  deliverance 
or  setting  free  from  the  suspicion  of  guilt ; 
as  one  who  is  discharged  of  a  felony  is 
said  to  be  acquitted  thereof. 

Acquittal  is  either  in  fact,  or  in  law  ;  in 
fact,  it  is  where  a  person,  on  a  verdict  of 
the  jury,  is  found  not  guilty  ;  in  law,  it  is 
M'hen  two  persons  are  indicted,  one  as  a 
principal,  &.c.  the  other  as  accessary:  here, 
if  the  former  be  discharged,  the  latter  of 
consequence  is  acquitted. 

ACQUITTANCE,  a  discharge  in  wri- 
ting for  a  sum  of  money,  witnessing  that 
the  party  is  paid  the  same. 

A  man  is  obliged  to  give  an  acquittance 
on  receiving  money :  and  a  servant's  ac- 
quittance for  money  received  for  the  use 
of  his  master  shall  bind  him,  provided  the 
servant  used  to  receive  his  master's  rents. 
An  acquittance  is  a  full  discharge,  and 
bars  all  actions,  &c. 

in  entomology,  the  name  by 


which  Linnaeus  has  distinguished  the  first 
family  of  the  gryllus,  or  the  cricket,  pro- 
perly so  called:"  the  characters  of  which 
are,  that  the  head  is  conical  and  longer 
than  the  thorax,  and  the  antennxensiform, 
or  sword-shaped.  Of  this  family  there  are 
eight  species,  none  of  which  are  found  in 
Britain.  The  insects  of  this  family  feed 
on  other  insects.  See  GRYLLUS. 

ACROCHORDUS,  in  natural  history,  a 
genus  of  the  class  Amphibia,  and  of  the 
order  Serpents.  There  are  but  three  spe- 
cies, viz.  A.  javanicus,  warted  snake, 
brown,  beneath  paler :  the  sides  obscurely 
variegated  with  whitish.  It  inhabits  Java, 
chiefly  among  the  pepper  plantations ; 
grows  sometimes  to  seven  feet  long.  The 
warts,  by  means  of  a  magnifying  glass, 
appear  to  be  convex  carinate  scales,  and 
the  smaller  ones  are  furnished  with  two 
smaller  prominences,  one  each  side  the 
larger.  Head  somewhat  flattened,  hardly 
wider  than  the  neck,  body  gradually 
thicker  towards  the  middle,  and  suddenly 
contracting  near  the  tail,  which  is  short, 
and  slightly  acuminate.  A.  dubius, 
which  very  nearly  resembles  the  javani- 
cus, except  that  the  head  is  covered  with 
very  minute,  rough  and  warted  scales, 
differing  in  size  alone  from  those  on  the 
other  part  of  the  animal.  The  dubius 
measures  only  about  three  feet  in  length. 
A  specimen  is  to  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum.  Its  native  place  is  not  ascer- 
tained. A.  fasciatus,  resembles  the  du- 
bius so  much,  that  some  naturalists  sup- 
pose them  both  to  be  of  the  same  species, 
and  differing  only  in  age  and  cast  of  co- 
lours. The  specimen  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum is  about  eighteen  inches  long.  See 
plate  Serpentes,  fig.  1. 

ACRONICHAL,  or  ACHRONYCAL,  in  as- 
tronomy, an  appellation  given  to  the  ris- 
ing of  a  star  above  the  horizon,  at  sunset ; 
or  to  its  setting  when  the  sun  rises.  A- 
cronichal  is  one  of  the  three  poetical  ris- 
ings of  a  star  :  the  other  two  being  called 
cosmical  and  helical. 

This  term  is  also  applied  to  the  superi- 
or planets,  Saturn,  Jupiter,  and  Mars, 
when  they  are  come  to  the  meridian  of 
midnight. 

ACROSTERMUM,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Cryptogamia  Fungi  class  and  or- 
der; fungus  quite  simple,  nearly  erect, 
emitting  the  seeds  exteriorly  from  the 
top.  There  are  four  species. 

ACROSTICUM,  rusty.back,  -wall-rue,  or 
forked-fern,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Cryp- 
togamia Filices  ;  the  character  of  which 
is,  that  the  fructifications  cover  the  whole 
inferior  surface  of  the  leaf.  There  are 


ACT 


ACT 


45  species  distributed  into  different  class- 
es. Few  of  the  species  have  been  intro- 
duced into  gardens.  Those  of  Europe 
may  be  preserved  in  pots,  rilled  with  gra- 
vel and  lime  rubbish,  or  planted  on  walls 
and  artificial  rocks;  but  most  of  them, 
being  natives  of  very  hot  climates,  must 
be  planted  in  pots,  and  plunged  into  the 
bark  pit. 

ACTJEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  Polyandria  Monogynia  class  and 
order.  Gen.  character :  calyx  perianth, 
four-leaved ;  leaflets  roundish,  obtuse, 
concave,  caducous;  cor.  petals  four,  acu- 
minate at  both  ends,  larger  than  the  ca- 
lyx ;  filaments  about  30 ;  germ  superi- 
or ovate ;  no  style ;  stigma  thickish,  ob- 
liquely depressed  ;  pericarp  a  berry,  oval- 
globose,  smooth,  one  furrowed,  one-cell- 
ed; seeds  very  many,  semi-orbicular,  lying 
over  each  other  in  two  rows.  There  are 
four  species,  viz.  the  spicata ;  racemosa  ; 
japonica;  and  aspera.  Of  the  first  there 
are  varieties,  of  the  black-berried  herb 
Christopher,  or  bane-berry,  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  England ;  the  Christo- 
pher, with  white  berries,  a  native  of  Ame- 
rica ;  and  that  with  red  berries.  The 
racemosa,  or  black  snake-root,  found  also 
in  America,  of  which  the  root  is  much 
used  in  many  disorders,  and  is  supposed 
to  be  an  antidote  against  the  bite  of  the 
rattle-snake.  This  species  is  now  more 
properly  referred  to  the  genus  Cimifuga, 
and  is  called  by  Pursh  Cimifuga  Serpen- 
taria.  See  CIMIFURA.  The  leaves  of  the 
A.  aspera  being  extremely  rough,  the  Chi- 
nese use  them  in  polishing  their  tin  ware. 

ACTINIA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus 
of  the  Mollusca  order  of  worms;  the  cha- 
racters of  which  are,  body  oblong,  cylin- 
drical, fleshy,  contractile,  fixed  by  the 
base;  mouth  terminal,  expansile,  sur- 
rounded with  numerous  cirri,  and  without 
any  aperture.  There  are  36  species.  These 
marine  animals  are  viviparous,  and  have 
no  aperture  but  the  mouth.  They  feed 
on  shell-fish  and  other  marine  animals, 
which  they  draw  in  with  their  feelers,  in  a 
short  time  rejecting  through  the  same 
aperture  the  shells  and  indigestible  parts. 
They  assume  various  forms,  and  where 
the  tentacula  or  feelers  are  all  expanded, 
have  the  appearance  of  full-blown  flow- 
ers. Many  of  them  are  eatable,  and  some 
of  them  very  sfipid. 

ACTINOLITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  family, 
comprehending  six  species,  viz.  the  acti- 
nolite,  smaragdite,  tremolite,  cyanite,  sya- 
lite,  and  schalstone.  The  actinolite  oc- 
curs chiefly  in  beds  in  primitive  moun- 
tains, and  is  divided  into  three  sub-species, 


viz.  the  asbestos,  common  and  glassy. 
The  abestos  colours  greenish  grey,  moun- 
tain green,  smelt  blue,  olive  green,  yel- 
lowish, and  liver-brown.  Massive,  and  in 
capillary  crystals.  Soft;  brittle;  specific 
gravity  2.5  to  2.9.  Melts  before  the  blow- 
pipe. The  usual  colour  of  the  common 
is  leek  green,  but  its  specific  gravity  is 
between  3.0  and  3.3.  The  principal  co- 
lour of  the  glassy  is  mountain  green,  pass- 
ing to  the  emerald  green.  Specific  gra- 
vity 2.9  to  3.9. 

ACTION,  in  mechanics  and  physics,  is 
the  influence  of  one  body  upon  another, 
in  generating  or  destroying  its  motion. 

It  is  one  of  the  laws  of  nature,  that  ac- 
tion and  re-action  are  equal,  that  is,  the 
resistance  of  the  body  moved  is  always 
equal  to  the  force  communicated  to  it ;  or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  the  moving  body 
loses  as  much  of  its  force  as  it  communi- 
cates to  the  body  moved. 

If  a  body  be  urged  by  equal  and  con- 
trary actions  or  pressures,  if  will  remain 
at  rest.  But  if  one  of  these  pressures  be 
greater  than  its  opposite,  motion  will  en- 
sue toward  the  parts  least  pressed. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  actions  of 
bodies  on  each  other,  in  a  space  that  is 
carried  uniformly  forward,  are  the  same 
as  if  the  space  were  at  rest;  and  any 
powers  or  motions  that  act  upon  all  bodies, 
so  as  to  produce  equal  velocities  in  them 
in  the  same,  or  in  parallel  right  lines,  have 
no  effect  on  their  mutual  actions,  or  rela- 
tive motions.  Thus,  the  motion  of  bodies 
aboard  a  ship,  that  is  carried  steadily  and 
uniformly  forward,  are  performed  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  the  ship  was  at  rest. 
The  motion  of  the  earth  round  its  axis 
has  no  effect  on  the  actions  of  bodies  and 
agents  at  its  surface,  but  so  far  as  it  is  not 
uniform  and  rectilineal.  In  general,  the 
actions  of  bodies  upon  each  other  depend 
not  on  their  absolute,  but  relative  motion. 

ACTION,  in  law,  denotes  either  the  right 
of  demanding,  in  a  legal  manner,  what  is 
any  man's  due,  or  the  process  brought  for 
the  recovering  the  same. 

Actions  are  either  criminal  or  civil. 

Criminal  actions  are  to  have  judgment 
of  death,  as  appeals  of  death,  robbery,  &c. 
or  only  judgment  for  damage  to  the  in- 
jured party,  fine  to  the  king,  and  impri- 
sonment. 

Under  the  head  of  criminal  actions  may 
likewise  be  ranked  penal  actions,  which 
lie  for  some  penalty  or  punishment  on  the 
party  sued,  whether  it  be  corporal  or  pe- 
cuniary. 

Also  actions  upon  the  statute,  brought 
on  breach  of  any  statute,  or  act  of  parlia- 


ACT 


ADA 


went,  by  which  an  action  is  given  tnat  did 
not  lie  before  ;  as  where  a  person  com- 
mits perjury  to  the  prejudice  of  another, 
the  injured  party  shall  have  an  action  up- 
on the  statute.  And  Ksily,  popular  ac- 
tions, so  called,  because  any  person  may 
bring  them  on  behalf  of  himself  and  the 
crown,  by  information,  &c.  for  the  breach 
of  some  penal  statute. 

Civil  actions  are  divided  into  real,  per- 
sonal, and  mixed. 

Real  action,  is  that  whereby  a  man 
claims  a  title,  lands,  tenements,  &.C.  in  fee, 
or  for  life,  and  this  action  is  either  posses- 
sory, or  ancestral ;  possessory,  where  the 
lands  are  a  person's  own  possession  or 
seisin  ;  ancestral,  when  they  were  of  the 
possession  or  seisin  of  his  ancestors. 

Personal  action,  is  one  brought  by  one 
man  against  another,  upon  any  contract 
for  money  or  goods,  or  on  account  of  tres- 
pass, or  other  offence  committed ;  and 
thereby  the  debt,  goods,  chattels,  &c. 
claimed. 

Mixt  action,  one  lying  as  well  for  the 
thing  demanded  as  against  the  person  who 
has  it;  and  on  which  the  thing  is  recover- 
ed, with  damages  for  the  wrong  sustained; 
such  is  an  action  of  waste,  sued  against  a 
tenant  for  life,  the  place  wasted  being  re- 
coverable, with  treble  damages  for  the 
wrong  done. 

ACTS  of  parliament,  statutes,  acts, 
edicts,  made  by  the  king,  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral, and  commons,  in  parliament  assem- 
bled. An  act  of  parliament  is  the  highest 
possible  authority,  and  hath  power  to  bind 
not  only  every  subject,  but  the  king  him- 
self, if  particularly  named  therein,  and 
cannot  be  altered  or  repealed  but  by  the 
same  authority  Where  the  common  law 
and  the  statute  law  differ,  the  common 
law  gives  place  to  the  statute,  and  an  old 
statute  gives  place  to  a  new  one.  Penal 
statutes  must  be  construed  strictly;  thus 
a  statute  of  Edw.  I  having  enacted,  that 
those  convicted  of  stealing  horses  should 
not  have  the  benefit  of  clergy,  the  judges 
conceived  that  this  did  not  extend  to  him 
that  should  steal  but  one  horse,  and  a  new 
act  for  that  purpose  was  passed  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Statutes  against  frauds  are 
to  be  liberally  and  beneficially  expounded. 
One  part  of  a  statute  must  be  construed 
by  another,  that  the  whole  may,  if  possi- 
ble, stand; — a  saving  clause  totally  repug- 
nant to  the  body  of  the  act.  If  a  statute 
that  repeals  another  is  itself  repealed  af- 
terwards, the  first  statute  is  hereby  re- 
vived. Acts  of  parliament  derogatory 
from  the  power  of  subsequent  parliaments 


bind  not.  Acts  of  parliament,  that  are 
impossible  to  be  performed,  are  of  no  va- 
lidity. 

ACULEATE,  or  ACULEATED,  an  ap- 
pellation given  to  any  thing  that  has  acu- 
lei,  or  prickles :  thus  fishes  are  divided 
into  those  with  aculeated  and  not  aculeat- 
edh'ns. 

The  same  term  is  applied,  in  botany,  to 
the  stems  and  branches  of  those  plants 
that  are  furnished  with  prickles,  as  the 
rose,  the  raspberry,  and  barberry  trees. 
The  prickle  differs  from  the  thorn,  which 
is  another  species  of  armature,  or  defence, 
against  animals,  in  being  only  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  cortex  or  outer  bark  of  the 
plant,  and  not  connected  with  nor  protrud- 
ed from  the  wood.  This  is  apparent, 
from  the  ease  with  which  such  prickles 
are  detached  from  the  stem  with  the  bark, 
while  the  other  and  more  rigid  species  of 
weapon,  being  an  expansion  of  the  ligne- 
ous body,  cannot  be  detached, without  ren- 
dering and  tearing  the  substance  of  the 
wood.  Prickles  are  either  straight,  as  in 
the  solanum  indicum ;  or  bent  inwards,  as 
in  the  mimosa  cineraria;  or  bent  outwards; 
or  downy,  that  is,  covered  with  a  sort  of 
wool.  See  TOMKNTUM. 

ACUMINATE,  in  natural  history,  a 
term  applied  to  fishes  whose  tails  end  in  a 
sharp  point. 

AD,  a  Latin  preposition,  expressing  the 
relation  of  one  thing  to  another. 

It  is  frequently  prefixed  to  other  words: 
thus, 

AD  hominem,  among  logicians,  an  argu- 
ment drawn  from  the  professed  belief  or 
principles  of  those  with  whom  we  argue. 

AD  valorem,  among  the  officers  of  the 
king's  revenue,  a  term  used  for  such  du- 
ties, or  customs,  as  are  paid  according  to 
the  value  of  the  goods  sworn  to  by  the 
owner. 

ADAGIO,  in  music,  signifies  the  second 
degree  of  music  from  slow  to  quick.  It 
is  applied  to  music  not  only  meant  to  be 
performed  in  slow  time,but  also  with  grace 
and  embellishment. 

ADAMANTINE  spar,  in  mineralogy, 
one  of  the  species  of  the  ruby  family, 
found  only  in  China.  Colour  dark,  hair 
brown.  Massive,  crystallized  in  six-sided 
prisms,  and  six-sided  pyramids,  having 
their  apex  truncated.  Specific  gravity 
3.98.  See  RUBY. 

ADAMBEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Polyandria  Monogynia  class  and  order, 
of  which  there  is  but  a  single  species, 
which  grows  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  in 
sandy  and  stony  places ;  rises  to  about 
seven  feet,and  sends  forth  branches, which 


ADD 


ADH 


are  terminated  by  panicles  of  fine  purple 
flowers,  large,  and  resembling  roses. 

ADAXSONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monadelphia  order,  and  Polyandria  class, 
named  after  Michael  Adanson,  an  inde- 
fatigable French  naturalist.  The  A.  digi- 
tata,  Ethiopian  sour-gourd,  or  monkies' 
bread,  called  also  abavo,  is  the  only  spe- 
cies known  of  this  genus. 

ADDER.     See  COLUBER. 

ADDITION,  in  arithmetic,  the  first  of 
the  four  fundamental  rules  of  that  art, 
whereby  we  find  a  sum  equal  to  several 
smaller  ones.  See  ALGEBRA  and  ARITH- 
METIC. 

ADDITIONS,  in  law,  denote  all  manner 
of  designations  given  to  a  man,  over  and 
above  his  proper  name  and  surname,  to 
shew  of  what  estate,  degree,  mystery, 
place  of  abode,  &c.  he  is. 

Additions  of  degree  are  the  same  with 
titles  of  honour  or  dignity,  as  knight,  lord, 
earl,  duke,  &c. 

Additions  of  estate  are  yeoman,  gentle- 
man, esquire,  and  the  like. 

Additions  of  mystery,  or  trade,  are,  car- 
penter, mason,  painter,  engraver,  and  the 
like. 

Additions  of  place,  or  residence,  are, 
London,  Edinburgh,  Bristol,  York,  Glas- 
gow, Aberdeen,  &c. 

These  additions  were  ordained,  to  pre- 
vent one  man's  being  grieved,  or  molest- 
ed, for  another;  and  that  every  person 
might  be  certainly  known,  so  as  to  bear 
his  own  burthen. 

If  a  man  is  of  different  degrees,  as  duke, 
earl,  &c.  he  shall  have  the  most  worthy  ; 
and  the  title  of  knight,  or  baronet,  is  part 
of  the  party's  name,  and  therefore  ought 
to  be  rightly  used  :  whereas  that  of  es- 
quire,  or  gentleman,  being  as  people 
please  to  call  them,  may  be  used,  or  not, 
or  varied  at  pleasure. 

A  Peer  of  Ireland  is  no  addition  of  ho- 
nour here  ;  nay,  the  law-addition  to  the 
children  of  British  noblemen  is  only  that 
of  esquire,  commonly  called  lord. 

Writs  without  the  proper  additions,  if 
excepted  to,  shall  abate  ;  only,  where  the 
process  of  outlawry  doth  not  lie,  additions 
are  not  necessary.  The  addition  of  a  pa- 
rish, not  in  any  city,  must  mention  the 
county,  otherwise  it  is  not  good. 

ADDITION,  in  heraldry,  something 
added  to  a  coat  of  arms,  as  a  mark  of  ho- 
nour ;  and  therefore  directly  opposite  to 
abatement. 

ADDUCTOR,  in  anatomy,  a  general 
name  for  all  such  muscles  as  serve  to  draw 
one  part  of  the  body  towards  another.  See 
ANATOMY. 


ADELIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Dioecia  Gynandria  class  and  order.  Male : 
caiyx  three-parted ;  no  corolla;  stamina 
numerous ;  united  at  the  base.  Female  : 
calyx  five-parted  ;  no  corolla ;  styles  three, 
lacerated.  Capsule  three-grained 

ADENANTHERA,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Decandria  Monogynia  class  of 
plants,  the  calyx  of  which  is  a  single-leaved 
perianthium,  very  small,  and  cut  into  five 
segments  :  the  corolla  consists  of  five  lan- 
ceolated  bell-shaped  petals ;  the  fruit  is  a 
long  membranaceous  compressed  pod, 
containing  several  round  seeds.  There 
are  three  species  :  A.  paronina,  which  is 
one  of  the  largest  trees  in  the  East  Indies. 
Its  duration  is  200  years,  and  its  timber  is 
much  used  on  account  of  its  solidity  :  the 
powder  of  the  leaves  is  used  in  their  reli- 
gious ceremonies ;  the  seeds  are  eaten, 
and  also  valued  as  weights,  being  each  of 
them  four  grains  This  species  must  be 
raised  on  a  hot-bed  from  seeds.  It  has 
never  flowered  in  England:  it  is  of  very 
slow  growih.  The  other  species,  viz.  the 
A.  falcata,  and  A.  scandens,  have  not  been 
cultivated  in  this  country. 

ADENIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  order, 
that  grows  in  Arabia.  There  is  but  one 
species,  which  is  mentioned  by  Fo-skal, 
in  his  Flor.  JEgypt.  He  says,  that  the  pow- 
der of  the  young  branches  mixed  in  any 
kind  of  liquor  is  a  strong  poison,  and 
that  the  capparis  spinosa  is  an  antidote 
to  it. 

ADFECTEDegwafr'o«s,in  algebra,  those 
wherein  the  unknown  quantity  is  found 
in  two  or  more  different  powers :  such  is 
xi — a^+bx^za*  b. 

ADHESION,  in  philosophy  and  chemis- 
try, is  a  term  generally  made  use  of  to  ex- 
press the  property  which  certain  bodies 
have,  of  attracting  to  themselves  other 
bodies,  or  the  force  by  which  they  adhere 
together :  thus,  water  adheres  to  the  fin- 
ger, mercury  to  gold,  &c.  Hence  arises 
an  important  distinction  between  two 
words,  that  in  a  loose  and  popular  sense 
are  often  confounded.  Adhesion,  denotes 
an  union  to  a  certain  point  between  two 
dissimilar  substances ;  and  cohesion,  that 
which  retains  together  the  component 
particles  of  the  same  mass.  See  COHE- 
SION. 

Adhesion  may  take  place  either  be- 
tween two  solids,  as  two  hemispheres  of 
glass,  which,  according  to  an  experiment 
of  Desaguliers,  adhere  to  each  other  with 
a  force  equal  to  19  ounces  on  a  surface  of 
contact  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  ; 
or  between  solids  and  fluids,  as  the  sus* 


ADH 


ADI 


,  pension  of  water  in  capillary  tubes ;  or, 
lastly,  between  two  fluids,  as  oil  and  wa- 
ter. About  the  same  time  Mr.  Hauksbee 
proved  experimentally  the  error  which 
Bernoulli  had  fallen  into,  in  attributing 
the  adhesion  of  surfaces  and  capillary  at- 
traction to  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. Nevertheless,  in  1772,  M.  M. 
La  Grange  and  Cigna,  taking  for  granted  a 
natural  repulsion  between  water  and  oily 
substances,  imagined,  if  there  was  an  ad- 
hesion between  water  and  oil,  or  tallow, 
that  it  must  be  occasioned  by  a  cause  dif- 
ferent from  attraction :  and  having  ascer- 
tained the  reality  of  the  adhesion,  they 
concluded  that  it  was  occasioned  by  the 
pressure  of  the  air,  and  that  Dr.  Taylor's 
method  was  not  well  founded. 

Such  was  the  state  of  opinions  on  the 
subject,  when,  in  1773,  Guyton  Morveau 
made  his  celebrated  experiments  on  ad- 
hesion, in  presence  of  the  Dijon  Academy, 
demonstrating,  as  indeed  Hauksbee  had 
done  before  him,  not  only  that  water  as- 
cends between  two  parallel  plates  of  tal- 
low, separated  from  each  other  1,8  of  a 
line,  but  also  that  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  not  in  the  least  degree  the  cause  of 
the  phenomenon,  which  is  solely  attribut- 
able to  attraction;  in  proof  of  this,  a  po- 
lished disk  of  glass,  30  lines  in  diameter, 
was  suspended  to  the  arm  of  a  balance, 
and  brought  into  contact  with  the  surface 
ef  mercury :  the  counterpoise  required 
to  separate  it  was  equivalent  to  9  gros 
and  a  few  grains ;  and  upon  moving  the 
apparatus  into  the  receiver  of  an  air- 
pump,  and  forming  as  perfect  a  vacuum 
as  possible,  precisely  the  same  counter- 
poise was  required  as  before. 

In  the  prosecution  of  his  inquiries  on 
this  subject,  he  observed,  that  the  same 
disk  of  glass,  which,  when  in  contact  with 
pure  water,  adhered  to  it  with  a  force 
equal  to  258  grains,  required  a  counter- 
poise of  only  210,  in  order  to  separate  it 
from  a  solution  of  potash,  notwithstanding 
the  superior  density  of  this  last.  This 
inequality  of  effects  on  equal  diameters, 
and  in  an  inverse  order  to  that  of  the 
respective  specific  gravities  of  the  two 
fluids,  appeared  not  only  to  be  decisive  in 
favour  of  Dr.  Taylor's  method,  but  to  en- 
courage the  hope  of  applying  it  to  the 
calculation  of  chemical  affinities. 

In  order  to  verify  this  proposition, 
plates  of  the  different  metals  in  their 
highest  state  of  purity  were  procured, 
perfectly  round,  an  inch  in  diameter,  of 
the  same  thickness,  well  polished,  and 
furnished  with  a  small  ring  in  the  centre 
of  each,  so  as  to  keep  them  suspended 


precisely  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  hori- 
zon. Each  of  these  plates  was  in  turn 
suspended  to  the  arm  of  an  assay  balance, 
and  exactly  counterpoised  by  weights 
placed  in  the  scale  attached  to  the  oppo- 
site arm;  the  plate,  thus  balanced,  was 
applied  to  the  surface  of  some  mercury 
in  a  cup,  about  two  lines  beneath  it,  by 
sliding  the  plate  over  the  mercury,  as  in 
the  silvering  of  mirrors,  so  as  to  exclude 
every  bubble  of  air ;  weights  were  then 
successively  added,  till  the  adhesion  be- 
tween the  plate  and  the  mercury  was 
broken.  Fresh  mercury  was  used  for 
each  experiment.  The  following  is  the 
table  ot  results : 
Gold  adheres  to  mercury  with 

a  force  equal  to   ....     446  grains, 

Silver 429 

Tin 418 

Lead 397 

Bismuth 372 

/inc 204 

Copper 142 

Antimony  (regulus)      .     .     .     126 

Iron 115 

Cobalt 8 

The  striking  differences  in  the  above 
table  shew  that  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere has  no  share  in  them,  since  in 
this  respect  the  circumstances  of  each 
were  precisely  similar ;  nor  do  they  de- 
pend on  the  respective  specific  gravities; 
for  if  so,  silver  should  rank  after  lead, 
cobalt  before  zinc,  and  iron  before  tin. — 
The  only  order  which  agrees  with  the 
above  is  that  of  the  chemical  affinity  of 
these  metals,  or  the  respective  degrees  of 
their  solubility  in  mercury.  It  is  highly 
probable,  therefore,  that  at  least  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  adhesive  force  thus  found 
by  experiment  is  owing  to  chemical  affi- 
nity ;  and  that  the  above  numerical  series, 
446,  429,  418,  397,  &c.  is  an  approxima- 
tion towards  the  ratio  of  the  relative  af- 
finities of  gold,  silver,  tin,  lead,  &c.  for 
mercury. 

ADIANTHUM,  Maiden-hair,  in  botany, 
the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
Cryptogamia  Filices  class  and  order,  the 
characters  of  which  are,  that  the  fructifi- 
cations are  collected  in  oval  spots  at  the 
ends  of  the  leaves,  which  are  folded  back. 
There  are  forty -four  species,  of  which  one 
only  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  viz.  the  A. 
capillus  veneris,  vrhich  is  found  rarely  in 
Scotland  and  Wales,  on  rocks  and  moist 
walls,  and  which  is  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe  and  the  Levant.  From  this 
the  syrup  of  capillaire  is  made.  Another 
species,  the  Adianthum  pedatum,  was 
formerly  esteemed  as  a  valuable  article 


ADIPOCIRE. 


of  the  Materia  Meclica.  It  lias,  however, 
fallen  into  disrepute. 

ADIPOCIRE,  is  a  term  formed  of  udeps, 
fat,  and  cera,  wax,  and  denotes  a  sub- 
stance, the  nature  and  origin  of  which  are 
thus  explained.  The  changes  which  ani- 
mal matter  undergoes  in  its  progress  to- 
wards total  decomposition  have  been^  for 
many  obvious  reasons,  but  little  attended 
to.  But  an  opportunity  of  this  kind  was 
offered  at  Paris  in  1786  and  1787,  when 
the  old  burial  ground  of  the  Innocens 
was  laid  out  for  building  upon,  in  conse- 
quence of  which,  the  surface  soil,  and  the 
animal  remains  contained  therein,  were 
removed.  The  cemetry,  having  been 
for  ages  appropriated  to  the  reception  of 
the  dead,  in  one  of  the  most  populous 
districts  of  Paris,  was  eminently  well 
calculated  to  exhibit  the  various  process- 
es of  animal  decomposition  ;  another  fa- 
vourable circumstance  was,  that  it  con- 
tained several  of  those  large  pits  (fosses 
communes)  in  which  the  bodies  of  the 
poor  are  deposited  by  hundreds.  These 
pits  are  cavities  30  feet  deep,  with  an  area 
of  20  feet  square,  in  which  the  shells  con- 
taining the  bodies  are  closely  packed  in 
rows  over  each  other,  without  any  inter- 
mediate earth,  and  with  only  a  slight  su- 
perficial covering  of  soil,  not  more  than  a 
foot  thick  :  each  pit  contained  from  1200 
to  1500  bodies,  and  may  be  considered  as 
amass  of  animal  matter  of  the  dimensions 
above  mentioned.  M.  M.  Foucroy  and 
Thouret  were  present  at  the  opening  of 
several  of  these  receptacles  •,  and  it  is 
from  a  memoir  by  the  former  of  these, 
that  the  principal  part  of  this  article  is 
composed.  The  first  pit  that  was  exam- 
ined had  been  filled  and  closed  up  fifteen 
years  before  ;  on  opening  some  of  the 
coffins  (for  the  wood  was  still  quite  sound, 
only  tinged  of  a  yellow  colour)  the  bodies 
were  found  within  shrunk,  so  as  to  leave 
a  considerable  vacant  space  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  coffin,  and  flattened,  as  if  they 
had  been  subject  to  a  strong  compression; 
the  linen  which  covered  them  adhered 
firmly;  and  upon  being  removed,  present- 
ed to  view  only  irregular  masses  of  a 
soft,  ductile,  greyish-white  matter,  appa- 
rently intermediate  between  fat  and  wax; 
the  bones  were  enveloped  in  this,  and 
were  found  to  be  very  brittle.  The  bo- 
dies, thus  changed,  being  but  little  offen- 
sive to  the  smell,  a  great  number  were 
dug  up  and  minutely  examined :  in  some 
this  alteration  had,  as  yet,  only  partially 
taken  place,  the  remains  of  muscular  fi- 
bres being  still  visible;  but  where  the 

VOL.  I. 


conversion  had  been  complete,  the  bones 
throughout  the  whole  body  were  found  co- 
vered with  this  grey  substance,  generally 
soft  and  ductile,  sometimes  dry,  but  always 
readily  separating  into  porous  cavernous 
fragments,  without  the  slightest  trace  of 
muscles,  membranes,  vessels,  tendons,  or 
nerves:  the  ligaments  of  the  articulations 
had  been  in  like  manner  changed :  the 
connexion  between  the  bones  was  destroy- 
ed, and  these  last  had  become  so  yielding, 
that  the  grave-diggers,  in  order  to  remove 
the  bodies  more  conveniently,  rolled  each 
upon  itself  from  head  to  heels,  without 
any  difficulty.  According  to  the  testi- 
mony of  these  men,  to  whom  the  facts 
just  mentioned  had  been  long  familiar, 
this  conversion  of  animal  matter  is  never 
observed  in  those  bodies  that  are  interred 
singly,  but  always  takes  place  in  the  fos- 
ses communes:  to  effect  this  change, 
nearly  three  years  are  required.  The 
soapy  matter  of  latest  formation  is  soft, 
very  ductile,  light,  and  spongy,  and  con- 
tains water;  in  30  or  40  years  it  becomes 
much  drier,  more  brittle,  and  assumes 
the  appearance  of  dense  laminae;  and 
where  the  surrounding  earth  has  been 
drier  than  usual,  it  is  sometimes  semi- 
transparent,  of  a  granulated  texture, 
brittle,  and  bears  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  wax.  Animal  matter,  having- 
once  passed  into  this  stage  of  decomposi- 
tion, appears  to  resist  for  a  long  time  any 
further  alteration:  some  of  these  pits 
that  had  been  closed  above  40  years  were, 
upon  examination,  found  to  be  little  else 
than  a  solid  mass  of  soapy  matter ;  nor 
is  it  yet  ascertained,  how  long  in  common 
circumstances  it  would  continue  unchang- 
ed, the  burial  ground  of  the  Inndcens  be. 
ing  so  small  in  comparison  to  the  popula- 
tion of  the  district,  as  to  require  each  pit 
in  30  or  40  years  to  be  emptied  of  its 
contents,  in  order  to  receive  a  new  suc- 
cession of  bodies  :  it  appears,  however, 
that  the  ulterior  changes  depend  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  quantity  of  moisture 
draining  through  the  mass.  From  the 
history  of  this  singular  substance,  we 
proceed  to  an  examination  of  its  chemical 
properties.  It  was  first,  however,  puri- 
fied by  gently  heating  in  an  earthen  ves- 
sel, till  it  became  of  a  pasty  consistence, 
and  then  rubbed  through  a  fine  hair 
sieve,  by  which  means  the  hair,  small 
bones,  and  remains  of  the  muscular  fibre, 
were  separated  with  tolerable  exactness. 
It  this  state,  being  exposed  in  an  earthen 
vessel  to  the  naked  fire,  it  readily  became 
soft,  but  did  not  liquify  without  consider.- 
D 


ADI 


ADJ 


able  difficulty,  rather  frying  as  a  piece  of 
soap  would  do,  and  disengaging  at  the 
same  time  ammoniacal  vapours.  Four 
pounds  being  put  into  a  glass  retort,  and 
submitted  to  slow  distillation  in  a  water 
bath,  afforded  in  the  space  of  three  weeks 
eight  ounces  of  a  clear  watery  fluid,  with 
a  foetid  odour,  turning  syrup  of  violets 
green,  and  manifestly  containing  ammonia 
in  solution  ;  the  soapy  matter  remaining 
in  the  retort  had  acquired  a  greater  con- 
sistence, was  become  less  fusible,  of  a 
deeper  brown  colour,  and  upon  cooling, 
was  evidently  drier  than  before,  though 
not  admitting  of  being1  broken.  Eight 
ounces  of  soapy  matter,  white  and  puri- 
fied, were  mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of 
powdered  quick  lime ;  on  the  addition  of 
a  little  water,  the  mass  heated,  swelled, 
and  disengaged  a  very  strongly  ammoni- 
acal vapour,  accompanied  by  a  peculiar 
putrescent  smell ;  a  sufficiency  of  water 
being  then  added  to  bring  the  whole  to 
the  state  of  an  emulsion,  it  was  heated  to 
ebullition,  much  ammoniacal  vapour  es- 
caping at  the  same  time  ;  the  liquor  being 
thrown  on  a  filter,  passed  perfectly  clear 
and  colourless,  and  appeared  to  be  only 
lime-water,  with  a  very  small  quantity  of 
soap  in  solution  :  the  matter  remaining 
on  the  filter,  being  well  washed,  was  beat- 
en up  with  water,  but  shewed  no  tenden- 
cy to  unite  with  it,  subsiding  after  a  time 
in  the  form  of  a  white  mass ;  this,  by  dry- 
ing for  a  few  days  in  the  open  air,  became 
grey,  and  much  reduced  in  volume  : '  it 
was  then  mixed  with  diluted  muriatic 
acid,  which  immediately  decomposed  it, 
and  a  number  of  white  clots  rose  to  the 
surface  of  the  liquor.  This  last  being 
obtained  clear  by  filtration,  yielded  crystals 
of  muriat  of  lime,  and  a  slight  trace  of 
phosphoric  salt;  the  white  clots  being 
washed  and  dried,  and  afterwards  melted 
in  a  water  bath,  cooled  into  a  dry,  com- 
bustible, oily  matter,  brittle,  waxy,  crys- 
tallizable,  and  perfectly  insoluble  in  wa- 
ter, to  which  the  name  of  adipocire  has 
been  appropriated.  From  this  series  of 
experiments  with  lime,  it  appears  that 
the  soapy  matter  is  a  true  ammoniacal 
soup,  with  a  base  of  adipocire,  to  which 
lime  has  a  stronger  affinity  than  ammo- 
nia ;  but  which  last  composition  is  again 
in  its  turn  decomposed  by  all  the  acids, 
leav:ng  the  adipocire  in  a  state  of  purity. 
Potash  and  soda  produce  effects  perfectly 
analogous  to  these  of  lime.  To  the  fore- 
going experiments  of  Fourcroy,  a  few 
facts  have  snice  been  added  by  Dr.  Gib- 
fces.  The  receptacle  at  Oxford  for  those 


bodies  which  have  been  used  by  the  ana- 
tomical professor  there  for  his  demonstra- 
tions, is  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground  to  the 
depth  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  feet,  and  a 
little  stream  is  turned  through  it,  in  or- 
der to  remove  all  offensive  smell :  the 
flesh  contained  in  this  was  found,  on  ex- 
amination, to  be  quite  white,  and  for  the 
most  part  changed  into  the  soapy  matter 
above  mentioned.  From  this  hint,  pieces 
of  lean  beef  were  inclosed  in  a  perforated 
box,  and  placed  in  running  water,  and  at 
the  end  of  a  month  were  found  converted 
into  a  mass  of  fatty  matter ;  this  change 
was  observed  to  take  place  much  sooner, 
and  more  completely,  in  running  than  in 
stagnant  water:  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the 
foetid  smell,  nitrous  acid  was  had  recourse 
to,  which  immediately  had  the  desired 
effect ;  a  waxy  smell  was  perceived,  and 
by  melting  the  matter  it  was  obtained 
nearly  pure ;  the  yellow  colour,  which 
had  been  given  to  it  by  the  nitrous  acid, 
was  wholly  discharged  by  the  oxymuriatic 
acid.  A  similar  conversion  of  muscular 
fibre  takes  place  by  maceration  in  very 
diluted  nitrous  acid.  Dr.  Gibbes  has  not 
mentioned  whether  the  fatty  matter  pro- 
duced by  running  water  is  pure  adipocire, 
or  ammoniacal  soap ;  it  appears  proba- 
ble, however,  that  it  is  in  the  former 
state;  where  nitrous  acid  is  the  men- 
struum employed,  it  is  obviously  impossi- 
ble that  the  ad'ipocire  should  be  combined 
with  an  alkali. 

ADIT  of  a  Jlfine,  the  hole  or  aperture 
whereby  it  is  entered  and  dug,  and  by 
which  the  water  and  ores  are  carried 
away;  it  is  distinguished  from  the  air- 
shaft.  The  adit  is  usually  made  on  the 
side  of  a  hill,  towards  the  bottom,  about 
four  or  six  feet  high,  and  eight  wide,  in 
form  of  an  arch  ;  sometimes  cut  into  the 
rock,  and  sometimes  supported  with  tim- 
ber, so  conducted,  as  that  the  sole  oi» 
bottom  of  the  adit  may  answer  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shaft,  only  somewhat  lower, 
that  the  water  may  have  a  sufficient  cur- 
rent to  pass  away  without  the  use  of  the 
pump. 

ADJUTAGE,  or  AJUTAGE,  in  hydrau- 
lics, the  tube  fitted  to  the  mouth  of  a  pipe 
through  which  a  fountain  plays.  See 
HYDRAULICS. 

ADJUTANT,  in  the  military  art,  an 
officer  whose  business  is  to  assist  the 
major,  and  therefore  sometimes  called  the 
aid- major. 

ADJUTANT -general,  an  officer  of  dis- 
tinction, who  assists  the  general  in  his  la- 
borious duty:  he  forms  the  several  4e- 


ADM 


ADO 


fails  of  the  duty  of  the  army  with  the  bri- 
gade majors,  and  keeps  an  account  of  the 
state  of  each  brigade  and  regiment.  In 
the  day  of  battle  he  sees  the  infantry 
drawn  up,  after  which  he  places  himself 
by  the  side  of  the  general,  to  receive  or- 
ders. In  a  siege  he  visits  the  several 
posts,  gives  and  signs  all  orders,  and  has 
a  serjeant  from  each  brigade  to  carry  any 
orders  which  he  may  have  to  send. 

ADMEASUREMENT,  in  law,  a  writ  for 
adjusting  the  shares  of  something  to  be 
divided.  Thus,  admeasurement  of  dower 
takes  place,  when  the  widow  of  the  de- 
ceased claims  more  as  her  dower  than 
what  of  right  belongs  to  her.  And  ad- 
measurement of  pasture  maybe  obtained, 
when  any  of  the  persons  who  have  right 
in  a  common  pasture  puts  more  cattle  to 
feed  on  it  than  he  ought. 

ADMINISTRATOR,  in  law,  the  per- 
son to  whom  the  goods,  effects,  or  estate 
of  one  who  died  intestate,  are  entrusted  ; 
for  which  he  is  to  be  accountable  when 
required. 

The  bishop  of  the  diocese,  where  the 
party  dies,  is  regularly  to  grant  adminis- 
tration ;  but  if  the  intestate  has  goods  in 
several  dioceses,  administration  must  be 
granted  by  the  archbishop  in  the  preroga- 
tive court.  The  persons  to  whom  admin- 
istration is  granted  are,  a  husband,  wife, 
children,  whether  sons  or  daughters,  the 
father  or  mother,  brother  or  sister,  and, 
in  general,  to  the  next  of  kin,  as  uncle, 
aunt,  cousin;  then  to  a  creditor. 

An  action  lies  for  and  against  an  admi- 
nistrator, as  for  and  against  an  executor ; 
only  that  he  is  accountable  no  farther 
than  to  the  value  of  the  goods. 

ADMIRAL,  in  maritime  affairs,  a  great 
«fficer,  who  commands  the  naval  forces  of 
a  kingdom  or  state,  and  decides  all  mari- 
time causes.  For  the  latter  purposes  a 
commission  has  been  instituted  in  Eng- 
land, who,  by  a  statute  of  W.  and  M.  have 
the  same  authority  as  the  Lord  High  Ad- 
miral. The  admirals  of  England  are 
merely  naval  commanders.  Every  other 
business  relative  to  the  navy  at  large  is 
directed  by  the  Lords  Commissioners  of 
the  Admiralty.  See  PRECEDENCE,  ADMI- 
RALTY COURT,  &c. 

ADMIRALTY,  properly  signifies  the 
office  of  Lord  High  Admiral,  whether  dis- 
charged by  one  or  several  joint  commis- 
sioners, called  Lords  of  the  Admiralty. 

ADMIRALTY-CO?/?-*,  or  Court  of  Admiral- 
ty, in  the  British  polity,  a.  sovereign  court 
held  by  the  Lord  High  Admiral,  or  the 
i'ommissi oners  of  the  Adtniraltv, 


This  court  has  cognizance  in  all  mari- 
time affairs,  civil  as  well  as  criminal.  All- 
crimes  committed  on  the  high-seas,  or  in 
great  rivers,  beneath  the  bridge  next  the 
sea,  are  cognizable  only  in  this  court; 
which,  by  statute,  is  obliged  to  try  the 
same  by  judge  and  jury.  But  in  civil 
causes  it  is  otherwise,  these  being  all  de- 
termined according  to  the  civil  law  ;  the 
reason  whereof  is,  because  the  sea  is 
without  the  jurisdiction  of  the  common 
law. 

In  case  any  person  be  sued  in  the  ad- 
miralty-court, contrary  to  the  statutes,  he 
may  have  the  writ  of  supersedeas,  to  stop 
farther  proceedings,  and  also  an  action, 
for  double  damages  against  the  person 
suing. 

Subordinate  to  this  court,  there  is  ano.- 
ther  of  equity,  called  Court-merchant; 
wherein  all  causes  between  merchants  are 
decided,  agreeable  to  the  rules  of  the 
civil  law. 

ADOLIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants 
found  among  the  trees  at  Malabar,  which 
bear  a  near  relation  to  the  rahmnus. — 
There  are  two  species,  viz.  A.  alba,  with 
white  flowers,  which  grows  to  the  height 
of  seven  or  eight  feet,  and  bears  fruit 
twice  a  year  :  the  berries,  when  ripe,  are 
of  a  purplish  black  colour  :  and  A.  rubra, 
with  red  flowers :  but  the  berries,  when 
ripe,  are  of  an  orange  colour,  and  of  an 
acid  taste. 

ADONIS,  Pheasant's  Eye,  or  Red 
JMaiihs,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Polyan- 
dria  Polygynia  class  of  plants,  the  calyx  of 
which  is  a  perianthium,  composed  of  five 
obtuse,  hollow,  somewhat  coloured  and 
deciduous  leaved;  the  corolla  consists  of 
five  oblong  obtuse  beautiful  petals,  and 
sometimes  there  are  more  than  five  j 
there  is  no  pericarpium ;  the  receptacle 
is  oblong,  spicated,  and  holds  five  series 
of  seeds  ;  the  seeds  are  numerous,  irre- 
gular, and  angular,  gibbous  at  the  base, 
and  their  apex  reflex  and  prominent. — - 
There  are  six  species,  viz.  the  A.  aestivalis, 
or  tall,  which  is  a  native  of  the  southern 
countries  of  Europe,  where  it  grows 
among  corn  :  the  A.  autumnalis,  or  com- 
mon, which  are  found  in  Kent,  near  the 
Medway,  in  fields  sown  with  wheat :  the 
flowers  are  brought  in  great  quantities 
to  London,  where  they  are  sold  under 
the  name  of  Red  Morocco  :  this  is  an- 
nual, and  flowers  from  May  to  October; 
A.  vernuiis,  or  spring  adonis,  is  found  in 
Switzerland,  Prussia,  and  some  parts  of 
Germany  :  A.  apennina  is  found  wild  in 
Siberia.-  A.  veseatfria.  ®r  blister  adonis. 


ADV 


and  the  A.  capensis,  are  used  by  the  Af- 
ricans for  raising-  blisters.  To  these  have 
been  added  two  other  species,  viz.  the 
miniata  and  the  flammea. 

ADOXA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Oc- 
tandria  Tetragynia  class  of  plants,  the 
corolla  of  which  is  plain,  and  consists  of 
a  single  petal,  divided  into  four  oval  acute 
.segments,  longer  than  the  cup  ;  the  fruit 
is  a  globose  berry,  situated  between  the 
calyx  and  corolla  ;  the  calyx  adheres  to 
its  under  part ;  the  berry  is  umbilicated, 
and  contains  four  cells;  the  seeds  are 
single  and  compressed.  There  is  but  a 
single  species,  viz  the  A.  moschatellina, 
bulbous  fumitory,  which  grows  naturally 
in  shady  places  and  woods,  as  in  Hamp- 
stead  and  Charlton  woods;  it  is  peren- 
nial ;  flowers  in  April  and  May.  The 
leaves  soon  after  decay,  and  the  flowers 
smell  like  musk,  on  which  account  it  has 
sometimes  been  called  musk-crowfoot. 

AD  QUOD  DAMNUM,  in  law,  a  writ 
which  ought  t<-  be  issued  before  the  king- 
grants  certain  liberties,  as  a  fair,  market, 
or  the  like  ;  ordering  the  sheriff  to  in- 
quire by  the  country  what  damage  such 
a  grant  is  like  to  be  attended  with. 

ADRIFT,  in  naval  affairs,  the  state  of 
a  vessel  broken  loose  from  her  moorings, 
and  driven  to  and  fro  by  the  winds  or 
waves. 

ADVERB,  adverbhnp,  in  grammar,  a 
word  joined  to  verbs,  expressing  the  man- 
ner, time,  &c.  of  an  action  ;  thus,  in  the 
phrase,  it  is  conducive  to  health  to  rise 
early;  the  word  early  is  an  adverb;  and 
so  of  others. 

ADVERSARIA,  among  the  ancients, 
was  a  book  of  accounts,  not  unlike  our 
journals  or  day  books. 

ADVERSARIA  is  more  particularly  used, 
among-  men  of  letters,  for  a  kind  of  com- 
mon-place book,  wherein  they  enter  what- 
ever occurs  to  them  worthy  of  notice, 
whether  in  reading  or  conversation,  in  the 
order  in  which  it  occurs :  a  method  which 
Morbof  prefers  to  that  of  digesting  them 
under  certain  heads. 

ADVOCATE,  Lord,  one  of  the  officers 
of  state  in  Scotland,  who  pleads  in  all 
causes  of  the  crown,  or  wherein  the  king- 
is  concerned. 

The  lord  advocate  sometimes  happens 
to  be  one  of  the  lords  of  session  ;  in 
which  case,  he  only  pleads  in  the  king's 
causes. 

ADVOWSON,  in  law,  is  the  right  of 
patronage,  or  presenting  to  a  vacant  be- 
nefice. 

-Advowsons  are  either    appcndant,  or 


111  gross.  Appendant  advowsons  are 
those  which  depend  on  a  manor,  or  lands, 
and  pass  as  appurtenances  of  the  same  : 
whereas  advowson  in  gross  is  a  right  of 
presentation  subsisting  by  itself,  belong- 
ing to  a  person,  and  not  to  lands. 

In  either  case,  advowsons  are  no  les» 
the  property  of  the  patrons  than  their 
landed  estate  :  accordingly  they  may  be 
granted  away  by  deed  or  will,  and  are 
assets  in  the  hands  of  executors.  How- 
ever, Papists  and  Jews,  seized  of  any  ad- 
vowsons, are  disabled  from  presenting; 
the  right  of  presentation  being  in  this 
case  transferred  to  the  chancellors  of  the 
universities,  or  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 

Advowsons  are  also  presentative,  colla- 
tive,  or  donative.  Presentative,  where 
the  patron  has  a  right  of  presentation  to 
the  bishop  or  ordinary ;  collative,  where 
the  bishop  is  patron;  and  donative,  where 
the  king,  or  any  subject.  This  licence 
founds  a  church  or  chapel,  and  ordains 
that  it  shall  be  merely  in  the  gift  of  the 
patron. 

ADZE,  a  cutting  tool,  of  the  axe  kind, 
having  its  blade  thin  and  arching,  and  its 
edge  at  right  angle  to  the  handle  ;  chiefly 
used  for  taking  thin  chips  oft'  timber,  &c. 
It  is  used  by  carpenters,  but  more  fre- 
quently by  coopers. 

JECID1UM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Criptogamia  Fungi  class  and  order.  Its 
characters  are,  that  it  has  a  membranace- 
ous  sheath,  smooth  on  both  sides,  and  full 
of  naked  separate  sides.  There  are  18 
species,  of  which  several  are  found  on 
the  leaves  of  other  plants,  and  one  of  them 
is  known  to  agriculturalists  by  the  name 
of  red  gum.  This  species  usually  grows 
upon  the  inside  of  the  glumes  of  the 
calyx,  and  of  the  exterior  valvule  of  the 
corolla,  under  their  epidermes,  which, 
when  the  plant  is  ripe,  bursts,  and  emits 
a  powder  of  a  bright  orange  colour. — 
Other  species  grow  on  decaying  wood  and 
mosses,  and  in  the  leaves  of  trussilago, 
farfara,  &c. 

JEGICERAS,  a  genus  of  thePentandria 
Monogynia  class  and  order  :  calyx  five- 
cleft ;  petals  five  ;  capsule  curved;  one- 
celled  ;  one-valred ;  one-seeded ;  two 
species  found  in  the  Moluccas. 

JEGILOPS,  goafs  face,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  Triandria  Digynia  class  and 
order,  and  of  the  natural  order  of  grasses 
the  characters  are,  that  the  hermaphro- 
dite calyx  is  a  large  bivalvular  glume, 
sustaining 'three  flowers  ;  the  valves  are 
ovate,  and  streaked  with  various  awns  r 
the  nectary  twb-leaved,  with  very  small 


JEGO 


AER 


leaflets  :  the  stamina  have  three  capillary 
filaments  \v  ith  oblong1  anthers  ;  the  pistil- 
lum  is  a  turbinate  germen ;  no  pericardi- 
um ;  the  seeds  are  oblon  „,  convex  on  one 
side,  grooved  on  the  other,  with  the  in- 
ner valve  of  the  corolla  adhering- to  it,  and 
not  opening.  There  are  six  species. 

JEGINETA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Didynamia  Angiospermia  class  and  order : 
calyx  one-leafed,  spathaceous;  corolla 
campanulate,  two-lipped ;  capsule  many 
celled :  one  species,  viz.  the  JE.  Indica, 
found  at  Malabar. 

jEGIPHILA,  goafs-friend,  a  genus  of 
the  Tetrandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der, and  the  natural  order  of  Vitices:  the 
calyx  is  a  one-leafed  permanent  perianthi- 
urn  ;  the  corolla  is  one-petalled,  and  long- 
er than  the  calyx  ;  the  stamina  are  capil- 
lary filaments,  inserted  into  the  mouth  of 
the  tube  ;  the  pistilium  is  a  roundish  su- 
perior germ,  style  capillary,  deeply  bifid, 
and  stigmas  simple  ;  the  pericarpium  is  a 
roundish  two-celled  berry,  surrounded 
with  a  permanent  calyx  ;  and  the  seed  is 
either  in  pairs  or  solitary.  There  are  se- 
ven species,  natives  of  the  W.  Indies, 
chiefly  of  Jamaica. 

JEGLE,,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Poly- 
andria  Monogynia  class  and  order  :  calyx 
iive-lobed ;  petals  five  ;  berry  globular, 
many  celled,  with  numerous  seeds  in  each. 
One  species,  viz.  the  marmelos,  a  tree 
with  thorny  branches  ;  fruit  delicious  to 
the  taste,  and  exquisitely  fragrant;  seeds 
imbedded  in  an  extremely  tenaceous 
transparent  gluten. 

JEGOPODUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Pentandria  Digynia  class  of  plants, 
the  general  corolla  whereof  is  uniform  ; 
the  single  flowers  consist  each  of  five, 
oval,  concave,  and  nearly  equal  petals  ; 
the  fruit  is  naked,  ovato-oblong,  striated, 
and  separable  into  two  parts ;  the  seeds 
are  two,  ovato-oblong,  and  striated,  con- 
vex on  one  side,  and  plain  on  the  other. 
There  is  but  one  species,  viz.  JE.  poda- 
graria,  gout-weed,  which  is  a  perennial, 
creeping  weed,  with  white  flowrers,  that 
appear  in  May  or  June.  It  has  been  used 
in  cases  of  gout,  whence  it  derives  its 
name.  It  is  boiled  for  greens,  and  eaten 
in  Sweden;  cows,  sheep,  and  goats,  eat  it. 
It  is  found  among  rubbish  in  shady  places, 
and  in  hedges. 

jEGOPRICON,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Monandria  Trigynia  class  and  order : 
the  male  Bowers  are  small,  in  an  ovate 
ament ;  their  calyx  one-leafed  ;  no  corol- 
la, the  stamina  of  one  filament  longer  than 
the  ca!\  \,  w:th  an  ovate  amher  ;  the  fe- 
male flowers  are  on  the  same  plant,  and 


solitary  ;  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  the 
same  as  the  male;  the  pistilium  has  an 
ovate  superior  germ,  three  divaricate 
styles,  with  simple  permanent  stigmas ; 
the  pericardium  is  a  globular  berry  ;  the 
seeds  are  solitary,  and  angular  on  one 
side.  There  is  but  one  species,  viz.  JE. 
betulinum,  which  is  a  tree  very  much 
branched,  with  wrinkled  bark  and  alter- 
nate leaves  resembling  those  of  the  myr- 
tle. 

JEOLIPILE,  a  hollow  metalline  ball, 
in  which  is  inserted  a  slender  neck  or  pipe; 
from  whence,  after  the  vessel  has  been 
filled  with  water,  and  heated,  issues  a 
blast  of  wind  with  great  vehemence. 

Great  care  should  be  taken,  that  the 
aperture  of  the  pipe  be  not  stopped  when 
the  instrument  is  put  on  the  fire,  other- 
wise the  jeolipile  will  burst  with  a  vast 
explosion,  and  may  occasion  no  little  mis- 
chief. Dr.  Plot  gives  an  instance,  where 
the  aeolipile  is  actually  used  to  blow  the 
fire  ;  the  lord  of  the  manor  of  Effington. 
is  bound,  by  his  tenure,  to  drive  a  goose 
every  New-year's  day  three  times  round 
the  hall  of  the  lord  of  Hilton,  while  Jack 
of  Hilton  (a  brazen  figure  having  the 
structure  of  an  zeolipile)  blows  the  fire. 
In  Italy,  it  is  said,  that  the  seolipile  is  com- 
monly made  use  of  to  cure  smoky  chim- 
neys ;  for  being  hung  over  the  lire,  the 
blast  arising  from  it  carries  up  the  loiter- 
ing smoke  along  with  it. 

An  zeolipile  of  great  antiquity,  made  of 
brass,  was  lately  dug  up  in  the  site  of  the 
Basingstoke  canal,  and  presented  to  the 
Antiquarian  Society  in  London.  It  is  not 
globular,  with  a  bent  tube,  but  in  the 
form  of  a  grotesque  human  figure,  and 
the  blast  proceeds  from  the  mouth. 

BOLUS'S  harp,  or  EOLIAN  harp,  a  mu- 
sical instrument,  so  named  from  its  pro- 
ducing an  agreeable  harmony  merely  by 
the  action  of  the  wind.  See  ACOUSTICS. 

JERA,  a  fixed  pointof  time, from  which 
any  number  of  years  is  begun  to  be  rec- 
koned. See  CHHONOLOGT. 

AEROSTATION,  in  the  modern  appli- 
cation of  the  term,  signifies  the  art  of  na- 
vigation through  the  air,  both  in  its  prin- 
ciples and  ^practice.  Hence  also  the  ma- 
chines which  are  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose are  called  aerostats,  or  aerostatic 
machines ;  and  on  account  of  their  round 
figures,  air  balloons. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  this  arl: 
have  been  long  and  generally  known  ;  al- 
though the  application  of  them  to  prac- 
tice seems  to  be  altogether  a  modern  dis- 
covery. It  will  be  sufficient,  therefore,  to 
observe,  in  this  place,  that  any  body, 


AEROSTATION. 


being  disengaged  from  the  cords thatheld 
it  down,  it  rose  before  a  prodigious  con- 
course of  people  in  less  than  two  minutes 
to  the  height  of  3123  feet.  It  then  enter- 
ed a  cloud,  but  soon  appeared  again ;  and 
at  last  it  was  lost  among  other  clouds. 
This  balloon,  after  having  floated  about 
three  quarters  of  an  hour,  fell  in  a  field 
about  15  miles  distant  from  the  place  of 
ascent ;  where,  as  we  may  naturally  ima- 
gine, it  occasioned  much  astonishment  to 
the  peasants.  Its  fall  was  owing  to  a  rent, 
occasioned  by  the  expansion  of  the  inflam- 
mable air  in  that  part  of  the  atmosphere 
to  which  it  ascended.  When  the  balloon 
went  up,  itsspecific  gravity  was  35  pounds 
less  than  that  of  common  air.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  brilliant  experiment,  many 
balloons  were  made  on  a  small  scale; 
gold-beaters'  skin  was  used  for  the  cover- 
ing; and  their  size  was  from  9  to  18  inches 
in  diameter. 

Mr.  Montgolner  repeated  an  experi- 
ment with  a  machine  of  his  construction 
before  the  commissaries  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  on  the  llth  and  12th  of  Sep- 
tember. This  machine  was  74  feet  high, 
and  about  43  feet  in  diameter.  When  dis- 
tended, it  appeared  spheroidical.  It  was 
made  of  canvas,  covered  with  paper  both 
within  and  without,  and  it  weighed  1000 
pounds.  The  operation  of  filling  it  with 
rarefied  air,  produced  by  means  of  the 
combustion  of  5!J  pounds  of  dry  straw, 
and  12  pounds  of  chopped  wool,  was  per- 
formed in  about  nine  minutes;  and  its 
force  of  ascension,  when  inflated,  was  so 
great,  that  it  raised  eight  men  who  held 
it  some  feet  from  the  ground.  This  ma- 
chine was  so  much  damaged  by  the  rain, 
that  it  was  found  necessary  to  prepare 
another  for  exhibition  before  the  king  and 
royal  family  on  the  19th.  This  new  ma- 
chine consisted  of  cloth  made  of  linen 
and  cotton  thread,  and  was  painted  with 
water  colours  both  within  and  without.  Its 
height  was  near  60  feet,  and  its  diameter 
about  43  feet.  Having  made  tlic  necessary 
preparations  for  inflating  it,  the  operation 
xvas  begun  about  one  o'clock,  on  the  19th 
of  September,  before  the  king1  and  queen, 
the  court,  and  all  the  Parisians  who  could 
procure  a  conveyance  to  Versailles.  In 
eleven  minutes  it  was  sufficiently  distend- 
ed, and  the  ropes  being  cut,  it  ascended, 
bearing  up  with  it  a  wicker  cage,  in  which 
were  a  sheep,  a  cock,  and  a  duck.  Its 
power  of  ascension,  or  the  weight  by 
which  it  was  lighter  than  an  equal  bulk 
of  common  air,  allowing  for  the  cage  and 
animals,  was  696  pounds.  This  balloon 
i-ose  to  the  height  of  about  1440  feet ;  and 


being  driven  by  the  wind,  it  descended 
gradually,  and  fell  gently  into  a  wood,  at 
the  distance  of  10,200  feet  from  Versailles. 
After  remaining  in  the  atmosphere  eight 
minutes,  the  animals  in  the  cage  were 
safely  landed.  The  sheep  was  found 
feeding;  the  cock  had  received  some  hurt 
on  one  of  his  wings,  probably  from  a  kick 
of  the  sheep  ;  the  duck  was  perfectly 
well.  The  successof  this  experiment  in-- 
duced  M.  Pilatre  de  Rosier,  with  a  philo- 
sophical intrepidity  which  will  be  record- 
ed with  applause  in  the  history  of  aeros- 
tation, to  offer  himself  as  the  first  adven- 
turer in  this  aerial  navigation.  Mr.  Mont- 
goltier  constructed  a  new  machine  for 
this  purpose,  in  a  garden  intheFauxbourg 
St.  Antoine.  Its  shape  was  oval;  its 
diameter  being  about  48  feet,  and  its 
height  about  74  feet.  To  the  aperture  at 
the  bottom  was  annexed  a  wicker  gallery, 
about  three  feet  broad,  with  a  ballustrade 
about  three  feet  high.  From  the  middle 
of  the  aperture  was  suspended  by  chains, 
which  came  down  fron  the  sides  of  the 
machine,  an  iron  grate,  or  brazier,  in 
which  a  fire  was  lighted  for  inflating  the 
machine  ;  and  port-holes  were  opened  in 
the  gallery,  towards  the  aperture,  through 
which  any  person,  who  should  venture  to 
ascend,  might  feed  the  fire  on  the  grate 
with  fuel,  and  regulate  the  dilatation  of 
the  inclosed  air  of  the  machine  at  plea- 
sure. The  weight  of  the  aerostat  was 
upwards  of  sixteen  hundred  pounds. 
On  the  fifteenth  of  October,  the  fire  being 
lighted,  and  the  machine  inflated,  M.  P. 
de  Hosier  placed  himself  in  the  gallery, 
and  ascended,  to  the  astonishment  of  a 
multitude  of  spectators,  to  the  height  of 
84  feet  from  the  ground,  and  there  kept 
the  machine  afloat  during  4'  25",  by  re- 
peatedly throwing  straw  and  wool  upon 
the  fire :  the  machine  then  descended, 
gradually  and  gently,  through  a  medium 
of  increasing  density,  to  the  ground  ; 
and  the  intrepid  adventurer  assured  the 
spectators  that  he  had  not  experienced 
the  least  inconvenience  in  this  aerial  ex- 
cursion. This  experiment  was  repeated 
on  the  17th  and  on  the  19th,  when  M.  P. 
de  Rozier,  in  his  descent,  and  in  order 
to  avoid  danger  by  re-ascending,  evinced, 
to  a  multitude  of  observers,  that  the  ma- 
chine may  be  made  to  ascend  and  de- 
scend, at  the  pleasure  of  the  aeronaut,  by 
merely  increasing  or  diminishing  the 
fire  in  the  grate.  The  balloon  having 
been  hauled  clown,  M.  Giraude  de  Villiette 
placed  himself  in  the  gallery  opposite  to 
M.  Rozier ;  and  being  suffered  to  ascend, 
it  hovered  for  about  nine  minutes  over 


AEROSTATION, 


Paris,  in  the  sight  of  all  its  inhabitants,  at 
the  height  of  about  330  feet.  In  another 
experiment  the  marquis  of  Arlandes  as- 
cended with  M.  Rozier  much  in  the  same 
manner.  In  consequence  of  the  report 
of  the  preceding1  experiment,  signed  by 
the  commissaries  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  it  was  ordered  that  the  annual 
prize  of  600  livrcs  should  be  given  to 
Messrs.  Montgolfier  for  the  year  1783. 
In  the  experiments  above  recited  the  ma- 
chine was  secured  by  ropes  ;  but  they 
were  soon  succeeded  by  unconfined  aerial 
navigation.  Accordingly,  the  balloon  of 
74  feet  in  height,  above  mentioned,  was 
removed  to  a  royal  palace  in  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne  ;  and  nil  things  being  ready, 
on  the  21st  of  November,  M.  P.  de  Ro- 
zier and  the  Marquis  d'  Arlandes  took 
their  respective  posts  in  the  gallery,  and 
at  54  minutes  after  one  the  machine  was 
absolutely  abandoned  to  the  element,  and 
ascended  calmly  and  majestically  in  the 
atmosphere.  The  aeronauts,  having  reach- 
ed the  height  of  about  280  feet,  waved 
their  hats  to  the  astonished  multitude; 
but  they  soon  rose  too  high  to  be  distin- 
guished, and  are  thought  to  have  snared 
to  an  elevation  of  above  3000  feet.  They 
were  at  first  driven  by  a  north-west  wind 
horizontally  over  the  river  Seine  and  over 
Paris,  taking  care  to  clear  the  steeples 
and  high  buildings  by  increasing  the  fire  ; 
and  in  rising  met  with  a  current  of  air, 
which  carried  them  southward.  Having 
passed  the  Boulevard,  and  desisting  from 
supplying  the  fire  with  fuel,  they  descend- 
ed very  gently  in  a  field  beyond  the  New 
Boulevard,  about  9000  yards  distant  from 
the  palace,  having  been  in  the  air  about 
25  minutes.  The  weight  of  the  whole 
apparatus,  including  that  of  the  travel- 
lers, was  between  1600  and  1700  pounds. 
Notwithstanding  the  rapid  progress  of 
aerostation  in  France,  we  have  no  authen- 
tic account  of  the  aerostatic  experiments 
performed  in  other  countries  till  about 
the  close  of  the  year  1783.  The  first 
experiment  of  this  kind,  publicly  exhibit- 
ed in  our  country,  was  performed  in  Lon- 
don, on  the  25th  of  November,  by  Count 
Zambeccari,  an  ingenious  Italian,  with  a 
balloon  of  oil  silk,  ;10  feet  in  diameter, 
and  weighing  11  pounds.  It  was  gilt,  in 
order  to  render  it  more  beautiful,  and 
more  impermeable  to  the  gas.  This  bal- 
loon, three -fourths  of  which  were  filled 
with  inflammable  air,  was  launched  from 
the  Artillery-ground,  in  presence  of  a 
vasf  concourse  of  spectators,  at  one 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  at  half  past 
three  was  taken  up  near  Pctvrorth,  in 
VOL.  K 


Sussex,  48  miles  distant  from  London  r 
so  that  it  travelled  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
20  miles  an  hour.  Its  descent  was  occa- 
sioned by  a  rent,  which  must  have  been 
the  effect  of  the  rarefaction  of  the  inflam- 
mable air,  when  the  balloon  ascended  to 
the  lighter  parts  of  the  atmosphere. 

Aerostatic  experiments  and  aerial  voy- 
ages became  so  frequent  in  the  course  of 
the  year  1784,  that  the  limits  of  this  arti- 
cle will  not  allow  our  particularly  record- 
ing them.  We  shall,  therefore,  mention 
those  which  were  attended  with  any  pe- 
culiar circumstances.  Messrs,  de  Mor- 
veau  and  Bertram!  ascended  from  Dijon, 
in  April,  to  the  height  of  about  13,000 
feet,  with  an  inflammable  air  balloon :  the 
thermometer  was  observed  to  stand  at  25 
degrees.  They  were  in  the  air  during  an 
hour  and  25  minutes,  and  went  to  the 
distance  of  about  eighteen  miles.  The 
clouds  floated  beneath  them,  and  seclud- 
ed them  from  the  earth  ;  and  they  jointly 
repeated  the  motto  inscribed  on  their 
aerostat: — "  Surgit  nunc  gallus  ad  aethe- 
ra."  In  May,  four  ladies  and  two  gentle- 
men ascended  with  a  Montgolfier  at  Paris 
above  the  highest  buildings  :  the  machine 
was  confined  by  ropes.  It  was  74  feet  high, 
and  72  in  diameter.  In  a  second  voyage, 
performed  by  Mr.  Blanchard  from  Rouen 
in  May,  it  was  observed,  that  his  wings 
and  oars  could  not  carry  him  in  any  other 
direction  than  that  of  the  •wind.  The 
mercury  in  the  barometer  descended  as 
low  as  20.57  inches;  but  on  the  earth,  be- 
fore he  ascended,  it  stood  at  30. 16  inches. 
On  the  23d  of  June,  a  large  aerostat,  on  the 
principle  of  rarefied  air,  91  £  feet  high,  and 
79  feet  in  diameter,  was  elevated  by  Mont- 
golfier at  Versailles,  in  the  presence  of 
the  royal  family  and  the  King  of  Sweden. 
M.  Pilatre  de  Rozier,  and  M.  Proust,  as- 
cended with  it,  and  continued  for  28  mi- 
nutes at  the  height  of  11,732  feet,  and 
observed  the  clouds  below  them,  that  re- 
flected to  the  region  which  they  occupied 
the  rays  of  the  sun  ;.  the  temperature  of 
the  air  being  5°  below  the  freezing  point; 
and  in  three  quarters  of  an  hour  they 
travelled  to  the  distance  of  36  miles.  In 
consequence  of  this  experiment,  the  king- 
granted  to  M.  Rozier  a  pension  of  2000 
livres.  On  the  15th  of  July  the  Duke  of 
Chatres,  the  two  brothers  Roberts,  and 
another  person,  ascended  with  an  inflam- 
mable airbal  loon,  of  an  oblong  form,  55^ 
feet  long,  and  34  feet  in  diameter,  from 
the  Park  of  St.  Cloud:  the  machine  re- 
mained in  the  atmosphere  about  45  mi- 
nutes. This  machine  contained  an  inte- 
rior small  baboon,  filled  with  common  airy 
E 


AEROSTATION. 


by  which  means  it  was  proposed  to  make 
it  ascend  or  decend  without  any  loss  of 
inflammable  air  or  ballast.  The  boat  was 
furnished  with  a  helm  and  oars,  intended 
for  guiding-  it.  At  the  place  of  departure 
the  barometer  stood  at  30.12  inches. 
Three  minutes  after  ascending1,  the  bal- 
loon was  lost  in  the  clouds,  and  involved 
in  a  dense  vapour.  An  agitation  of  the 
air,  resembling-  a  whirlwind,  alarmed  the 
aerial  voyagers,  and  occasioned  several 
shocks,  which  prevented  their  using  any 
of  the  instruments  and  contrivances  pre- 
p;i  rd  for  the  direction  of  the  balloon. 
Other  circumstances  concurred  to  in- 
crease their  danger  ;  and  when  the  mer- 
cury, standing  in  the  barometer  at  24.36 
inches,  indicated  their  height  to  be  about 
5100  feet,  they  found  it  necessary  to  make 
holes  in  the  bottom  for  discharging  the 
inflammable  air  :  and  having  made  a  rent 
Of  between  seven  and  eight  feet,  they  de- 
scended very  rapidly,  and  at  last  came 
.safely  to  the  ground.  The  first  aerial 
voyage  in  England  was  performed  in  Lon- 
don, on  the  15th  of  September,  by  Vin- 
cent Lunardi,  a  native  of  Italy.  His  bal- 
loon was  made  of  oiled  silk,  painted  in 
alternate  stripes  of  blue  and  red.  Its  di- 
ameter was  33  feet.  From  a  net  which 
went  over  about  two-thirds  of  the  bal- 
loon, descended  45  cords  to  a  hoop  hang- 
ing below  the  balloon,  and  to  which  the 
gallery  was  attached.  The  balloon  had 
no  valve  ;  and  its  neck,  which  terminated 
in  the  form  of  a  pear,  was  the  aperture 
through  which  the  inflammable  air  was 
introduced,  and  through  which  it  might 
be  let  out.  The  air  for  filling  the  balloon 
was  produced  from  zinc,  by  means  of  di- 
luted vitriolic  acid.  M.  Lunardi  depart- 
ed from  the  Artillery  Ground  at  two 
o'clock ;  and  with  him  were  a  clog1,  a  cat, 
and  a  pigeon.  After  throwing  out  some 
sand  to  clear  the  houses,  he  ascended  to  a 
great  height.  The  direction  of  his  mo- 
tion was  at  first  north-west  by  west; 
but  as  the  balloon  rose  higher,  it  fell  into 
another  current  of  air,  which  carried  it 
nearly  north.  About  half  after  three  he  de- 
scended very  near  the  ground,  and  landed 
the  cat,  which  was  almost  dead  with  cold : 
then  rising,  he  prosecuted  his  voyage. 
He  ascribes  his  descent  to  the  action  of 
on  oar;  but  as  he  was  under  the  necessi- 
ty of  throwing  out  ballast  in  order  to  re- 
ascend,  his  descent  was  probably  occa- 
sioned by  the  loss  of  inflammable  air. 
At  ten  minutes  past  four  he  descended 
on  a  meadow,  near  Ware,  in  Hertford- 
shire. The  only  philosophical  instrument 
which  he  carried  with  him  was  a  ther- 


mometer, which  in  the  course  of  hi;';  . 
age  stood  as  low  as  29°,  and  he  observed 
that  the  drops  of  water  which  collected 
round  the  balloon  were  frozen. 

The  longest  and  the  most  interesting- 
voyage,  which  was  performed  about  this 
time,  was  that  of  Messrs.  Roberts  and  M. 
Collin.  HulJin,  at  Paris,  on  the  19th  of 
September.  Their  aerostat  was  filled 
with  inflammable  air.  Its  diameter  was 
27^  feet,  and  its  length  46£  feet,  and  it 
was  made  to  float  with  its  longest  part  pa- 
rallel to  the  horizon,  with  a  boat  nearly^ 
17  feet  long,  attached  to  a  net  that  went 
over  it  as  far  as  its  middle.  To  the  boat 
were  annexed  wings,  or  oars,  in  the.  form 
of  an  umbrella.  At  12  o'clock  they  as- 
cended  with  450  pounds  of  ballast,  and, 
after  various  manoeuvres,  descended  at 
4 )  minutes  past  six  o'clock  near  Arras,  in 
Artois,  having  still  200  pounds  of  their 
ballast  remaining  in  the  boat.  Having  risen 
about  1400  feet,  they  perceived  storray 
clouds,  which  they  endeavoured  to  avoid; 
but  the  current  of  air  was  uniform  from 
the  height  of  600  to  4200  feet.  The 
barometer  on  the  coast  of  the  sea  was 
29.61  inches,  and  sunk  to  23.94  inches. 
They  found  that,  by  working  with  their 
oars,  they  accelerated  their  course.  In 
the  prosecution  of  their  voyage,  which 
was  150  miles,  they  heard  two  claps  of 
thunder;  and  the  cold  occasioned  by  the 
approach  of  stormy  clouds  made  the 
thermometer  fall  from  77°  to  59°,  and 
condensed  the  inflammable  air  in  the  bal- 
loon, so  as  to  make  it  descend  very  low. 
From  some  experiments  they  concluded, 
that  they  were  able  by  the  use  of  two 
oars  to  deviate  from  the  direction  of  the 
wind  about  22°.  But  this  experiment  re- 
quires repetition,  in  order  to  ascertain 
with  accuracy  the  effect  here  ascribed  to 
oars.  The  second  aerial  voyage  in  Eng- 
land was  performed  by  Mr.  Blanchard 
and  Mr.  Sheldon,  professor  of  anatomy 
to  the  Royal  Academy,  the  first  English- 
man who  ascended  with  an  aerostatic  ma- 
chine. This  experiment  was  performed 
at  Chelsea,  on  the  16th  of  October.  The 
wings  used  on  this  occasion  seemed  to 
have  produced  no  deviation  in  the  ma- 
chine's track  from  the  direction  of  the 
wind.  Mr.  Blanchard,  having  landed  his 
friend  about  the  distance  of  14  miles  from 
Chelsea,  proceeded  alone,  with  different 
currents,  and  ascended  so  high  as  to  expe- 
rience great  difficulty  of  breathing;  a  pi- 
geon, also,  which  flew  away  from  the 
boat,  laboured  some  time  with  its  wings, 
in  order  to  sustain  itself  in  the  rarefied 
air,  and  after  wandering  for  a  good  vvhHe, 


AEROSTATION 


returned,  and  rested  on.  one  side  of  the 
boat.  Mr.  Blanchard,  perceiving  the  sea 
before  him,  descended  near  Rumsey, 
about  75  miles  from  London,  having-  tra- 
velled at  the  rate  of  nearly  20  miles  an 
hour. 

On  the  12th  of  October,  Mr.  Sadler,  of 
Oxford,  made  a  voyage  of  14  miles  from 
that  place  in  17  minutes,  with  an  inflam- 
mable air  balloon  of  his  own  contrivance 
and  construction.  The  fate  ofM.  P.  de- 
Rozier,  the  first  aerial  navigator,  and  of 
his  companion,  M.  Remain,  has  been  much 
lamented.  They  ascended  at  Boulogne, 
on  the  15th  of  June,  with  an  intention  of 
crossing  the  channel  to  England.  Their 
machine  consisted  of  a  spherical  balloon, 
37  feet  in  diameter,  filled  with  inflam- 
mable air,  and  under  this  balloon  was  sus- 
pended a  small  Montgolfier,  or  fire  bal- 
loon, ten  feet  in  diameter.  This  Mont- 
golfier was  designed  for  rarefying  the 
atmospheric  air,  and  thus  diminishing  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  whole  apparatus. 
For  the  first  twenty  minutes  they  seemed 
to  pursue  their  proper  course ;  but  the 
balloon  seemed  much  inflated,  and  the 
aeronauts  appeared  anxious  to  descend. 
Soon,  however,  when  they  were  at  the 
height  of  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile, 
the  whole  apparatus  was  in  flames,  and 
the  unfortunate  adventurers  fell  to  the 
ground  and  were  killed  on  the  spot. 

On  the  19th  of  July,  Mr.  Crosbie  as- 
cended at  Dublin,  with  a  view  of  crossing 
the  channel  to  England.  To  a  wicker 
basket  of  a  circular  form,  which  he  had 
substituted  for  the  boat,  he  had  affixed 
a  number  of  bladders  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  his  gallery  buoyant,  in  case  of 
a  disaster  at  sea.  The  height  to  which 
he  ascended  at  one  time  was  such,  that 
by  the  intense  cold  his  ink  was  frozen, 
and  the  mercury  sunk  into  the  ball  of  the 
thermometer.  He  himself  was  sick,  and 
he  felt  a  strong  impression  on  the  tympa- 
num of  his  ears.  At  his  utmost  eleva- 
tion he  thought  himself  stationary  ;  but 
on  discharging  some  gas,  he  descended  to 
a  very  rough  current  of  air  blowing  to  the 
north.  He  then  entered  a  dense  cloud, 
and  experienced  strong  blasts  of  winds, 
with  thunder  and  lightning,  which 
brought  him  with  rapidity  towards  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  water  soon 
entered  his  car  :  the  force  of  the  wind 
plunged  him  into  the  ocean,  and  it  was 
with  difficulty  that  he  put  on  his  cork 
jacket.  The  bladders  which  he  had  pre- 
pared were  now  found  of  great  use.  The 
water,  added  to  his  own  weight,  served 
as  ballast ;  and  the  balloon,  maintaining;  its 


poise,  answered  the  purpose  of  a  sail,  by 
means  of  which,  and  a  snatch-block  to 
his  car,  he  moved  before  the  wind  as  re- 
gularly as  a  sailing-boat.  He  was  at. 
length  overtaken  by  some  vessels  that 
were  crowding  sail  after  him,  and  con- 
veyed to  Dunleary  with  the  balloon.  On 
the  22d  of  July,  Major  Money,  who  as- 
cended at  Norwich,  was  driven  out  to 
sea,  and  after  being  blown  about  for  about 
two  hours,  he  dropped  into  the  water.  Af- 
ter much  exertion  for  preserving  his  life, 
and  when  he  was  almost  despairing1  of  re- 
lief, he  was  taken  up  by  a  revenue  cutter, 
in  a  state  of  extreme  weakness  ;  having 
been  struggling  to  keep  himself  above 
water  for  about  seven  hours. 

The  longest  voyage,  that  had  been  hi- 
therto made,  was  performed  by  Mr. 
Blanchard,  towards  the  end  of  A'ugust. 
He  ascended  at  Lisle,  accompanied  by 
the  Chevalier  de  L'Epinard,  and  traversed 
a  distance  of  300  miles  before  he  descend, 
ed.  On  this,  as  well  as  on  other  occa- 
sions, Mr.  Blanchard  made  trial  of  a  pa- 
rachute, in  the  form  of  a  large  umbrella, 
which  he  contrived  for  breaking  his  fall, 
in  case  of  any  accident.  With  this  ma- 
chine he  let  down  a  dog,  which  came  to 
the  ground  gently,  and  unhurt.  On  the 
8th  of  September,  Mr.  Baldwin  ascended 
from  the  city  of  Chester,  and  performed 
an  aerial  voyage  of  25  miles  in  two  hours 
and  a  quarter.  His  greatest  elevation  was 
about  a  mile  and  a  half,  and  he  supposes 
that  the  velocity  of  his  motion  was  some- 
times at  the  rate  of  20  miles  an  hour.  He 
has  published  a  circumstantial  account  of 
his  voyage,  described  the  appearances  of 
the  clouds  as  he  passed  through  them, 
and  annexed  a  variety  of  observations  re- 
lating to  aerostation. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  recount  the 
aerial  expeditions  that  were  performed  in 
various  parts  of  our  own  country,  as  well 
as  on  the  continent,  in  the  whole  course 
of  the  year  1785 :  more  especially  as  they 
have  afforded  us  no  experiment  or  disco- 
very of  any  peculiar  importance.  The 
most  persevering  aerial  navigator  has 
been  Mr.  Blanchard  In  August,  1788, 
he  ascended  at  Brunswick  for  the  thirty- 
second  time.  Within  two  years;from  the 
first  discovery  of  this  art  of  navigating  the 
atmosphere,  more  than  forty  different 
persons  performed  the  experiment  with- 
out any  material  injury ;  and  it  may  be 
justly  questioned,  says  Mr.  Cavallo,  whe- 
ther the  first  forty  persons  who  trusted 
themselves  to  the  sea  in  boats  escaped  so 
safely.  The  catastrophe  that  befel  Rozier, 
and  the  unpleasant  circumstances  that 


AEROSTATION. 


have  happened  to  some  of  the  aeronauts 
in  our  own  country,  have  been  owing-,  not 
so  much  to  the  principle  of  the  art,  as  to 
want  of  judgment,  or  imprudent  manage- 
ment in  the  conduct  of  it. 

Omitting1  the  various  uninteresting1, 
though  not  very  numerous,  aerial  voyages 
undertaken  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
during  the  17  years  subsequent  to  the 
above-mentioned  dreadful  accident  of  Pi- 
latre  de  llozier  and  Mr.  Romain,  we  shall 
only  add  the  account  of  two  aerostatic  ex- 
periments lately  performed  in  England  by 
Mr.  Garnerin,  a  French  aeronaut.  The 
first  of  these  is  remarkable  for  the  very 
great  velocity  of  its  motion  ;  the  second 
for  the  exhibition  of  u  mode  of  leaving1 
the  balloon,  and  of  descending  with  safe- 
ty to  the  ground.  On  the  30th  of  June, 
1802,  the  wind  being  strong,  though  not 
impetuous,  Mr.  Garnerin  and  another 
gentleman  ascended  with  an  inflammable 
air,  or  hydrogen  gas,  balloon,  from  Rane- 
lagh  gardens,  on  the  south-west  of  Lon 
don,  between  four  and  five  o'clock  in  tke 
afternoon ;  and  in  exactly  three  quarters 
of  an  hour  they  descended  near  the  sea, 
at  the  distance  of  four  miles  from  Col- 
chester. The  distance  of  that  place  from 
Ra.jelagh  is  60  miles  ;  therefore  they  tra- 
veUed  at  the  astonishing  rate  of  80  miles 
per  hour.  It  seems  that  the  balloon  had 
power  enough  to  keep  them  up  four  or 
fi\e  hours  longer,  in  which  time  they 
might  have  gone  safely  to  the  continent; 
but  prudence  induced  them  to  descend 
when  they  discovered  the  sea  not  far  off. 
The  singular  experiment  of  ascending 
into  the  atmosphere  with  a  balloon,  and 
of  descending  with  a  machine  called  a 
parachute,  was  performed  by  Mr.  Garne- 
rin on  rhe  21st  of  September,  1802.  He 
ascended  from  St.  George's  parade, 
North  Audley  street,  and  descended  safe 
into  a  field  near  the  small-pox  hospital,  at 
Panci as.  The  balloon  was  of  the  usual 
sort,  viz.  of  oiled  silk,  with  a  net,  from 
which  ropes  proceeded,  which  terminated 
in  or  were  joined  to  a  single  rope  at  a  few 
feet  below  the  balloon.  To  this  rope  the 
parachute  was  fastened  in  the  following 
manner.  The  reader  may  easily  form  to 
himself  an  idea  of  this  parachute,  by  ima- 
gining a  large  umbrella  of  canvass,  about 
30  feet  in  d'iameter,  but  destitute  of  the 
ribs  and  handle.  Several  ropes  of  about  30 
feet  in  length,  which  proceeded  from  the 
edge  of  the  parachute,  terminated  in  a 
common  joining,  from  which  shorter 
ropes  proceeded,  to  the  extremities  of 
which  a  circular  basket  was  fastened,  and 
in  this  basket  Mr.  Garnerin  placed  him- 


self. The  single  rope  passed  through  a 
hole  in  the  centre  of  the  parachute,  also 
through  certain  tin  tubes,  which  were 
placed  one  after  the  other,  in  the  place  of 
the  handle  or  stick  of  an  umbrella,  and 
was  lastly  fastened  to  the  basket ;  so  that, 
when  the  balloon  was  in  the  air,  by  cut- 
ting the  end  of  the  rope  next  to  the  bas- 
ket, the  parachute  with  the  basket  would 
be  separated  from  the  balloon,  and  in 
falling  downwards  would  be  naturally 
opened  by  the  resistance  of  the  air.  The 
use  of  the  tin  tubes  was,  to  let  the  rope 
slip  off  with  greater  certainty,  and  to  pre- 
vent its  being  entangled  with  any  of  the 
other  ropes,  as  also  to  keep  the  parachute 
at  a  distance  from  the  basket.  The  bal- 
loon began  to  be  filled  about  two  o'clock. 
There  were  36  casks  filled  with  iron  filings, 
and  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  hydrogen  gas.  These 
communicated  with  three  other  casks,  or 
general  receivers,  to  each  of  which  was 
fixed  a  tube,  that  emptied  itself  into  the. 
main  tube  attached  to  the  balloon.  At 
six,  the  balloon  being  quite  full  of  gas, 
and  the  parachute,  &c.  being  attached  to 
it,  Mr.  Garnerin  placed  himself  in  the 
basket,  and  ascended  majestically,  amidst 
the  acclamations  of  innumerable  specta- 
tors. The  weather  was  the  clearest  and 
pleasantest  imaginable ;  the  wind  was 
gentle,  and  about  west  by  south  ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which  Mr.  Garnerin  went  in 
the  direction  of  nearly  east  by  north.  In 
about  eight  minutes  the  balloon  and  para- 
chute had  ascended  to  an  immense  height, 
and  Mr.  Garnerin,  in  the  basket,  could 
scarcely  be  perceived.  While  every 
spectator  was  contemplating  the  grand 
sight  before  them,  Mr.  Garaerin  cut  the 
rope,  and  in  an  instant  he  was  separated 
from  the  balloon,  trusting  his  safety  to 
the  parachute.  At  first,  viz.  before  the 
parachute  opened,  he  fell  with  great  ve- 
locity ;  but  as  soon  as  the  parachute  was 
expanded,  which  took  place  a  few  mo- 
ments after,  the  descent  became  very 
gentle  and  gradual.  A  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance was  observed  ;  namely,  that 
the  parachute,  with  the  appendage  of 
cords  and  basket,  soon  began  to  vibrate 
like  the  pendulum  of  a  clock,  and  the  vi- 
brations were  so  great,  that  more  than 
once  the  parachute,  and  the  basket  with 
Mr.  Garnerin,  seemed  to  be  on  the  same 
level,  or  quite  horizontal :  however,  the 
extent  of  the  vibrations  diminished  as  he 
descended.  On  coming  to  the  earth,  Mr. 
Garnerin  experienced  some  pretty  strong 
shocks  ;  but  he  soon  recovered  his  spirits, 
and  remained  without  anv  material, hurt. 


AEROSTATION. 


As  soon  as  the  parachute  was  separated 
from  the  balloon,  the  latter  ascended  with 
great  rapidity,  and  being  of  an  oval  form, 
turned  itself  with  a  longer  axis  into  an 
horizontal  position. 

We  now  come  to  the  practice  of  the  art. 
The  shape  of  the  balloon  is  one  of  the  first 
objects  of  consideration.  As  a  sphere  ad- 
mits the  greatest  capacity  under  the  least 
surface,  the  spherical  figure,  or  that  which 
approaches  nearest  to  it,  has  been  gene- 
rally preferred.  However,  since  bodies 
of  this  form  oppose  a  greater  surface  to 
the  air,  and  consequently  a  greater  ob- 
struction to  the  action  of  the  oar  or  wings 
than  those  of  some  other  form,  and  there- 
fore cannot  be  so  well  guided  in  a  calm, 
or  in  a  course  different  from  the  direction 
of  the  wind,  it  has  been  proposed  to  con- 
struct balloons  of  a  conical  or  oblong 
figure,  and  to  make  them  proceed  with 
their  narrow  end  forward.  Next  to  the 
shape,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  stuff 
that  is  most  proper  for  forming  the  enve- 
lope of  the  inflammable  or  rarefied  air. 
Silk  stuff,  especially  that  which  is  called 
lutestring,  properly  varnished,  has  been 
most  commonly  used  for  hydrogen  gas 
balloons  ;  and  common  linen,  lined  within 
and  without  with  paper,  varnished,  for 
those  of  rarefied  air.  Varnished  paper, 
or  gold-beaters'  skin,  will  answer  the 
purpose  for  making  small  hydrogen  gas 
balloons ;  and  the  small  rarefied  air  bal- 
loons may  be  made  of  paper,  without  any 
varnish  or  other  preparation.  The  stuff 
for  large  balloons  of  both  kinds  requires 
some  previous  preparation.  The  best 
mode  ofpreparingtheclothforamachine, 
upon  Montgolfier's  principle,  is,  first  to 
soak  it  in  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  and 
size,  using  one  pound  of  each  to  every 
gallon  of  water ;  and  when  the  cloth  is 
quite  dry,  to  paint  it  over  with  some 
earthy  colour,  and  strong  size  or  glue. 
It  may  be  also  varnished  over,  when  per- 
fectly dry,  with  some  stiff,  oily  varnish, 
or  simple  drying  linseed  oil,  which  would 
dry  before  it  penetrates  quite  through  the 
cloth.  The  pieces  of  which  an  hydrogen 
p;as  balloon  is  to  be  formed  must  be  cut 
of  a  proper  size,  according  to  the  proposed 
dimensions  of  it,  when  the  varnish  is  suf- 
ficiently dry.  The  pieces  that  compose 
the  surface  of  the  balloon  are  like  those 
gores  that  form  the  superficies  of  a  globe  ; 
and  the  best  method  of  cutting  them  is,  to 
describe  a  pattern  on  wood  or  stiff  card- 
paper,  and  to  cut  the  silk  or  stuff  upon  it. 
To  the  upper  part  of  the  balloon  there 
must  be  adapted  a  valve,  opening  inward, 
fo  which  is  annexed  a  string  passing 


through  a  hole  made  in  a  small  round 
piece  of  wood,  which  is  fastened  to  the 
lowest  part  of  the  balloon,  opposite  to  the 
valve,  to  the  boat  below  it;  so  that  the 
aeronaut  may  open  it  as  occasion  requires, 
and  let  the  hydrogen  gas  out  of  the  bal- 
loon. To  the  lower  part  of  the  balloon 
are  fixed  two  pipes,  of  the  same  stuff  with 
the  covering,  six  inches  in  diameter  for  a 
balloon  of  30  feet,  and  much  larger  for 
balloons  of  greater  size,  and  long  enough 
to  reach  the  boat.  These  pipes  are  the 
apertures  through  which  the  hydrogen 
gas  is  introduced  into  the  balloon.  The 
boat  may  be  made  of  wicker  work,  and 
covered  with  leather,  well  painted  or  var- 
nished over.  The  best  method  of  sus- 
pending it  is  by  means  of  ropes,  proceed- 
ing from  the  net  which  goes  over  the  bal- 
loon. This  net  should  be  formed  to  the 
shape  of  the  balloon,  and  fall  down  to  the 
middle  of  it,  and  have  various.cords  pro- 
ceeding from  it  to  the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  about  two  feet  below  the  balloon  ; 
and  from  that  circle  other  ropes  should  go 
to  the  edge  of  the  boat.  This  circle  may  be 
made  of  wood,  or  of  several  pieces  of  slen- 
der cane  bound  together.  The  meshes  of 
the  net  may  be  small  at  top,  against  which 
part  of  the  balloon  the  hydrogen  gas  ex- 
erts the  greatest  force,  and  increase  in 
size  as  they  recede  from  the  top.  A  hoop 
has  been  sometimes  put  round  the  middle 
of  the  balloon  for  fastening  the  net.  This 
is  not  absolutely  necessary ;  but  when 
used,  it  is  best  made  of  pieces  of  cane 
bound  together,  and  covered  with  leather. 
When  the  balloon  and  its  appendages  are 
constructed,the  next  object  of  importance 
is  to  procure  proper  materials  for  fillingit. 
Hydrogen  gas  for  balloons  may  be  obtain- 
ed in  several  ways  ;  but  the  best  methods 
are  by  applying  acids  to  certain  metals  ; 
by  exposing  animal,  vegetable,  and  some 
mineral  substances,  in  a  close  vessel,  to  u 
strong  fire ;  or  by  transmitting  the  va- 
pour of  certain  fluids  through  red  hot 
tubes.  In  the  first  of  these  methods,  iron, 
zinc,  and  sulphuric  acid,  are  the  materials 
most  commonly  used.  The  acid  must  be 
diluted  with  five  or  six  parts  of  water. 
Iron  may  be  expected  to  yield  in  the 
common  way  about  1700  times  its  own 
bulk  of  gas,  or  4£  ounces  of  iron  ;  the 
like  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  22£ 
ounces  of  water,  will  produce  one  cubic 
foot  of  hydrogen  gas;  6  ounces  of  zinc, 
an  equal  weight  of  acid,  and  30  ounces 
of  water,  are  necessary  for  producing  the 
same  quantity.  It  is  more  proper  to  use 
the  turnings  or  chippings  of  gi-en;  pieces 
of  iron,  as  of  cannon,  Sec.  than  the  filings 


AER 


AES 


of  that  metal,  because  the  heat  attending1 
the  effervescence  will  be  diminished,  and 
the  diluted  acid  will  pass  more  readily 
through  the  interstices  of  the  turnings, 
when  they  are  heaped  together,  than 
through  the  filings,  which  stick  closer  to 
one  another.  The  weight  of  the  hydro- 
gen gas  thus  obtained  by  means  of  sul- 
phuric acid  is,  in  the  common  way  of 
procuring  it,  generally  one-seventh  part 
of  the  weight  of  common  air ;  and  with  the 
necessary  precautions  for  philosophical 
experiments,  less  than  one-tenth  of  the 
weight  of  common  air.  We  shall  con- 
clude this  article  with  a  description  of 
some  figures  explanatory  of  the  subject. 
Figure  1  (plate  Aerostation)  represents  a 
balloon,  13  F,  suspended  by  means  of  the 
poles  G  and  H,  and  the  cord,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  filled  with  gas.  It  is  kept 
steady  and  held  down  whilst  filling  by 
ropes,  which  are  readily  desengaged.  A, 
A,  are  two  tubs,  about  three  feet  in  diam- 
eter, and  two  feet  deep,  inverted  in  larger 
tubs,  B,  B,  full  of  water.  At  the  bottom 
of  each  of  the  inverted  tubes  there  is  a  hole 
in  which  is  inserted  a  tin  tube  ;  to  these 
the  silken  tubes  of  the  balloon  are  tied. 
Each  of  the  tubs,  B,  is  surrounded  by  se- 
veral strong  casks,  so  regulated  in  num- 
ber and  capacity,  as  to  be  less  than  half 
full  when  the  materials  are  equally  distri- 
buted. In  the  top  of  these  casks  there 
are  two  holes  :  to  one  of  which  is  adapted 
a  tin  tube,  formed  so  as  to  pass  over  the 
edge  of  the  tub  B,  and  through  the  water, 
and  to  terminate  with  its  aperture  under 
the  inverted  tub  A.  The  other  hole, 
which  serves  fur  supplying  the  cask  with 
materials,  is  stopped  with  a  wooden  plug. 
"When  the  balloon  is  to  be  filled,  the  com- 
mon air  is  first  to  be  expelled,  then  the 
silken  tubes  are  fastened  round  the  tin 
ones  ;  the  iron  filing's  are  to  be  put  into 
the  casks,  then  the  water,  and  lastly  the 
sulphuric  acid.  The  balloon  will  speedi- 
ly be  inflated  by  the  gas,  and  support  it- 
self without  the  aid  of  the  rope  G  H.  As 
the  filling  advances,  a  net  is  adjusted 
about  it,  the  cords  proceeding  from  the 
net  are  fastened  to  the  hoop  MN;  the 
boat  I  K  is  suspended  from  the  hoop,  and 
whatever  is  wanted  for  the  voyage  is  de- 
posited in  the  boat.  When  the  bailoonis 
sufficiently  full,  the  silken  tubes  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  tin  tubes,  their  extremities 
are  tied,  and  they  are  placed  in  the  boat. 
When  the  aeronauts  are  seated  in  the 
boat,  the  ropes  that  held  the  balloon  down 
are  slipped  oft',  and  the  machine  ascends 
in  the  air,  as  in  figure  2.  In  fig.  3,  is  a 
representation  of  a  part  of  Mr.  Garnerin's 


balloon  in  its  ascent,  to  which  is  attached 
a  parachute,  in  its  contracted  state,  and 
below  is  the  car.  Figure  4  shews  the 
manner  in  which  Mr.  Garnerin  descended 
in  the  car  by  means  of  the  expanded  para- 
chute, after  he  had  detatched  it  from  the 
balloon.  In  fig-ure  5  is  represented  an  ap- 
paratus, as  described  by  Mr.  Cavallo,  for 
filling  balloons  of  the  size  of  two  or  three 
feet  in  diameter  with  hydrogen  gas,  after 
passing  it  through  water.  A  is  a  bottle, 
with  the  ingredients  ;  BCD  a  tube  fasten- 
ed in  the  neck  at  B,  and  passing  through 
C,  the  cork  of  the  other  bottle,  in  which 
there  is  a  hole  made  to  receive  the  tube, 
and  to  this  the  balloon  is  tied.  Thus  the 
hydrogen  gas,  coming  out  of  the  tube  D, 
will  pass  first  through  the  water  of  the 
bottle  E,  and  then  into  the  balloon.  Two 
small  casks  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
bottles  A  and  E. 

-ERVA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Mo- 
nadelphia  Decandria  class  and  order. 
The  flowers  are  polygamous  ;  the  calyx 
five-leaved  and  patent :  the  stamina  are 
five  ;  the  pistillum  is  a  globulous  ovary, 
having  a  filiform  style,  terminated  by  a 
bifid  stigma :  the  fruit  is  an  oblong,  sin- 
gle-seeded capsule,  encompassed  by  a  ca- 
lyx :  there  is  but  one  species,  viz.  JE. 
aegyptiaca,  or  tomentosa,  which  grows  on 
the  sandy  calcareous  soil  of  Arabia. 

JESCHYNOMENE,  a  word  from  the 
Greek,  signifying  to  be  ashamed,  because 
it  retreats  from  the  touch :  bastard  sensi- 
tive plant,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Dia- 
delphia  Decandria  class  and  order,  and  of 
the  natural  order  of  Papilio  Naceae,  of 
which  there  are  12  species, found  native  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  cultivated  in  other 
hot  countries.  One  of  the  species  may  be 
treated  as  hemp,  and  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes. 

AESCULUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Heptandria  Monogynia  class  and  order,  of 
jthe  natural  order  of  Trihilatse.  There 
are  three  species  :  the  first,  or  common 
horse-chestnut,  was  brought  from  the 
northern  parts  of  Asia  into  Europe  about 
the  year  1550,  and  sent  to  Vienna  about 
the  year  1558.  From  Vienna  it  was  con- 
veyed to  France  and  Italy  ;  but  it  came  to 
u»  from  the  Levant.  It  is  distinguished 
by  the  beautiful  parabolic  form  of  its 
branches,  the  disposition  and  structure  of 
its  digitate  leaves,  and  by  the  pyramidal 
bunches  of  its  white  flowers,  variegated 
near  the  centre  with  yellow  or  red.  Al- 
though this  tree  is  now  less  in  esteem  for 
avenues  and  walks  than  it  formerly  was, 
on  account  of  the  early  decay  of  its  leaves. 
it  affords  an  excellent  shade;  and  th" 


AES 


spikes  or  flowers,  which  appear  in  May, 
with  the  intexmixUire  of  large  leaves,  ex- 
hibit a  noble  appearance.  The  most  eli- 
gible situation  for  these  trees  is  in  lawns 
and  parks,  where  they  may  be  planted 
singly,  and  where  their  fruit  will  be  ser- 
viceable to  the  deer,  who  are  fond  of  it. 
This  tree  is  of  quick  growth  ;  and  in  a 
few  years  it  will  afford  a  good  shade  in 
summer,  and  yield  plenty  of  flowers. 
Trees,  raised  from  nuts,  have  in  12  or  14 
years  become  large  enough  to  shade  two 
or  three  chairs  with  their  branches,  which 
in  the  season  are  covered  with  flowers. 
But  the  trees  are  of  short  duration,  and 
the  wood  is  of  little  value.  It  serves, 
however,  for  water-pipes,  turners'  ware, 
and  fuel :  and  for  these  uses  it  is  worth 
the  charge  of  planting,  and  should  be 
felled  in  November  or  December.  The 
horse-chestnut  has  been  employed  in 
France  and  Switzerland  for  the  purpose 
of  bleaching  yarn;  and  it  is  recommend- 
ed in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Society  of  Berne, 
Vol.  II.  part  2,  as  capable  of  extensive 
use  in  whitening  not  only  flax  and  hemp, 
but  silk  and  wool.  It  contains  an  astrin- 
gent saponaceous  juice,  which  is  obtained 
by  peeling  the  nuts,  and  grinding  or  rasp- 
ing them.  They  are  then  mixed  with  hot 
rain  or  running  water,  in  the  proportion 
of  20  nuts  to  10  or  12  quarts  of  water. 
Wove  caps  and  stockings  were  milled  in 
this  water,  and  took  the  die  extremely 
well ;  and  successful  trials  were  made  of 
it  in  fulling  stuffs  and  cloths.  Linen 
washed  in  this  water  takes  a  pleasing 
light  sky-blue  colour;  and  the  filaments 
of  hemp,  steeped  in  it  some  days,  were 
easily  separated.  The  author  of  the  me- 
moir, above  referred  to,  imagines,  that  if 
the  meal  of  the  chesnut  could  be  made 
into  cakes  or  balls,  it  would  answer  the 
purposes  of  soap,  in  washing  and  fulling. 
The  sediment,  after  infusion,  loses  its  bit- 
ter taste,  and  becomes  good  food  for  fowls 
when  mixed  with  bran.  The  Edinburgh 
College  have  admitted  the  horse-chesnut 
into  their  Pharmacopoeia  of  1783,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Dr.  Gardiner,  who 
says  that  three  or  four  grains  of  the  pow- 
der, snuffed  up  the  nostrils  in  the  evening, 
operate  next  morning  as  an  excellant  ster- 
uutatory,  and  thereby  proves  very  benefi- 
cial in  obstinate  inflammations  oftheeyes. 
A  patent  was  granted  in  1796,  to  Lord 
W.  Murray,  for  his  discovery  of  a  method 
of  extracting  sturch  from  horse-chesnuts. 
The  second  species,  or  yellow-flowered 
horse-chestnut,  is  a  native  of  North  Caro- 
lina, was  cultivated  with  us  in  1764,  and 
flowers  in  May  and  June. 


The  third  species,  or  scarlet  horse- 
chestnut,  rises  to  the  height  of  twenty 
feet  without  much  extending  its  branch- 
es ;  its  bark  is  smooth,  and  the  leaves, 
which  are  opposite,  on  long,  red  petioles, 
are  of  a  light  green. 

The  common  horse-chestnut  is  propa- 
gated by  sowing  the  nuts,  after  preserv- 
ing them  in  sand  during  the  winter  :  but 
the  scarletis  propagated  by  grafting  it  up- 
on stocks  of  the  common  horse-chestnut. 

The  American  species  are  :  JE  paria ; 
J£.  flava;  JE.  macrostachya ;  and  JE.  achi- 
nata.  Of  the  last  there  are  two  varieties, 
A.  the  glabra,  and  B.  the  pallida. 

JETHUSA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Pentandria  Digynia  class  and  order,  and 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  Umbel- 
late or  Umbelliferze :  the  calyx  is  an  uni- 
versal spreading  umbel,  and  the  partial 
is  also  spreading,  but  small ;  having  no 
universal  involucre,  and  the  partial  one 
placed  on  the  outside,  and  consisting  only 
of  three  very  long1,  linear,  pendulous  leaf- 
lets, and  the  proper  perianthium  scarcely 
observable :  the  universal  corolla  is  nearly 
uniform,  with  all  the  floscules  fertile,  and 
the  partial  has  the  petals  bent  in,  heart- 
shaped,  and  unequal:  the  stamina  are 
simple  filaments,  with  roundish  anthers; 
the  pistillum  is  an  inferior  germ,  and  the 
styles  are  reflex,  with  obtuse  stigmas  : 
it  has  no  pericarpium,  and  the  fruit  is 
roundish,  streaked,  and  bipartite :  the 
seeds  are  two,  roundish,  streaked,  except 
on  a  third  part  of  the  surface,  which  is 
plain.  There  are  four  species,  the  prin- 
cipal is  JE.  cynapium,  common  fool's  pars- 
ley, or  lesser  hemlock,  which  is  a  common 
weed  in  fields  and  kitchen-gardens,  and 
in  a  slight  degree  poisonous.  It  is  easily 
distinguished  when  in  flower,  in  July  and 
August,  from  true  parsley  and  chervil; 
by  the  three  narrow  pendent  leaflets  of 
the  involucre,  placed  on  the  outer  part 
only  of  the  umbel,  and  by  its  being  a  much 
humbler  plant  than  either  of  the  others. 
The  leaves  also,  in  an  earlier  state,  are  of 
a  different  form  and  a  darker  hue,  and, 
when  bruised,  emit  in  a  slight  degree  a 
disagreeable  venomous  smell.  The  safest 
way  to  avoid  dou  t  or  danger  is  to  culti- 
vate the  curled  parsley.  Most  cattle  eat 
it,  but  it  is  said  to  be  noxious  to  geese. 

AETIOLOGY,  that  branch  of  physic 
which  assigns  the  causes  of  diseases ;  in. 
this  sense  we  say  the  aetiology  of  the  small 
pox,  dropsy,  &c. 

JETIOLOGT,  in  rhetoric,  is  deemed  a 
figure  of  speech,  whereby,  in  relating  an 
event,  we,  at  the  same  time,  unfold  the 
causes  of  it. 


JETN 


IFF 


iETNA,  a  famous  volcanic  or  burning 
mountain  in  Sicily,  situated  on  the  eastern 
coast,  not  far  from  Catania.  The  height 
of  this  mountain  is  above  10,000  feet  above 
the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  its  circumfer- 
ence at  the  base  is  180  miles.  Over  its 
sides  are  77  cities,  towns,  and  villages, 
the  number  of  inhabitants  of  which  is 
-about  115,000.  From  Catania  to  the  sum- 
•nit  is  the  distance  of  30  miles,  and  the 
traveller  must  pass  through  three  distinct 
climates,  which  may  be  denominated  the 
torrid,  the  temperate,  and  the  frigid.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  whole  mountain  is  divided 
into  three  distinct  regions,  called  the  fer- 
tile, the  woody,  and  the  barren.  The 
first,  or  lowest  region,  extends  through 
an  interval  of  ascent  from  12  to  18  miles. 
The  city  of  Catania  and  several  villages 
are  situated  in  the  first  zone,  and  it 
abounds  in  pastures,  orchards,  and  vari- 
ous kinds  of  fruit  trees.  Its  great  fertili- 
ty is  ascribed  to  the  decomposition  of  la- 
va, and  of  those  vegetables,  which  have 
been  introduced  by  the  arts  of  agriculture, 
and  the  exertions  of  human  industry. 
The  figs,  and  fruit  in  general,  in  this  re- 
gion, are  reckoned  the  finest  in  Sicily. 
The  lava  in  this  region  flows  from  a  num- 
ber of  small  mountains,  which  are  dis- 
persed over  the  immense  declivity  of  ./Et- 
na. Thp  woody  region,  or  temperate 
xone,  extends  from  8  to  10  miles  in  a  di- 
rect line,  towards  the  top  of  the  mountain; 
it  comprehends  a  surface  of  about  40  or 
45  square  leagues.  It  forms  a  zone  of 
the  brightest  green  all  round  the  moun- 
tain, which  exhibits  a  pleasing  contrast  to 
the  white  and  hoary  head  of  the  moun- 
tain. It  is  called  the  woody  region,  be- 
cause it  abounds  with  oaks,  "beeches,  and 
firs.  The  soil  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
lower  region.  The  air  here  is  cool  and 
refreshing,  and  every  breeze  is  loaded 
with  a  thousand  perfumes,  the  whole 
ground  being  covered  over  with  the  rich- 
est aromatic  plants.  Many  parts  of  this 
region  are  the  most  heavenly  spots  upon 
earth  ;  and  if  JEtna  resemble  hell  within, 
it  may  with  equal  justice  be  said  to  re- 
semble paradise  without.  The  upper  re- 
gion, called  the  frigid  zone,  is  marked  out 
by  a  circle  of  snow  and  ice.  The  surface 
of  this  zone  is  for  the  most  part  flat  and 
even,  and  the  approach  to  it  is  indicated 
by  the  decline  of  vegetation,  by  uncover- 
ed rocks  of  lava  and  heaps  of  sand,  by 
near  views  of  an  expanse  of  snow  and  ice, 
and  of  torrents  of  smoke  issuing  from  the 
crater  of  the  mountain,  and  by  the  diffi- 
culty and  danger  of  advancing,  amidst 
streams  of  melted  snow,  sheets  or  ice,  and 
^usts  of  chilling  wind.  The  curiyns  tra- 


veller, however,  thinks  himself  amply  re- 
compensed, upon  gaining  the  summit,  for 
the  peril  which  he  has  encountered.  At 
night  the  number  of  stars  seem  increased, 
and  their  light  appears  brighter  than  usu- 
al. The  lustre  of  the  milky  way  is  like  a 
pure  flame  that  shoots  across  "the  hea- 
vens, and  with  the  naked  eye  we  may  ob- 
serve clusters  of  stars  totally  invisible  in 
the  lower  regions.  The  scoriae  of  which 
the  mountain  is  composed  have  the  same 
kind  of  base,  containing  shorls  and  felt- 
spars. 

•  AFFIDAVIT  signifies  an  oath  in  writ- 
ing, sworn  before  some  person  who  is  au- 
thorised to  take  the  same. 

Jn  an  affidavit,  the  time,  place  of  habi- 
tation, and  addition,  of  the  person  who 
makes  it  are  to  be  inserted. 

Affidavits  are  chiefly  used  to  certify  the 
serving  of  processes  or  other  matters  con- 
cerning the  proceedings  in  a  court ;  and 
therefore  should  set  forth  the  matter  of 
fact  to  be  proved,  without  taking  any  no- 
tice of  the  merits  of  the  cause.  They  are 
read  in  court  upon  motions,  but  arc  not 
admitted  in  evidence  at  trials. 

1'y  statute,  the  judges  of  the  courts  at 
Westminster  may  commission  persons,  in 
the  several  counties  in  England,  to  take 
affidavits  relating  to  any  thing  depending1 
in  their  several  courts. 

AFFINITY,  among  Civilians,  denotes 
the  relation  of  each  of  the  parties  mar- 
ried to  the  kindred  of  the  other. 

Affinity  is  distinguished  into  three  kinds. 
1.  Direct  affinity,  or  that  subsisting  be- 
tween the  husband  and  his  wife's  rela- 
tions, by  blood  ;  or  between  the  wife  and 
her  husband's  relation,  by  blood.  2.  Se- 
condary affinity,  or  that  which  subsists 
between  the  husband  and  his  wife's  rela- 
tions, by  marriage.  3.  Collateral  affinity . 
or  that  which  subsists  between  the  hus- 
band and  the  relations  of  his  wife's  rela- 
tions. The  degrees  of  affinity  are  always 
the  same  with  those  of  consanguinity. 
Hence,  in  whatever  degree  of  consangui- 
nity the  kindred  of  one  of  the  parties  mar- 
ried are,  they  are  in  the  same  degree  of 
affinity  to  the  other. 

By  the  canon  law,  direct  affinity  ren- 
ders marriage  unlawful  to  the  fourth  ge- 
neration, inclusive  ;  but  the  case  is  other- 
wise, with  respect  to  the  secondary  and 
collateral  kinds.  It  is  likewise  to  be  ob- 
served, that  the  affinity  contracted  by  a 
criminal  commerce  is  a.n  impediment  to 
marriage  so  far  as  the  second  generation: 
thus,  a  man  is  not  allowed  to  marry  the 
sister  of  a  woman  he  has  lain  with.  Nay, 
with  regard  to  contracting  marriage,  uffi- 
riity  is  riot  dissolved  by  death  ;  for  though 


AUA 


AGA 


£  woman  may  be  admitted  a  witness  for 
the  brother  of  her  deceased  husband,  she 
is  noi  allowed  to  marry  him. 

AFFINITY,  in  chemistry,  the  attraction 
manifest  between  the  parts  of  bodies  in 
chemical  combination  is,  by  many  authors, 
distinguished  by  this  name.  See  CHE- 
MISTRY. 

AFFIRMATION,  an  indulgence  allow- 
ed by  law  to  the  people  called  Quakers, 
who,  in  cases  where  an  oath  is  required 
from  others,  may  make  a  solemn  affirma- 
tion that  what  they  say  is  true.  But  their 
affirmation  is  confined  to  civil  cases,  and 
is  not  allowed  in  any  criminal  cause,  nor 
with  regard  to  places  of  profit  or  trust 
under  the  government. 

AFFRAY,  or  AFFRAY  .VENT,  in  law,  for- 
merly signified  the  crime  of  affrighting 
other  pei-sons,  by  appearing  in  unusual  ar- 
mour, brandishing  a  weapon,  &c.  But,  at 
present,  affray  denotes  a  skirmish  or 
fighting  between  two  or  more  ;  and  there 
must  be  a  stroke  given,  otherwise  it  is  no 
affray. 

AFFRONTEE,  in  heraldry,  an  appella- 
tion giving  to  animals  facing  one  another 
on  an  escutcheon,  a  kind  of  bearing, 
which  is  otherwise  called  confrouffe,  and 
stands  opposed  to  adossce. 

AFT,  in  the  sea  language,  the  same 
with  abaft.  See  ABAFT. 

AFZELIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Didynamia  Angiospermia  class  and  order : 
the  calyx  is  quinquepartite,  the  corolla 
campanulated,andihe  capsule  rotundated 
with  hemispheric  receptacles.  There  is 
but  one  species,  found  in  Africa,  near  the 
equinoctial. 

AGAPANTHUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der, of  the  natural  order  of  Liliacae :  the 
calyx  is  a  spathe  ;  the  corolla  is  one  pe- 
talled  ;  the  stamina  are  six  filaments,  in- 
serted into  the  throat,  shorter  than  the 
corolla  ;  the  anthers  kidney-shaped  and 
incumbent ;  the  pistillum  is  a  superior 
germ  ;  the  style  filiform,  of  the  length  of 
three  stamens;  the  stigma  simple  or  tri- 
fid  ;  the  pericarpium  isan  oblong-capsule  ; 
the  seeds  numerous,  oblong,  compressed, 
and  enlarged  with  a  membrane.  There  is 
one  species,  viz.  A.  umbellatus,  or  African 
blue  lily.  This  is  the  African  tube-rose 
hyacinth,  with  a  blue  umbellated  flow- 
er. The  root  of  this  plant  is  compos- 
ed of  thick  fleshy  fibres ;  from  the 
same  head  arises  a  cluster  of  leaves, 
which  are  thick  and  succulent,  and  of  a 
dark  green  colour.  Between  these  issues 
the  flower  stalk,  supporting  an  umbel  of 
blue  flowers  in  a  sheath,  and  oach  flower 

VOL.  F 


standing  on  a  pedicle,  about  an  inch  long. 
The  umbel  being  large,  the  flowers  nu- 
merous, and  of  a  light  blue  colour,  make 
a  fine  appearance.  They  come  out  at  the 
end  of  August,  or  beginning  of  Septem- 
ber, and  frequently  continue  in  beauty  till 
spring.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  from  whence  it  was  brought  to 
Holland,  and  in  1692  it  was  cultivated  at 
Hampton  court. 

This  plant  is  propagated  by  offsets,  ta- 
ken at  the  latter  end  of  June,  planted  in 
separate  pots,  with  light  kitchen -garden 
earth,  and  placed  in  a  shady  situation. 
In  five  weeks  the  offsets  will  put  off  new 
roots,  and  the  pots  should  then  be  re- 
moved to  a  more  sunny  situation,  and  have 
more  water.  In  September  they  will  put 
out  their  flower-stalks,  and  toward  the 
end  of  the  month  the  flowers  will  begin 
to  open,  and  should  be  removed  under 
shelter  in  bad  weather,  but  in  good  wea- 
ther exposed  to  the  free  air.  Toward  the 
end  of  October  they  should  be  removed 
to  the  green-house,  and  have  the  benefit 
of  free  air,  and  be  occasionally  watered 
during  winter,  in  mild  weather,  but  in 
frost  they  should  be  kept  dry. 

AGARIC,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  or- 
der of  fungi,  and  class  of  Cryptogamia: 
the  pileus  or  cap  has  gills  underneath, 
and  the  gills  differ  in  substance  from  the 
rest  of  the  plant,  being  composed  of  two 
lamina,  and  the  seeds  are  in  the  gills. 
There  are  nearly  400  species.  Dr.  Wi- 
thering distributes  them  into  three  gene- 
ral classes,  comprehending  those  which 
have  central  stems,  those  with  lateral 
stems,  and  those  which  have  no  stems; 
and  he  again  subdivides  the  two  formei* 
classes  into  such  as  have  solid,  and  such 
as  have  hollow  stems,  with  decurrent, 
fixed,  and  loose  gills,  respectively.  Un- 
der these  heads,  he  arranges  the  species 
by  the  colour  of  the  gills,  Into  those  whose 
gills  are  white,  brown,  red,  buff',  yellow, 
grey,  green,  and  purple  As  this  ingeni- 
ous author  has  formed  a  system,  that 
serves  to  facilitate  the  investigation  and 
description  of  the  several  species  of  Aga- 
rics, we  shall  here  give  a  brief  sketch  of 
the  principles  upon  which  it  is  founded. 
Agarics  are  composed  of  a  cap  or  pile-is, 
with  gills  underneath,  and  are  either  with 
or  without  stems.  The  stems  are  either 
central  or  lateral.  They  have  also  a  root, 
which  is  more  or  less  apparent,  and  some 
of  them,  in  their  unfolded  state,  wholly 
enclosed  in  a  incmbranaceous  or  leather- 
like  case,  called  a  wrapper.  Some  of 
them  have  also  a  curtain,  or  thin  mem- 
brane, extending  from  the  stem  to  the 

F 


AGA 


edge  of  the  pileus,  which  is  rent  as  the 
pileus  expands,  and  soon  vanishes ;  but 
the  part  attached  to  the  stem  often  re- 
mains, and  forms  round  it  a  ring1  which 
is  more  or  less  permanent,  as  its  substance 
is  more  or  less  tender.  Of  all  the  species 
of  Agaric,  one  only  has  been  selected  for 
cultivation  in  our  gardens,  viz.  the  A. 
campestris,  or  common  mushroom,  or 
champignon.  The  gills  of  this  species 
are  loose,  pinky  red,  changing  to  a  liver 
colour,  in  contact  with  the  stem,  but  not 
united  to  it ;  very  thick  set,  irregularly 
disposed,  some  forked  next  the  stem, 
some  next  the  edge  of  the  pileus,  some  at 
both  ends,  and  in  that  case  generally  ex- 
cluding the  intermediate  smaller  gills. 
The  pileus  is  white,  changing  to  brown 
when  old,  and  becoming  scurfy,  irregular- 
ly convex,  fleshy,  flatter  with  age,  from 
two  to  four  inches,  and  sometimes  nine 
inches,  in  diameter,  and  liquefying  in  de- 
cay ;  the  flesh  white.  The  stem  is  so- 
lid, white,  cylindrical,  from  two  to  three 
inches  high,  half  an  inch  in  diameter;  the 
curtain  white  and  delicate.  When  this 
mushroom  first  makes  its  appearance,  it 
is  smooth  and  almost  globular ;  and  in  this 
state  it  is  called  a  button.  This  species 
is  esteemed  the  best  and  most  savoury  of 
the  genus,  and  is  much  in  request  for  the 
table  in  England.  It  is  eaten  fresh,  either 
stewed  or  boiled,  and  preserved,  either  as 
a  pickle  or  in  powder;  and  it  furnishes 
the  sauce  called  Catchup.  The  field 
plants  are  better  for  eating  than  those 
raised  on  artificial  beds,  their  flesh  being 
more  tender  :  and  those  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  them  can  distinguish  them  by 
their  smell.  But  the  cultivated  ones  are 
more  sightly,  may  be  more  easily  collect- 
ed in  the  proper  state  for  eating,  and  are 
firmer  and  better  for  pickling.  The  wild 
mushrooms  are  found  in  parks  and  other 
pastures,  where  the  turf  has  not  been 
ploughed  up  for  many  years,  and  the  best 
time  for  gathering  them  is  August  and 
September. 

AGATE,  a  fossil  compounded  of  vari- 
ous substances,  as  chalcedony,  cornelian, 
jasper,  hornstone,  quartz,  8cc.  These 
different  fossils  do  not  all  occur  in  every 
agate,  commonly  only  two  or  three. 
There  are  different  kinds  of  agate,  as  the 
fortification,  the  landscape,  the  ribbon, 
the  moss,  the  tube,  the  clouded,  the  zoned, 
the  star,  the  fragment,  the  punctuated, 
thepetrefaction,  the  coral,  and  the  jasper 
agate.  No  country  affords  finer  agate,  or 
in  greater  abundance,  than  Germany  :  it 
is  found  in  great  quantity  at  Oberstein, 
\vhera  several  thousand  person's  are  em- 


ployed in  quarrying,  sorting,  cutting1,  arw3 
polishing  it.  It  is  also  found  in  Prance, 
England.  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  very 
beautiful  in  the  East  Indies,  where,  how- 
ever, it  is  confounded  with  onyx.  It  is  cut 
into  vases,  mortars,  snuff-boxes,  and  some- 
times into  plates  for  inlaying  in  tables. 
Very  handsome  specimens  are  made  into 
seals,  and  the  smaller  pieces  are  used  for 
gun  flints.  It  was  highly  valued  by  the 
ancients,  who  executed  many  fine  works 
in  it :  these,  however,  are  only  to  be  found 
in  the  cabinets  of  the  rich.  The  collec- 
tions of  Brunswick  and  Dresdenarare  re-* 
markable  for  beautiful  specimens  of  this 
kind. 

AGATHOPHYLLUM,  a  genus  of  the 
Dodecandria  Monogynia  class  and  order: 
calyx  very  minute,  truncate  ;  petals  six, 
inserted  into  the  calyx;  drupe  somewhat 
globular ;  nut  half  five-celled,  one  seed- 
ed ;  kernel  five-lobed.  One  species,  viz. 
A.  aromaticum,  a  tree  in  Madagascar, 
with  an  aromatic  rufous  bark. 

AGAVE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Hex- 
andria  Monogynia  class  and  order,  of 
the  natural  order  of  Coronariz  :  it  has  no 
calyx  :  the  corolla  is  one-petalled  and 
funnel-shaped  ;  the  stamina  are  filiform  ; 
the  anthers  linear  ;  the  pistillum  is  an  ob- 
long germen  ;  the  style  filiform  ;  the  stig- 
ma headed  and  three  cornered;  theperi- 
carpium  is  oblong,  and  the  seeds  are  nu- 
merous. There  are  seven  species,  of 
which  we  shall  notice  the  A.  Americana, 
or  great  American  Aloe,  whose  stems., 
when  vigorous,  rise  upwards  of  twenty 
feet  high,  (one  in  the  king  of  Prussia's 
garden  rose  to  forty  feet,)  and  branch 
out  on  every  side,  so  as  to  form  a  kind 
of  pyramid,  composed  of  greenish  yel- 
low flowers,  which  stand  erect,  and  come 
out  in  thcik  clusters  at  every  joint. 
The  seeds  do  not  come  to  maturity  in 
England.  When  this  plant  flowers,  it 
makes  a  beautiful  appearance  ;  and  if  it 
be  protected  from  the  cold  in  autumn,  a 
succession  of  new  flowers  will  be  pro- 
duced for  nearly  three  months  in  favour- 
able seasons.  It  has  been  a  common  er- 
ror, that  this  plant  does  not  flower  till  it 
is  one  hundred  years  old :  the  truth  is,  that 
the  flowering  depends  on  its  growth  ;  so 
that  in  hot  countries  it  will  flower  in  a  few 
years  ;  but  in  colder  climates  the  growth 
is  slower,  and  it  will  be  much  longer  be- 
fore it  shoots  up  a  stem.  The  first  that 
flowered  in  England  is  said  to  have  been 
Mr.  Cowell's  at  Hoxton,  in  1729;  but  they 
have  occurred  so  often  since  that  time, 
that  they  are  now  scarcely  considered  as 
rarities.  Few  of  the  variety  with  yellow- 


AGE 


AGE 


edged  leaves  have  yet  blossomed.  There 
are  hedges  of  the  common  agave  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  Sic;!y,  and  Calabria  ;  it  flourish- 
es also  ubout  Naples,  and  in  other  parts 
of  Italy.  The  juice  of  the  leaves,  strain- 
ed, and  reduced  to  a  thick  consistence, 
by  being  exposed  to  the  sun,  may  be 
made  up  into  balls  by  means  of  lye-ashes. 
It  will  lather  with  salt  water  as  well  as 
fresh.  The  leaves,  instead  of  passing 
between  the  rollers  of  a  mill,  may  be 
pounded  in  a  wooden  mortar,  and  the 
juice  brought  to  a  consistence  by  the  sun, 
or  by  boiling.  A  gallon  of  juice  will  yield 
about  a  pound  of  soft  extract.  The  leaves 
are  also  used  for  scouring  pewter,  or 
other  kitchen  utensils,  and  floors.  In  Al- 
garvia,  where  pasture  is  scarce,  they  are 
cut  in  thin  transverse  slices,  and  given  to 
cattle.  The  inward  substance  of  the  de- 
cayed stalk  will  serve  for  tinder.  The 
fibres  of  the  leaves,  separated  by  braising 
and  steeping  in  water,  and  afterwards 
beating  them,  will  make  a  thread  for  com- 
mon uses.  Varieties  of  the  common 
American  agave,  with  gold  and  silver 
striped  leaves,  are  not  now  uncommon  in 
the  English  gardens.  The  Karatto  agave 
is  a  variety  brought  from  St.  Christo- 
pher's, and  the  name  is  given  to  other 
species  of  this  genus,  and  has  leaves  from 
2  J  to  3  feet  long,  and  about  3  inches  broad, 
ending  in  a  black  spine,  and  more  erect 
than  those  of  the  others.  This  sort  has 
not  flowered  in  England.  Linnaeus  has 
separated  this  genus  from  the  aloe,  be- 
cause the  stamina  and  style  are  extended 
much  longer  than  the  corolla,  and  the 
corolla  rests  upon  the  germ.  Besides, 
all  the  agaves  have  their  central  leaves 
closely  folding  over  each  other,  and  em- 
bracing the  flower-stem  in  the  centre  ;  so 
that  these  never  flower  till  all  the  leaves 
are  expanded,  and  when  the  flower  is  past, 
the  plants  die.  Whereas  the  flower-stem 
of  the  aloe  is  produced  on  one  side  of  the 
centre,  annually,  from  the  same  plant,  and 
the  leaves  are  more  expanded  than  in  this 
genus. 

AGE,  in  horsemanship,  makes  a  consi- 
derable point  of  knowledge,  the  horse 
being  an  animal  that  remarkably  shews 
the  progress  of  his  years  by  correspon- 
dent alterations  in  his  body.  We  have 
the  chief  characteristics  from  his  teeth. 
The  first  year  he  has  only  small  grinders 
and  gatherers,  of  abrightish  colour,  which 
are  called  foal's  teeth.  The  second  year 
he  changes  his  four  foremost  teeth,  viz. 
two  above,  and  two  below,  and  they  ap- 
pear browner  and  bigger  than  the  rest. 
The  third  year  he  changes  the  teeth  next 


these,  leaving  no  apparent  foal's  teeth  be- 
fore, but  two  above,  and  two  below,  on 
each  side,  which  are  all  bright  and  small. 
The  fourth  year  he  changes  the  teeth  next 
these,  and  leaves  no  more  foal's  teeth  be- 
fore, but  one  above  and  below,  on  each 
side.  The  fifth  year  his  foremost  teeth 
are  all  changed,  and  the  tushes  on  each 
side  are  complete  ;  and  those  which  sue- 
ceed  the  last  foal's  teeth  are  hollow,  with 
a  small  black  speck  in  the  middle,  which 
is  called  the  mark  in  the  horse's  mouth, 
and  continues  till  he  is  eight  years  old. 
The  sixth  year  there  appear  new  tushes, 
near  which  is  visible  some  young  flesh,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  tush,  the  tushes  being 
white,  small,  short,  and  sharp.  The  se- 
venth year  his  teeth  are  at  their  full 
growth,  and  the  mark  in  his  mouth  ap- 
pears very  plain.  At  eight  all  his  teeth 
are  full,  plain,  and  smooth,  and  the  black 
mark  but  just  discernible,  the  tushes 
looking  more  yellow  than  ordinary.  The 
ninth,  his  foremost  teeth  shew  longer, 
broader,  yellower,  and  fouler,  than  before, 
the  mark  quite  disappearing,  and  the 
tushes  bluntish.  At  ten  no  holes  are  felt 
on  the  inside  of  the  upper  tushes,  which, 
till  then,  are  easily  felt.  At  eleven  his 
teeth  are  very  long,  yellow,  black,  and 
foul,  and  stand  directly  opposite  each, 
other.  At  twelve  the  teeth  of  his  upper 
jaw  hang  over  those  of  his  under.  At 
thirteen  his  tushes  are  worn  almost  close 
to  his  chaps,  if  he  has  been  much  ridden  ; 
otherwise  they  will  be  long,  black,  and 
foul. 

AGE  likewise  denotes  certain  periods 
of  the  duration  of  the  world.  Thus, 
among  Christian  chronologers,  we  meet 
with  the  age  of  the  law  of  nature,  which 
comprehends  the  whole  time  between 
Adam  and  Moses  ;  the  age  of  the  Jewish 
law,  which  takes  in  all  the  time  from  Mo- 
ses to  Christ ;  and  lastly,  the  age  of  grace, 
or  the  number  of  years  elapsed  since  the 
birth  of  Christ. 

Among  ancient  historians,  the  duration 
of  the  world  is  also  subdivided  into  cer- 
tain periods,  called  ages4;  of  which  they 
reckon  three  :  the  first,  reaching  from  the 
creation  to  the  deluge,  which  happened 
in  Greece,  during  the  reign  of  Ogyges,  is 
called  the  obscure  or  uncertain  age  ;  the 
history  of  mankind,  during  that  period, 
being  altogether  uncertain.  The  second, 
called  the  tabulous  or  heroic,  terminates 
at  the  first  olympiad;  where  the  third,  or 
historical,  age  commences. 

The  ancient  poets  also  divided  the  du- 
ration of  the  world  into  four  ages,  or  pe- 
riods :  the  first  of  which  thev  called  the 


AGG 


AGI 


golden  age,  the  second  the  silver  age,  the 
third  the  brazen  age,  the  fourth  the  iron 
age.  Not  unlike  these  are  the  four  ages 
of  the  world,  as  computed  by  the  East  In- 
dians, who  extend  them  to  a  monstrous 
length. 

AGE,  in  law,  signifies  certain  periods 
of  life,  when  persons  of  both  sexes  are 
enabled  to  do  certain  acts,  which,  for  want 
of  years  and  d'scrt  lion,  they  were  incapa- 
ble of  before.  Thus,  a  man  at  twelve 
years  of  age  ought,  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  king,  in  a  lect:  at  four- 
teen, .vhich  is  his  age  of  discretion,  he 
nu.y  consent  to  marriage,  choose  his  guar- 
dian, and  claim  his  Kinds  held  in  socage. 

Twenty-one  is  called  full  age,  a  man 
or  woman  being  then  capable  of  acting 
for  themselves,  of  managing  their  affairs, 
•nuking  contracts,  disposing  of  their  es- 
tates, and  'he  like ;  which  before  that  age 
they  could  not  do.  A  woman  is  dowable 
at  nine  years  of  age,  may  consent  to  mar- 
ry at  twelve,  and  at  fourteen  choose  her 
guardian,  and  at  twenty -one  may  alienate 
her  lands. 

AGE,  in  military  affairs.  A  young  man 
must  be  fourteen  years  of  age,  before  he 
can  become  un  officer  in  the  line,  or  be 
entered  as  a  cadet  at  Woolwich.  Persons 
may  be  enlisted  as  soldiers  from  sixteen 
to  forty-iive  ;  after  the  latter  age,  every 
inhabitant  is  exempted  from  serving  in  the 
militia. 

AGENT,  in  iaw,  a  person  appointed  to 
transact  the  business  of  another.  It  is  a 
principle  of  law,  that  whenever  a  man  has- 
a  power,  as  owner,  to  do  a  thing,  he  may, 
as  consistent  with  his  ngiit,  do  it  by  de- 
puty, either  as  agent,  factor,  or  servant.  If 
a  person  be  appointed  a  general  agent, 
_the  principal  is  bound  by  all  his  acts. 
But  an  agent,  specially  appointed,  cannot 
bind  Ins  principal  by  an  act  whereby  he 
exceeds  his  authority. 

AGERATUM,  maudlin,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  Syngenesla  Polygamia  JE- 
qualis  class  of  plants,  with  a  monopetalous 
personated  flower,  and  an  oblong  mem- 
branaceous  fruit,  divided  into  two  cells, 
which  contain  a  number  of  minute  seeds, 
affixed  to  a  placenta.  There  are  two 
species. 

AGGREGATE,  in  botany,  is  a  term 
used  to  express  those  flowers  which  are 
corn;. used  of  parts  or  florets,  so  united  or 
incorporated  by  means  cither  of  the  recep- 
tacle or  calyx,  that  no  one  of  them  can  be 
taken  away  without  destroying  the  form 
of  the  whole.  They  are  opposed  to  sim- 
ple flowers  that  have,  no  such  common 
part,  which  is  either  the  receptacle  or  the 


calyx,  and  are  usually  divided  into  seveu 
kinds,  viz.  the  aggregate,  properly  so  call- 
ed, whose  receptacle  is  dilated,  and  whose 
florets  are  supported  by  foot-stalks  ;  such 
are  the  blue  daisy,  thrift,  or  sea-pink,  &c.: 
the  compound,  which  consist  of  several 
florets,  that  are  placed,  without  partial 
peduncles,  on  a  common  dilated  recepta- 
cle, and  within  a  common  perianth  mm  ; 
and  where  each  floret  hath  its  proper  ca- 
lyx ;  it  is  also  a  perianthium  :  umbellate, 
when  the  flower  consists  of  many  florets 
placed  on  fastigate  peduncles,  proceeding 
from  the  same  stem  or  receptacle ;  and 
which,  though  of  different  lengths,  rise  to 
such  a  height  as  to  form  a  regular  head 
or  umbel,  flat,  convex,  or  concave  :  cy- 
mous,  when  several  fastigate  peduncles 
proceed  from  the  same  centre,  like  the 
umbel,  and  rise  to  nearly  an  even  height ; 
but,  unlike  the  umbel,  the  secondary  or 
partial  peduncles  proceed  without  any 
regular  order,  as  in  sambuctis,  viburnum, 
&c. :  amentaceous,  which  have  a  long 
common  receptacle  ;  along  these  are  dis- 
posed squamae  or  scales,  which  form  that 
sort  of  calyx  called  the  Amentum  :  glu- 
mose,  which  proceed  from  a  common 
husky  calyx  belonging  to  grasses,  called 
Gluma,  many  of  which  flowers  are  placed 
on  a  common  receptacle  called  Rachis, 
collecting  the  florets  into  the  spikes,  as 
triticum,  hordeum,  bolium,  &c.  :  and  spa- 
diceous,  which  have  a  common  recepta- 
cle, protruded  from  within  a  common  ca- 
lyx, called  Spatha,  along  which  are  dis- 
posed several  florets.  Such  a  receptacle 
is  called  a  Spadix,  and  is  either  branched, 
as  in  p  ham  be ;  or  simple,  as  in  narcissus, 
&c.  In  this  last  case,  the  florets  may  be 
disposed  all  around  it;  as  in  calla,  draco- 
nitum,  &c.;  on  the  lower  part  of  it,  as  in 
arum,  &c. ;  or  on  one  side,  as  in  zostera, 
&c.  These  flowers  have  generally  no 
partial  calyx. 

AGGIIEGATE,  in  the  Linnsean  system 
of  botany,  is  one  of  the  natural  methods 
of  classing  plants,  and  comprehending1 
those  which  have  aggregate  flowers. 

AGGREGATION,  in  chemistry,  de- 
notes the  adhesion  of  parts  of  the  same, 
kind.  Thus,  pieces  of  sulphur  united  by 
fusion  form  an  aggregate. 

AGIO,  in  commerce,  a  term  chiefly 
used  in  Holland  and  at  Venice,  where  it 
denotes  the  difference  between  the  value 
of  bank  stock  and  the  current  coin.  Mo- 
ney in  bank  is  commonly  worth  more  than 
specie  :  thus,  at  Amsterdam,  they  give 
103  or  104  florins  for  every  100  florins  in 
bank.  At  Venice,  the  agio  is  fixed  at 
20  per  cent,  See-  EXC'EULNGE.  Agio  is 


AGR 


AGR 


also  used  for  the  profit  arisimg  from  the 
discounting1  a  note,  bill,  &c.  Agio  of  as- 
surance, is  the  same  with  what  we  call 
policy  of  assurance.  See  ASSURANCE. 

AGREEMENT,  in  law,  signifies  the 
consent  of  several  persons  to  any  thing- 
done,  or  to  be  done. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  agreement. 
First,  an  agreement  already  executed  at 
the  beginning,  as  when  money  is  paid,  or 
other  satisfaction  made  for  the  thing 
agreed  to.  Secondly,  an  agreement  after 
an  act  done  by  another,  to  which  a  person 
agrees  :  this  is  also  executed.  Thirdly, 
an  agreement  executory,  or  to  be  execut- 
ed in  time  to  come. 

An  agreement  put  in  writing  does  not 
change  its  nature  ;  but  if  it  be  sealed  and 
delivered,  it  becomes  still  stronger  ;  nay, 
any  writing  under  hand  and  seal,  or  a 
proviso  amounting  to  an  agreement,  is 
equivalent  to  a  covenant. 

AGRICULTURE,  is  the  science  which 
explains  the  means  of  making  the  earth 
produce,  in  plenty  and  perfection,  those 
vegetables,  which  are  necessary  to  the 
subsistence  or  convenience  of  man.  Its 
practice  demands  a  considerable  know- 
ledge of  the  relations  subsisting  between 
the  most  important  objects  of  nature.  It 
is  eminently  conducive  to  the  advantage 
of  those  actively  engaged  in  it,  by  its 
tendency  to  promote  their  health,  and  to 
cherish  in  them  a  manly  and  ingenuous 
character  ;  and  every  improvement  made 
in  the  art  must  be  considered  as  of  high 
utility,  as  it  facilitates  the  subsistence  of  a 
greater  proportion  of  rational  and  moral 
agents;  or,  if  we  suppose  the  number  to 
be  unincreased,  furnishes  them  with 
greater  opportunities  than  could  be  pos- 
sessed before,  of  obtaining  that  intellec- 
tual and  moral  enjoyment,  which  is  the 
most  honourable  characteristic  of  their 
nature.  The  strength  of  nations  is  in 
proportion  to  their  skilful  cultivation  of 
the  soil ;  and  their  independence  is  se- 
cured, and  their  patriotism  animated,  by 
obtaining  from  their  native  spot  all  the 
requisites  for  easy  and  vigorous  subsist- 
ence. 

Not  only  to  raise  vegetables  for  the 
use  of  man,  but  those  animals  also  which 
are  used  for  food,  is  obviously  therefore 
part  of  the  occupation  of  the  husband- 
man; and  to  assist  him  in  his  operations, 
other  animals  are  to  be  reared  and  fed  by 
him,  to  relieve  his  labours  by  their 
strength  and  endurance  of  exertion.  In 
cold  and  comparatively  infertile  climates, 
the  serv  ces  of  these  creatures  are  par- 
ticularly  important,  if  not  absolutely  in- 


dispensable, and  their  health  and  mul- 
tiplication become,  consequently,  objects 
of  great  and  unremitted  attention. 

The  period  of  the  introduction  of 
agriculture  into  Britain  is  unknown. 
Pliny  observes  that,  at  the  time  of  the 
Roman  invasion,  the  inhabitants  were  ac- 
quainted with  certain  manures,  particu- 
larly marl.  During  the  possession  of  the 
island  by  the  Romans,  great  quantities  of 
grain  were  exported  from  it,  and  it  can 
not  be  doubted  that,  as  in  various  other 
respects,  the  rude  inhabitants  derived  ad- 
vantage from  their  enlightened  conquer- 
ors; they  were  eminently  benefited  by 
their  agricultural  experience.  Amidst  the 
series  of  contest  and  confusions  which  fol- 
lowed the  final  abandonment  of  Britain  by 
the  Romans,  the  art  and  practice  of  hus- 
bandry must  be  presumed  to  have  become 
retrograde.  From  the  Norman  conquest, 
however,  it  derived  fresh  vigour,  as  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Flemish  farmers,  by 
this  revolution,  became  proprietors  of 
British  estates,  and  introduced  that  know- 
ledge of  the  means  of  cultivation,  for 
which  their  own  country  had  been  long 
distinguished. 

Before  the  sixteenth  century  few  data 
are  afforded,  witli  respect  to  the  details  of 
agricultural  practice  in  this  island.  At 
this  period  it  derived  a  valuable  impulse 
from  the  exertions  of  Fitzherbert,  a  judge 
of  the  common  pleas,  whose  treatises  on 
the  subject  were  read  with  avidity,  and, 
while  they  abounded  in  instruction,  ex- 
cited a  taste  and  emulation  for  the  pur- 
suits of  husbandry.  Sir  Hugh  Platt  fol- 
lowed this  path  of  genuine  patriotism 
with  great  assiduity,  modesty,  and  public 
advantage,  treating  particularly  on  the 
subject  of  manuring.  Gabriel  Platter 
held  out  to  his  countrymen  the  light  of 
genius,  guided  by  experience.  Captain 
Blyth,  in  1652,  published  a  judicious 
treatise,  containing-  directions  for  water- 
ing lands.  And  Hartlib,  the  friend  of 
Millan,  in  a  work  called  the  Legacy,  sug- 
gested the  establishment  of  a  national  in- 
stitution for  the  encouragement  of  hus- 
bandry, and  stimulated  to  the  practice  of 
it  a  number  of  country  gentlemen.,  whom 
the  violence  and  changes  of  the  times 
had  reduced  to  a  situation,  in  which  they 
found  it  requisite  to  avail  themselves  of 
all  means  and  resources  to  extricate 
themselves  from  comparative  impoverish- 
ment. Evelyn  and  Jethro  Tull  were,  at  a 
somewhat  later  period,  of  eminent  service 
in  directing  the  attention  of  their  contem- 
poraries from  the  grossness  and  pollutions 
of  voluptuousness,  to  tins  most  valuable 


AGRICULTURE. 


department  of  avt ;  the  former,  by  his 
treatise  on  plants;  the  latter,  by  his  re- 
Commendation  of  the  practice  of  drill 
husbandry.  Since  their  successful  and  in- 
genious efforts,  a  series  of  valuable  ex- 
perimentalists and  writers  have  performed 
to  their  country  very  essential  service,  by 
communicating  the  most  useful  informa- 
tion, and  exciting1  a  spirit  of  acute  re- 
search and  unwearied  exertion. 

In  France,  the  political  expedience  of 
guarding  against  that  scarcity,  which,  in 
time  of  war,  either  necessitated  the  yield- 
ing to  harsh  terms  from  the  enemy,  or 
exposed  to  the  miseries  and  horrors  of 
famine,  by  continued  hostilities,  induced 
the  government,  in  the  late  reigns,  to  be- 
stow on  the  subject  of  agriculture  con- 
siderable attention,  and  to  hold  out  nu- 
merous encouragements  to  it.  The  court 
was  present  at  various  experiments  in 
husbandry.  Prize  questions  were  pro- 
posed at  Lyons,  Bourdeaux,  and  Amiens, 
for  its  promotion,  and  no  less  than  fifteen 
societies,  for  the  express  purpose  of  ad- 
vancing agriculture,  were  established, 
•wit!)  the  approbation,  probably  at  the  sug- 
gestion, of'  the  governing  powers.  But, 
notwithstanding  all  those  efforts,  which, 
however,  can  by  no  means  be  presumed 
to  have  been  totally  useless,  French  hus- 
bandry continued  in  a  very  deplorable 
state,  ascribable,  in  a  great  degree,  to  that 
tenure  of  lands,  by  which,  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  kingdom,  the  land- 
lord contributed  the  stock,  and  the  occu- 
pier the  labour,  dividing  the  profits  in 
certain  proportional  shares.  This  cir- 
cumstance, with  several  others,  operated 
to  keep  the  cultivation  of  this  country  in 
an  extremely  low  state ;  and  a  compara- 
tive estimate  of  the  produce  of  an  Eng- 
lish and  of  a  French  estate,  of  precisely 
similar  natural  advantages,  at  the  period 
when  this  practice  prevailed,  would  shew 
that,  in  consequence,  principally,  of  so 
absurd  and  perverse  a  regulation,  the  su- 
periority of  the  former  to  the  latter  was 
at  least  in  the  ratio  of  36  to  25.  But  the 
revolution  of  France,  changing  every 
thing,  has  swept  away,  with  many  excel- 
lent individuals,  and  some  valuable  insti- 
tutions, a  practice  so  impolitic  and  injuri- 
ous ;  and  although  our  intercourse  with 
that  country,  since  this  event,  has  scarce- 
ly been  such  as  to  afford  accurate  and 
detailed  information  of  the  present  state 
of  its  husbandly,  it  cannot  easily  be 
doubted,  that  the  repeated  transfers  of 
landed  property,  the  annihilation  of  par- 
tial burdens  upon  cultivation,  the  re- 
searches of  ingenious  chemists,  and  the 


general  view  of  government  to  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  its  territory,  and  to  the 
promotion  of  its  arts  and  sciences,  must 
be  connected  with  considerable  improve- 
ment in  this  most  valuable  of  national 
concerns. 

In  Germany,  lectures  have  for  many 
years  been  given  on  this  subject,  in  va- 
rious states  of  it  ;  and  several  princes  in 
the  empire,  particularly  the  present  king 
of  Bavaria,  have  directed  to  it  their  parti- 
cular attention  and  patronage.  In  Rus- 
sia, the  late  Empress  gave  it  every  facili- 
ty which  could  be  applied  in  the  semi- 
barbarous  state  of  her  dominions,  and 
sent  gentlemen  into  this  and  ot-her  coun- 
tries, with  a  view  to  acquire  information 
on  rural  economy,  for  the  benefit  of  their 
own.  In  the  Dutchy  of  Tuscany,  the 
Archduke  Leopold  recently  diffused  the 
active  spirit  of  improvement  by  which  he 
was  himself  animated,  and  an  academy 
was  endowed  for  the  promotion  of  agri- 
culture. A  society  for  the  same  purpose 
was  instituted  about  the  year  1759,  at 
Berne,  in  Switzerland,  consisting  of  men 
of  great  political  influence,  and  also  of 
great  personal  experience  in  rural  econo- 
mics. The  Stockholm  Memoirs  suffi- 
ciently evince  that  Sweden,  under  the 
influence  of  the  great  Linnaeus,  applied 
to  this  science  with  extraordinary  success 
and  advantage.  Even  the  indolence  and 
pride  of  Spain  were  roused  to  exertion 
on  this  interesting  subject,  and  the  go- 
vernment of  that  country  made  overtures 
to  the  Swedish  philosopher,  for  the  su- 
perintendance  of  a  college  directed  to  the 
advance  of  natural  history,  and  the  art  of 
husbandry. 

In  our  'own  country,  however,  from  a 
happy  combination  of  circumstances,  the 
exertions  of  individuals,  societies,  and 
government,  have  been  directed,  within 
the  last  thirty  years,  to  the  subject  under 
consideration,  with  more  energy  and  effect 
than  have  been  displayed  in  any  other 
part  of  Europe.  The  gentry  and  nobility 
have  liberally  patronized,  and  many  of 
them  judiciously  and  successfully  prac- 
tised it.  The  Royal  Society,  the  Society 
of  Arts,  and  various  others,  have  been 
of  distinguished  service  in  collecting"  and 
diffusing  information,  and  in  promoting  a 
spirit  of  emulation,  with  respect  to  the 
management  and  productions  of  their 
native  soil.  The  names  of  Kaims  and 
Hunter,  of  Anderson  and  Marshall,  of 
Sinclair  and  Young,  are  celebrated  by 
publications,  exhibititi;-;  a  union  of  philo- 
sophical sagacity  aad  patient  experiment; 
the  results  of  which  have  been  of  meal- 


AGRICULTURE. 


culable  advantage ;  and  to  the  efforts  of 
these  and  other  individuals  it  may  be 
ascribed,  that  a  board  of  agriculture  was 
established  by  the  government  in  1793, 
whose  exertions  in  procuring  and  pub- 
lishing intelligence  on  the  objects  of  its 
establishment  have  entitled  it  to  the  high- 
est credit.  By  its  agricultural  surveys,  by 
its  diffusion  of  rewards  for  important  dis- 
coveries, and  of  premiums  for  valuable 
treatises,  and  by  its  exertions  at  critical 
periods  of  scarcity,  its  utility  and  merit 
may  be  considered  not  only  as  decided, 
but  distinguished.  It  has  the  power  of 
directing  public  attention  to  any  topics 
particularly  requiring  practical  research 
or  illustration,  and  possesses  the  means  of 
most  advantageously  diffusing  its  collec- 
tions, circumstances  of  high  importance 
to  the  utility  of  the  establishment.  It 
must  be  regarded  as  its  privilege,  as  well 
as  duty,  to  suggest,  from  time  to  time,  to 
the  legislature,  means  for  removing  va- 
rious impediments,  still  existing,  to  the 
perfection  of  the  art,  for  the  promotion  of 
which  it  is  expressly  instituted. 

On  Inclosing-  and  Draining. 

Inclosing  of  lands  must  be  considered 
as  the  grand  foundation  of  all  improve- 
ments. When  remaining  open,  litigations 
between  neighbours  are  perpetually  oc- 
curring, and  the  ingenuity  of  any  indi- 
vidual proprietor  is  of  little  use  to  him, 
as  he  is  obliged  to  follow  the  practice 
pursued  by  the  ignorant  and  obstinate 
occupiers  of  the  common  property  in 
which  he  shares.  In  connection  with 
inclosures  may  be  considered  the  practice 
of  draining  lands,  which  is  the  next  step 
in  rendering  them  productive.  The  su- 
perabundance of  water  is  no  less  injuri- 
ous to  vegetation  than  the  absolute  want 
of  it :  and,  whether  arising  from  rain 
stagnating  on  the  surface,  or  from  springs 
in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  it  is  one  of 
the  most  important  objects  of  the  farmer 
to  prevent  its  pernicious  consequences. 
For  this  purpose,  open  or  visible  drains 
are  in  many  cases  adopted;  while  in  others, 
hollow  ones,  so  called  from  their  being 
concealed  in  covered  trenches,  are  pre- 
fen-ed.  The  width  and  depth  of  open 
drains  must  be  regulated  by  the  variety 
of  soil  and  situation  to  which  they  are 
applied.  To  prevent,  however,  the  sides 
from  falling  in,  they  must  at  top  be  three 
times  the  width  they  have  at  bottom  ; 
while  their  direction  must  obviously,  and 
»f  necessity,  be  descending,  it  should,  at 
the  same  time,  not  be  steep,  as  this  would 


form  inequalities,  and  bear  down  their 
sides  by  the  rapid  rush  of  the  water.  All 
open  drains  should  be  cleared,  at  least, 
once  in  every  year;  which  regular  re- 
pairs may,  in  some  cases,  render  them  in 
the  end  more  expensive  than  those  de- 
nominated hollow,  which  will  sometimes 
last  tor  several  generations  unimpaired, 
but  demand  originally  a  far  greater  sum 
for  their  completion. 

The  practice  of  hollow  draining  was 
known  by  the  Roman  writers  on  agricul- 
ture, and  is  particularly  mentioned  by 
them.  In  stiff  clays  it  is  of  little  service, 
and  it  is  practised  with  desired  effect 
only  where  the  soil  is  of  that  porous  sub- 
stance which  easily  admits  the  passage 
of  the  water  through  it.  Opinions  differ 
with  regard  to  the  season  for  carrying 
these  works  into  execution;  some,  with 
plausable  reason,  preferring  the  summer, 
and  others,  having  nearly  as  much  to 
state  in  recommendation  of  winter  for  the 
purpose.  The  depth  of  the  drain,  from, 
the  surface  of  the  land,  should  generally 
be  from  twenty-six  inches  to  thirty-two  ; 
and  the  principal  rule  for  their  depth  is, 
that  they  should  be  secured  from  receiv- 
ing injury  from  the  feet  of  horses  or  cat- 
tle ploughing  on  the  spot  under  which 
they  are  made  It  is  desirable  to  consti- 
tute the  drain  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
stones  may  lean  towards  each  other,  so  as 
to  form  a  triangle,  of  which  the  bottom  of 
the  drain  forms  the  base  :  in  which  case, 
the  width  of  a  foot  may  be  regarded  as 
sufficient  for  them.  The  ditches  con- 
structed for  these  drains  must  be  execut- 
ed with  great  neatness  and  care ;  and 
with  respect  to  filling  them  up,  which 
they  should  be  about  ten  inches  deep,  if 
stones  are  plentifully  at  hand,  they  should 
be  applied  for  this  purpose.  But  in  many 
places,  faggot-wood,  horns,  bones,  straw, 
fern,  and  even  turf,  laid  in  like  a  wedge, 
are  all  used  in  different  situations ;  and 
drains  constructed  of  these  materials, 
thirty  years  ago,  are  found  in  several 
places  effectually  to  answer  their  purpose 
still.  By  many  pei'sons,  straw,  twisted 
into  a  very  large  rope,  has  been  success- 
fully laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  ;  and 
by  others,  after  twenty  years  experience, 
the  white  thorn  has  been  recommended 
as  answering  better  than  all  other  mate- 
rials. 

Injurious  moisture  in  land  arises  often 
from  springs  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 
The  person  who  first  published  the  me- 
thod of  draining  land,  in  these  circum- 
stances, was  Dr  John  Anderson,  of  Aber- 
deen, while  Mr.  Ettcington  was  actually 


AGRICULTURE. 


practising  upon  the  same  principle,  in  va- 
rious parts  of  England,  with  complete 
success ;  and  at  length  obtained  from  the 
Tiritish  parliament  a  thousand  pounds,  as 
'.he  discoverer  of  so  valuable  an  improve- 
ment. In  Italy  and  Germany,  however, 
it  is  stated  upon  respectable  authority, 
that  the  art  has  been  long  known  and 
practised.  Some  ot  the  strata  of  which  the 
earth  is  composed  will  admit  the  free  pas- 
sage of  water  through  them,  while  others 
•'rtectually  resist  it.  Gravel  is  obviously 
Characterised  by  the  former  quality,  and 
clay  by  the  latter.  The  upper  part  of 
mountains  is  frequently  composed  of  gra- 
vel, which  extends  far  into  their  depth, 
iiul  conveys  with  it  the  water  received 
Mpon  their  surface  from  the  clouds. 
Meeting  with  layers  of  clay  or  rock,  how- 
ever the  water  is  unable  to  permeate 
them,  and  flows  upon  the  upper  part  of 
them  obliquely,  according  to  that  general 
direction  of  the  layers  or  laminse,  which 
form  the  earth  towards  the  plain  or  val- 
ley. After  descending  for  some  way, 
the  layer  of  gravel  along  which  the  water 
had  passed,  and  from  which  it  could  not 
penetrate  the  clay,  flowing  only  on  its 
surface,  often  passes,  in  consequence  of 
the  obliquity  just  mentioned,  under  new- 
strata  of  materials,  consisting  of  clay,  or 
some  substance  equally  difficult  to  be  pe- 
netrated by  moisture.  The  water  is  thus 
confined  between  impervious  beds.  If 
the  layer  of  gravel  Suddenly  stops,  in  such 
circumstances,  as  it  often  does,  the  water 
which  it  had  conveyed  between.these  two 
beds,  deriving  fresh  accumulation  perpe- 
tually from  its  original  source,  will  at 
length  permeate  the  superior  layer,  as- 
cending through  its  weaker  parts,  and 
arriving  at  last  at  the  surface,  will  there 
stagnate.  The  art  of  draining  lands  in 
this  situation  (the  principle  of  which,  in 
whatever  research  or  casualty  its  disco- 
very originated,  is  of  such  happy  applica- 
tion) consists  merely  of  digging  or  boring 
with  an  auger  into  the  earth,  so  as  to  reach 
the  layer  of  gravel ;  the  water  in  which, 
finding  an  easy  and  rapid  access  upwards 
by  this  vent,  no  longer  presses  in  its  former 
diffused  manner,  to  the  injury  of  the  su- 
perior clay,  which  will  consequently  cease 
to  nourish  moss  and  weeds  through  re- 
dundant moisture,  and  be  fitted  for  the 
purposes  of  useful  cultivation.  The  ap- 
plication of  this  principle  to  the  purposes 
of  improved  husbandry  may  be  consider- 
ed at  present  as  in  its  infancy.  It  may  be 
presumed  that,  in  future  period.-;,  it  may 
be  carried  to  un  extent  of  incalculable 
utility,  and  be  connected  with  the  supply 


of  navigable  canals,  and  the  movement  of 
machinery  adapted  to  various  objects  of 
art  and  commerce.  The  manner  in  which 
the  various  strata  are  intermingled  with 
each  other  must,  it  is  obvious,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  be  ascertained,  before  this 
practice  can  be  applied  with  certainty  of 
success  ;  and  the  surest  way  of  discover- 
ing their  direction  consists  in  exan.-ni.ng 
the  beds  of  the  nearest  rivers,  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  their  steep  and  broken  bankfl 
The  examination  of  pits,  wells,  and  quar- 
ries, in  the  vicinity,  will  also  contribute 
information  on  the  subject.  Rusiu-*  ind 
other  plants,  which  grow  only  in  moisiure 
injurious  toother  veget;ibles,W!ll  likewise 
often  indicate  where  u  collection  of  water 
is  impeded  in  its  course  beiovv,  and  con- 
sequently presses  upward,  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  useful  vegetation.  In  draining1  a 
large  bog,  it  wilt  be  generally  proper  lo 
dig  a  trench  from  one  end  of  it  to  nie 
other,  with  cross  trenches  at  considerable 
distances,  to  allow  the  water  a  free  dis- 
charge, by  frequently  piercing  ri'.e  '  ottom, 
at  which  the  springs  are  to  be  fo'.md,  with 
an  auger  A  single  perforation  will  fre- 
quently, indeed,  complete  the  object.  In- 
stanceshave  occurred,  in  which  water  thus 
raised  has  been  made  to  ascend,  by  erect- 
ing round  the  perforation  a  building  of 
brick,  lined  both  sides  with  ,,clay,  above 
the  level  of  the  bog%  applicable  to  a  va- 
riety of  purpcses,  and  conveyed  by  pipes, 
or  otherwise,  to  a  considerable  distance. 
Detailed  regulations  for  the  application  of 
this  important  principle,  so  productive  a 
source  of  improved  cultivation,  are  pre- 
cluded by  the  assigned  limits  of  this  ar- 
ticle. ' 

On  Fences. 

Without  firm  and  close  fences,  the  luis 
bandman  might  as  well  cultivate  c-j  en 
fields  as  inclosures,  which  in  thr-v.e  cir- 
cumstances, indeed,  are  only  no;n .->y'Iy 
such.  He  is  imder  perpetual  ar.d  well- 
founded  apprehensions,  Ie.it  cattle  o'.'  his 
own  or  his  neighbours  should  bre:<k  into 
•his  corn  or  hay-fields.  To  prevent  these 
painful  apprehensions  and  irreparable 
mischiefs,  every  attention  must  be  be- 
stowed on  the  fences  of  a  farm.  Large 
and  rich  pastures  may  most  easily  be  di- 
vided into  fields  of  ten  acres  each,  by 
which  the  land  is  less  liable  to  be  injured 
through  the  restlessness,  and  wild  and 
perpetual  movements  of  Cattle,  which  oc- 
cur in  extensive  grounds,  wbere  they  are 
collected  in  C'  ibidem'  ic  numbers.  Di- 
viding banks  being  raised,  they  may  be 


AGRICULTURE. 


.connected  with  the  system  of  draining  by 
a  ditch  on  each  side,  about  three  feet  wide 
at  top  and  four  deep.  The  bank  or 
border  should  be  about  the  width  of  six 
feet  at  the  bottom,  lessening- gradually  to 
three  at  the  top,  at  which  the  height  from 
the  ground  should  be  five  or  six  feet.  On 
each  side  of  the  bank  should  be  planted  a 
single  row  of  quick  thorn.  If  the  thorn 
be  of  the  bullace  or  damson  kind,  it  will 
be  productive  and  profitable.  On  the  top 
of  the  border  filbert  nuts  may  be  planted 
at  the  distance  of  three  feet ;  and,  in  the 
middle,  apple  trees  at  the  distance  of 
five  feet.  This  fence  would  occupy  about 
13  feet,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lon- 
don, particularly,  would  be  found  not  only 
effectual  for  its  main  purpose,  but  a  source 
of  income  as  well  as  the  means  of  defence. 
The  hawthorn,  the  black  thorn,  and  the 
holly,  the  willow,  the  black  alder,  and  the 
birch,  have  all  been  recommended  by  ob- 
servant and  experienced  men,  as  admira- 
bly calculated  to  secure  fields  from  the 
irruptions  of  cattle,  and  will  be  employed 
for  the  purpose,  according  as  particular 
circumstances  of  dryness  or  moisture,  or 
other  considerations  recommend  their  ap- 
plication. Where  there  is  an  abundance 
of  flat  stones,  fences  are  frequently  com- 
posed of  them;  and,  though  not  so  agree- 
able to  the  eye  as  theothers,  and  requiring 
frequent  repair  from  the  stones  being  dis- 
placed by  cattle,  when  kept  in  order  they 
are  the  most  effectual  defence  that  can 
be  procured.  With  respect  to  hedges, 
(which  in  this  country  are  more  usual  as 
well  as  more  pleasing  than  walls,  and 
which,  perhaps,  cannot  in  general  be 
formed  of  any  thing  preferable  to  the 
thorn,  considering  the  quickness  of  its 
growth  in  congenial  soil,  in  which  it  shoots 
six  or  seven  feet  in  a  single  season,  and 
that  it  is  more  disposed  to  lateral  shoots 
than  all  other  trees,  and  by  its  prickles 
is  especially  calculated  for  the  object 
in  view,  in  the  construction  of  hedges,) 
the  proper  method  of  repairing  them  is 
unquestionably  by  plashing.  This  has 
been  defined  a  wattling  made  of  living 
wood.  The  old  wood  must,  in  the  first 
instance,  be  all  cleared  from  the  hedge, 
together  with  brambles  and  irregularly 
growing  stuff",  and  along  the  top  of  the 
bank  should  be  left  standing  the  straight- 
est  and  best  grown  stems  of  thorn,  hazel, 
elm,  oak,  or  ash,  about  the  number  of  six 
in  a  yard.  The  next  step  is  to  repair  the 
ditch,  which,  in  the  driest  soils,  should 
never  be  less  than  three  feet  wide  at  top, 
by  two  and  a  half  deep,  and  six  inches 
wide  at  bottom;  and  in  all  very  moist 
VOL.  I. 


ones  should  be  at  least  four  feet  by  three 
and  one  at  bottom.  The  earth  removed 
from  the  ditch  should  be  thrown  upon  the 
bank,  after  which  the  repair  of  the  hedge 
commences,  and  those  of  the  stems  above 
mentioned,  left  in  cutting  the  old  hedge, 
which  grow  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
new  hedge  is  to  run,  are  cut  off1,  to  serve 
as  hedge  stakes  for  it.  which  being  chosen, 
as  much  as  possible  of  sallow  and  willow 
readily  grow,  and  effectually  preserve  the 
new  part  from  falling  or  leaning.  The 
remainder  of  the  wood  left  standing  is 
then  plashed  down.  One  stroke  is  given 
to  the  stick  near  the  ground,  and  another 
about  ten  or  twelve  inches  higher,  just 
deep  enough  to  slit  out  a  part  of  the  wood 
between  the  two.  leaving  the  stem  sup- 
ported by  about  a  quarter  of  its  original 
size  ;  it  is  then  laid  along  the  top  of  the 
bank,  and  weaved  among  the  hedge- 
stakes  Dead  thorns  are  sometimes 
woven  among  them,  where  there  happens 
to  be  a  scarcity  of  living  wood.  After 
this  operation  the  hedge  is  eddered  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  greatest  part  of  the 
hedge  thus  consists  of  living  materials, 
and  the  importance  of  this  circumstance 
cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon,  as  a 
compact  and  lasting  fence  is  thus  formed, 
while  those  hedges  which  are  constructed 
of  dead  materials  speedily  decay,  and 
crumble  into  the  ditch.  It  would  be  end- 
less to  detail  all  the  varieties  of  fence  which 
peculiar  circumstances  may  have  render^ 
ed  expedient,  or  human  ingenuity  may 
have  invented.  The  most  usual  and  most 
generally  applicable  are  those  which  have 
been  mentioned. 

Imgation. 

Watering  of  meadows  was  used  in  Eng- 
land even  in  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  was  carried  on  upon  a  large  scale  by 
Rowland  Vaughan,  in  the  golden  valley  of 
Herefordshire.  He  likewise  published 
a  treatise  on  the  subject.  After  this  pe- 
riod, and  about  a  century  since,  it  was 
introduced  by  Mr.  Welladvise  into  Glou- 
cestershire, with  abundant  proofs  of  its 
efficacy  and  importance.  So  slow,  how- 
ever, is  the  progress  of  improvement,  that 
it  is  only  of  late  years  that  this  over- 
flowing of  grounds,  in  nearly  all  other 
situations  as  well  as  in  level  ones,  has 
been  brought  considerably  into  use.  It 
is  a  practice  by  which,  in  mild  seasons, 
grass  is  produced  in  extreme  abundance, 
even  so  early  as  in  March ;  grass,  too, 
particularly  nutritious  as  well  as  plen- 
tiful, on  which  cattle  which  have  win- 

G 


AGRICULTURE. 


tered  hardly  thrive  with  great  rapidity, 
and  on  which  young  lambs  feed  with  sur- 
prising advantage.  Between  March  and 
May,  the  feed  of  meadows,in  consequence 
of  this  practice,  is  estimated  at  worth  one 
guinea  per  acre  ;  after  which  an  acre  will 
yield  two  tons  of  hay  in  June,  while  the 
after-math  may  be  valued  at  twenty  shil- 
lings. In  consequence  of  this  manage- 
ment, moreover,  the  land  is  continually 
improving  in  quality,  its  herbage  advan- 
cing in  fineness,  the  soil  becoming  more 
firm  and  sound,  and  the  depth  of  its 
mould  being  augmented  It  may  be  esti- 
mated that,  in  each  county  in  England  and 
Wales,  two  thousand  acres  may  be  increas- 
ed in  value  one  pound  per  acre,  by  means 
of  irrigation  ;  a  national  advantage  of  seri- 
ous mordent,  and  drawing  after  it  the  great 
improvement  r>f  other  lands,  and  the  em- 
ployment of  many  honest  and  industrious 
poor.  Hie  principles  on  which  the  prac- 
tice depends  have  no  portion  of  difficulty 
and  complexity  whatever.  Water  will  al- 
ways rise  to  the  level  of  the  receptacle 
from  which  it  is  derived.  All  streams  de- 
scending in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
which  is  indicated  by  their  smooth  and 
slow,  or  their  agitated  and  noisy  progress, 
it  ia  obvious  that  a  main  or  trench  may  be 
taken  from  a  river,  vhich  will  convey  wa- 
ter over  the  land  by  the  side  of  that  river 
to  a  considerable  distance  below  the  head 
of  the  main,  where  the  river  from  which 
it  is  taken  flows  greatly  below  it.  As 
water,  however,  if  left  to  stagnate  upon 
land,  does  it  very  considerable  injury, 
instead  of  benefiting  it,  by  cherishing 
flags,  rushes,  and  other  weeds,  it  is  requi- 
site to  ascertain,  before  it  be  introduced 
upon  any  spot,  that  it  can  be  easily  and 
effectually  drained  off. 

The  muddiness  of  the  water  applied  is 
stated  by  some  to  be  of  little  consequence, 
and  several  writers  have  even  laid  it  down 
as  a  nrtuxim,  that  the  purer  or  clearer  the 
water  is,  the  more  beneficial  are  its  effects. 
These  opinions,  however,  appear  to  be 
directly  contradicted  by  experience;  and 
it  may  be  affirmed,  that  the  mud  of  water, 
particularly  in  some  situations,  is  nearly 
of  as  much  consequence  in  winter  water- 
ing, as  dung  is  in  the  improvement  of  a 
poor  upland  field.  Every  meadow  will 
be  found  productive,  proportionally  to  the 
quantity  of  mud  collected  from  the  water. 
Those  meadows  which  lie  next  below  any 
village  or  town  are  uniformly  most  rapid 
and  plentiful  in  their  growth.  So  well 
known  is  this  truth,  that  disputes  are  per- 
petually arising  concerning  the  first  appli- 
cation of  water  to  lands;  and  when  mud 


is  supposed  to  be  collected  at  the  bottom 
of  a  river,  or  in  ditches,  many  persons  will 
employ  labourers  with  rakes,  for  several 
days  together,  to  disturb  it,  that  it  may 
be  carried  down  by  the  water,  and  spread 
upon  the  meadows.  The  more  turbid  and 
feculent  the  water,  the  more  beneficially 
it  acts.  Hasty  and  violent  rains,  produc- 
ing floods,  dissolve  the  salts  of  the  cir- 
cumjacent lands,  and  wash  from  them  con- 
siderable portions  of  the,  manure,  which 
naturally  or  factitiously  had  been  depo- 
sited on  them.  Water  from  a  spring  de- 
pends in  no  small  degree  for  the  quantity 
of  nutriment  it  affords  to  vegetables,  on 
the  nature  of  the  strata  over  which  it 
passes.  If  these  be  metallic,  or  consisting 
of  earth  partaking  of  the  sulphuric  acid, 
it  may  be  really  injurious.  But  that  which 
passes  over  fossil  chalks,  or  any  thing  of 
a  calcareous  nature,  will  highly  promote 
the  process  of  vegetation.  That  which 
has  run  a  long  way  is,  almost  always,  pre- 
ferable to  what  flows  over  land  immedi- 
ately from  the  spring. 

In  mid-winter  great  attention  should  be 
appliedto keeping  watered  lands  sheltered 
by  the  waterfrom  the  rigour  of  night  frosts; 
but  during  the  whole  winter  it  should 
be  withdrawn  once  in  every  twelve  days, 
to  prevent  its  rotting  and  destroying  the 
roots  of  the  grass.  Every  meadow  should 
also  be  attentively  inspected,  to  preserve 
the  equal  distribution  of  the  water  over 
it,  and  to  remove  obstacles  arising  from 
the  influx  of  weeds  and  sticks,  and  other 
similar  causes.  In  the  month  of  Febru- 
ary particular  caution  is  requisite.  If  the 
water  be  suffered  to  remain  many  days 
together  upon  the  fend,  a  white  scum,  ex- 
tremely pernicious,  is  the  consequence  ; 
and  if  the  land  be  exposed,  without  dry- 
ing during  the  course  of  the  day,  to  one 
severe  night  frost,  the  herbage  will  often 
be  completely  cut  off.  Both  these  causes 
of  injury  must  be  carefully  avoided.  A- 
bout  the  middle  of  February  half  the 
quantity  of  water  previously  used  will  be 
better  than  more,  all  that  is  requisite  now 
being  to  keep  the  ground  moist  and  warm, 
and  to  hasten  the  progress  of  vegetation; 
and  in  proportion  as  the  weather  becomes 
warmer,  the  quantity  introduced  should 
proportionally  be  diminished.  An  import- 
ant maxim  in  the  application  of  water  is, 
to  bring  it  on  as  plentifully  as  possible, 
but  to  let  it  pass  off  by  a  brisk  and  nim- 
ble course,  as  not  only  its  stagnation  is 
injurious,  but  by  indolently  creeping  over 
the  land,  it  is  of  much  less'advantage  than 
when  passing  off  quickly  The  spring* 
feeding1  ought  never  to  be  done  by  be.aviev 


AGRICULTURE. 


•cattle  than  sheep  or  calves,  as  others 
would  do  extreme  injury,  by  poaching 
the  ground  with  their  feet,  and  spoiling 
the  trenches.  The  barer  the  meadows 
are  fed  towards  the  close  of  April,  the 
better.  After  clearing,  they  should  have 
a  week's  watering,  with  a  careful  atten- 
tion to  every  sluice  or  drain. 

With  respecttothe  application  offloods, 
a  general  rule,  of  no  slight  importance,  is, 
that  the  farmer  should  avail  himself  of 
them  whenever  the  grass  cannot  be  used, 
as  the  sand  and  mud  brought  down  by 
them  increase  and  enrich  the  soil;  but  that 
he  should  avoid  them  when  the  grass  is 
Jong,  or  soon  to  be  cut,  as  in  flat  countries 
it  is  frequently  spoiled  by  them,  and  much 
of  the  matter  which  they  bring  down, 
sticking  to  the  grass,  renders  it.  peculiar- 
ly unpleasant  to  entile,  which  have  been 
known  in  some  instances  rather  to  starve 
than  use  it. 

So  great  is  the  importance  of  irrigation, 
that  governments  would  be  fully  justified 
in  giving  facility  to  undertaking's  for  con- 
ducting it  on  an  extensive  plan.  The  fer- 
tility, or,  in  other  words,  the  national 
wealth,  capable  of  being  derived  from 
the  application  of  cold  water,  which  is  at 
present  allowed  to  flow  uselessly  away,  to 
the  purposes  of  agriculture,  is  well  wor- 
thy the  attention  of  the  enlightened  and 
benevolent  statesman.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  cities  of  Milan  and  Lodi,  Mr. 
Young  observes,  that  the  exertions  in  ir- 
rigation arc  truly  great,  and  even  astonish- 
ing. "  Canals  are  not  only  numerous  and 
uni?iterrupte(7,  but  conducted  with  great 
skill  and  expense.  Along  the  public 
roads,  almost  every  where,  there  is  one 
canal  on  the  side  of  the  road,  and  some- 
times there  are  two.  Cross  ones  are  thrown 
over  these  on  arches,  and  pass  in  trunks 
of  brick  or  stone  under  the  road.  A  very 
considerable  one,  after  passing  for  seve- 
ral miles  by  the  side  of  the  highway,  sinks 
under  it,  ana  also  under  two  other  canals, 
earned  in  stone  troughs  a  foot  wide.  The 
variety  of  directions  in  which  the  water  is 
carried,  the  ey.se  with  which  it  is  made  to 
flow  in  opposite  directions,  and  the  ob- 
stacles which,  a^e  overcome,  are  objects 
of  admiration.  The  expense  thus  em- 
ployed in  the  twenty  miles  from  Milan  to 
JLodi  is  immense,  and  meritorious  as  ma- 
ny undertakings  in  England  are,  they  sink 
to  nothing  in  comparison  with  these  truly 
great  and  noble  works.  So  well  under- 
stood is  the  value  of  water  in  this  country, 
that  it  is  brought  by  the  farmer  (who  has 
the  power  of  conducting  it  through  his 
neighbour's  ground,  for  a  stipulated  sum, 


and  under  certain  regulations,  to  any  dis 
tance  that  may  suit  him)  from  a  canal  of  a 
certain  size,  at  so  much  an  hour  perweek, 
and  even  from  an  hour  down  to  a  quarter. 
The  usual  price  for  an  hour  per  week  in 
perpetuity  is  fifteen  hundred  livres." 

JITanure,  &c. 

Ingenious  theories  have  too  often,  in 
argiculturai  treatises,  usurped  the  place 
of  recitals  of  attentive  and  patient  expe- 
rience. To  the  latter,  the  judicious  rea- 
der will  ever  bend  his  attention  with  plea- 
sure and  advantage,  rejoicing  that,  while 
the  systems  of  men  are  seen  to  vanish, 
one  after  another,  in  rapid  succession,  like 
the  waves  of  the  ocean,  the  course  of  na- 
ture is  constant,  and  may  be  depended 
upon  through  all  generations  and  ages. 
Of  ail  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  hus- 
bandman, none  so  rarely  disappoints  its 
object  as  that  which  he  employs  in  ma- 
nures. The  use  of  lime  in  this  connec- 
tion has  been  long  decidedly  established- 
It  reduces  to  mould  all  the  dead  roots  of 
vegetables  with  which  the  soil  abounds. 
Its  useful  operation  depends  upon  its  in- 
timate mixture  with  the  land  ;  and  the 
proper  time  therefore  to  apply  it  is,  when 
both  are  in  that  pulverized  state  in  which 
this  union  can  be  best  completed.  If 
left  to  be  slaked  by  humid  air,  or  casual 
rain,  it  is  seldom  perfectly  reduced  to 
powder.  The  proper  method  is,  to  place 
it  in  heaps  on  the  ground  on  which  it  is 
intended  to  be  spread,  to  slake  it  there 
with  a  due  quantity  of  water,  and  after- 
wards to  cover  it  with  sod,  to  preserve  it 
from  the  rain.  If  long  slaked,  however, 
before  it  is  spread,  it  runs  into  clots,  and 
becomes  less  operative  for  its  purpose  ; 
besides  which,  it  loses  in  such  circumstan- 
ces its  caustic  quality,  on  which  account 
it  should  be  brought  home  as  short  a  time 
as  possible  before  its  intended  application. 
Lime  should  not  be  permitted  to  He  all 
winter  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  after 
being  spread,  for  a  similar  reason,  as  also 
because  it  is  washed  down  into  the  fur- 
rows ;  and  on  the  sides  of  hills  the  whole 
is  apt  to  be  carried  off  by  the  winter  tor- 
rents. It  should  be  spread,  and  mixed 
with  the  soil  immediately  before  sowing. 
The  quantity  to  be  laid  on  depends  upon 
the  nature  of  the  lands,,  which,  if  strong, 
will  easily  bear  a  hundred  bolls  per  acre, 
while  thin  and  gravelly  ones  will  require 
only  thirty  or  forty,  and  upon  meadow 
ones  fifty  or  sixty  will  be  found  sufficient. 

Marl  is  valuable  as  a  manure  in  propor- 
tion to  the  Quantity  of  calcareous  earth 
which  it  contains,  which,  in  some  instan- 


AGRICULTURE. 


ces,  amount  to  one  half.  When  of  this 
quality,  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  most 
substantial  of  all  manures,  converting  the 
weakest  ground  nearly  into  the  most  pro- 
ductive. It  is  the  best  of  manure  for  clay 
soils,  in  which  all  agricultural  writers  are 
perfectly  agreed.  Before  its  application, 
the  land  should  be  cleared  of  weeds,  and 
smoothed,  that  it  may  be  evenly  spread  ; 
after  which  it  should  remain  all  winter  on 
the  surface.  Its  usefulness  depends  on 
its  pulverization  and  close  union  with  the 
soil  to  which  it  is  applied.  Frost,  and  a  fre- 
quent alternation  of  drynessand  humidity, 
contribute  greatly  to  reduce  it  to  pow- 
der, on  which  account  it  should,  as  much 
and  as  long  as  possible,  be  exposed  to 
their  influence.  The  proper  season  for 
marling  land  is  summer.  The  best  grain 
for  the  first  crop  after  marl  is  oats.  But, 
whatever  be  the  crop,  the  furrow  should 
be  always  ebbed,  as  otherwise  the  marl, 
which  is  a  heavy  body,  sinks  to  the  bot- 
tom of  it. 

Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  is  com- 
monly used  in  Switzerland  and  North 
America  as  a  manure,  and  has  been  tried 
in  this  country  with  stated  results  of  a 
very  different  description.  Experiments, 
however,  respecting  its  efficacy  and  ad- 
vantages, do  not  appear  yet  to  have  been 
made  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  justify 
a  final  opinion  respecting  it.  In  Cornwall 
and  other  counties,  sea  sand  is  laid  upon 
the  land  in  considerable  quantities,  and 
found  extremely  useful  in  softening  stiff 
clays,  and  rendering  them  pervious  to  the 
roots  of  plants.  Chalk,  or  powdered  lime- 
stone, will  also  answer  this  important  end; 
and  sand,  together  with  lime  perfectly 
extinguished,  will,  more  effectually  than 
any  thing  else,  open  its  texture,  and  pre- 
pare it  for  whatever  is  intended  to  be 
sown  on  it. 

The  true  nourishment  of  vegetables 
consists  of  water,  coal,  salts,  and  differ- 
ent kinds  of  earths,  which  are  ascertained 
to  be  the  only  substances  common  to  ve- 
getables, and  the  soils  in  which  they  grow. 
In  favourable  weather,  grasses  and  corn 
absorb  and  perspire  nearly  half  their 
weight  of  water  every  day.  The  great 
problem  with  respect  to  manuring  or  fer- 
tilizing a  soil  appears  to  be,  how  to  ren- 
ber  coal  soluble  in  water  for  the  purpo- 
ses of  vegetation,  and  to  discover  that 
composition  of  the  different  earths,  which 
«s  best  adapted  to  detain  the  due  pro- 
portion of  moisture.  With  respect  to  the 
former,  the  fermentation  of  dung  appears 
to  be  the  best  method  hither1  o  discover- 
ed ;  and  as  to  the  different  kinds  of  earths 


to  be  applied  for  the  improvement  of 
particular  soils,  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Kirwan,  to  whom  the  world  is  indebted 
for  much  elaborate  and  ingenious  analy- 
sis on  the  subject,  have  led  him  to  seve- 
ral conclusions,  which  will  be  briefly  no- 
ticed. Clay  soils,  being  defective  in  con- 
stitution and  texture,  want  the  calcare- 
ous ingredient,  and  course  sand.  The 
former  is  supplied  by  calcareous  marl, 
and  both  are  furnished  by  limestone  gra- 
vel. Marl  and  dung  are  still  more  bene- 
ficial, as  dung  supplies  the  carbonaceous 
principle.  Sand,  chalk,  or  powdered  lime- 
stone, will  either  of  them  answer  this  pur- 
pose, though  less  advantageously.  Coal 
ashes,  chips  of  wood,  burnt  clay,  brick- 
dust,  and  even  pebbles,  may  be  applied 
with  this  view.  For  clayey  loam,  if  defi- 
cient in  the  calcareous  ingredient,  chalk 
is  an  excellent  manure  ;  if  in  the  sandy 
ingredient,  sand  is  the  obvious  and  easy 
remedy  ;  a  deficiency  in  both  will  be  best 
supplied  by  siliceous  marl,  limestone  gra- 
vel, or  effete  lime  with  sand.  The  most 
effectual  application  for  the  chalky  soils, 
which  want  both  the  argillaceous  and  the 
sandy  ingredients,  is  clayey  or  sandy 
loams.  For  chalky  loam,  the  best  ma- 
nure is  clay,  because  this  soil  is  chiefly 
defective  in  the  argillaceous  ingredient. 
Calcareous  marl  is  the  best  manure  for 
sandy  soils.  For  sandy  looms,  chalk 
should  be  followed  by  clay  ;  and  for  vi- 
triolic soils,  lime,  or  limestone  gravel,  or 
calcareous  clay,  is  peculiarly  applicable. 

Not  only  sea-sand,  but  sea-weeds  also., 
may  be  employed  to  considerable  advan- 
tage as  manure.  For  lands  on  the  coast 
it  may  be  procured,  not  only  in  any  quan- 
tities, but  at  a  trifling  expense.  The 
weeds  of  rivers  are  also  extremely  use- 
ful for  the  same  purpose.  The  refuse  of 
slaughter-houses  and  oil  cakes  are  well 
adapted  to  fertilize  the  soil,  but  in  most 
situations  not  easily  to  be  obtained  at  a 
reasonable  rate. 

In  almost  all  circumstances,  the  indus- 
try and  ingenuity  of  the  occupier  must  be 
depended  on  for  raising  on  the  spot  an  ade- 
quate quantity  of  dung  for  its  manure  j. 
and  for  this  purpose  it  is  expedient  that, 
in  such  circumstances,  as  little  as  possi- 
ble of  the  hay  and  straw  raised  upon  the 
premises  should  be  sold  from  them.  This 
tenaciousness  on  the  part  of  the  farmer 
will  prove  the  constant  source  of  improve- 
ment With  a  view  to  turn  his  means  of 
manure  most  advantageously  to  account, 
he  should  draw  into  his  farm  yard,  at  the 
most  leisurely  season  of  the  year,  before 
the  time  of  confining  his  cattle  to  fodder, 


AGRICULTURE. 


as  much  marl,  turf,  dry  mud,  loam,  and 
other  applicable  articles,  as  will  cover  its 
surface  to  the  depth  of  twelve  inches. 
If  there  be  many  hog-houses,  stables,  and 
eow-stalls,  that  are  cleansed  into  the  yard, 
on  such  spots  these  materials  should  be 
spread  more  thickly.  Bog  peats,  if  near 
at  hand,  should  never  be  neglected. 
These  peats  may  be  regarded  as  vegeta- 
ble dunghills,  and  their  easy  accessibility 
in  this  connection  will  be  regarded  as  of 
extreme  utility  and  consequence.  Before 
foddering  is  begun,  the  whole  yard 
should  be  well  littered,  for  which  stub- 
ble, fern,  and  leaves,  are  well  adapted. 
No  money  laid  out  by  the  farmer  is  more 
wisely  and  successfully  expended,  than 
that  which  he  employs  in  procuring,  at  a 
reasonable  rate,  great  quantities  of  litter, 
by  which  his  cattle  are  enabled  to  lie  dry 
and  warm,  and  the  mass  of  manure  which 
he  raises  is  much  larger  and  cheaper 
than  he  could  procure  in  any  othermode. 
Fern  abounds  in  alkaline  salts,  and  must 
therefore  obviously  produce  very  valua- 
ble dung :  it  requires,  however,  to  be 
rotted  well,  and  is  more  difficult  to  be  so 
than  straw.  In  woodlands,  leaves  may  be 
collected  at  slight  expence,  and  will  make 
admirable  litter  and  dung.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  marshes,  rushes,  flags,  and 
coarse  grass,  may  all  be  easily  procured, 
and  will  be  exceedingly  serviceable. 
After  these  exertions  and  preparations, 
the  farmer  must  strictly  confine  his  cattle 
during  the  winter,  not  by  tying  them,  as 
some  have  done,  but  so  as  completely  to 
prevent  their  roaming  in  the  adjoining 
pastures.  By  thus  confining  all  the  cat- 
tle upon  straw,  and  turnips,  and  hay,  as 
may  be  requisite,  the  necessary  quantity 
of  animal  manure  will  be  obtained  to 
make  the  compost  of  the  several  ingredi- 
ents ferment,  rot,  and  turn  to  rich  ma- 
nure, while,  without  these  animal  materi- 
als, the  heap  might  be  large,  but  would 
be  of  little  value.  The  draining  from  the 
yard  should  never  run  to  waste,  and,  un- 
less in  extraordinary  cases,  such  as  ex- 
tremely violent  rains,  this  may  be  easily 
prevented.  An  excellent  method  for  this 
purpose  is  the  sinking  a  well  in  the  low- 
er  part  of  the  yard  to  fix  a  pump  in  ;  by 
which  the  water  may  be  conveyed  along 
a  trough  to  a  large  heap  of  marl,  turf, 
e-halk,  and  other  appropriate  materials, 
which,  by  a  daily  application  of  this  li- 
quor, will  be  of  little  less  value  eventu- 
ally than  a  heap  of  dung  of  the  same 
size. 

If  the  dung  remains  underwater,  pu- 
trefaction is    stopped ;    this,    therefore, 


should  be  carefully  guarded 
Stirring  the  dung  should  also  be  avoided, 
as  the  oils  and  alkaline  salts  are  thus  car- 
ried off  into  the  atmosphere,  and  it  is  not 
merely  rottenness  that  is  wanted,  and 
particularly  that  dry  rottenness  thus  pro- 
duced, but  such  as  exhibits  a  fat,  oily,  mu- 
cilaginous appearance.  It  will  be  advisa- 
ble, if  practicable,  to  let  it  remain  in  the 
yard  unmoved,  till  the  ground  it  is  destin- 
ed for  is  completely  ready  for  its  recep- 
tion. If,  for  want  of  room  in  the  yard, 
it  must  be  carted  off  into  the  field,  let 
the  litter  and  the  marl  be  well  mixed  in 
filling  the  cart,  and  let  the  whole  form, 
under  the  shade  of  trees,  if  an  opportu- 
nity be  afforded  for  it,  a  heap  of  about 
four  feet  in  thickness. 

The  dung  raised  even  by  a  few  sheep 
in  a  standing  fold,  under  a  shed  construct- 
ed expressly  for  the  purpose,  (for  the 
trouble  and  expence  of  one  composed  of 
hurdles  will  overbalance  its  profits,  un- 
less upon  a  very  large  scale)  is  a  consider- 
able object,  while  the  sheep  under  it  are 
at  the  same  time  warm  and  comfortable, 
instead  of  being  exposed  to  driving  rains 
and  snow. 

Animal  substances  are  very  far  prefer- 
able as  manures  to  fossil  or  vegetable 
ones.  Woollen  rags,  hogs'  hair,  hora 
shavings,  the  offal  of  butcher's  and  fish- 
monger's stalls,  may  be  obtained  in  large 
cities,and,  whenever  reasonably  to  be  pro- 
cured, should  be  eagerly  caught  at.  With 
regard  to  the  dung  of  animals,  that  of 
sheep  is  unquestionably  the  best.  That 
of  horses  fed  upon  corn  and  hay  is  justly 
preferred  to  that  of  fatting  cattle,  which, 
however,  is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  lean 
cattle,  and  particularly  of  cows,  though 
they  may  feed  upon  turnips. 

The  practice  of  paring  and  burning  is 
pronounced  by  men  of  great  philosophi- 
cal sagacity  and  research,  and  who  have 
justly  referred  more  to  practical  results 
than  to  theoretical  reasonings,  to  be  of 
the  most  decided  advantage  in  the  pre- 
paration of  land.  It  may  be  considered 
as  a  practice  safe  on  any  soil,  as  in  some 
it  is  essentially  necessary.  That  which 
most  of  all  requires  it,  and  which  it  is 
impossible  by  any  other  means  to  pulve- 
rize, is  what  consists  of  moss,  rushes,  and 
all  kinds  of  coarse  grass.  It  should  be 
exercised  on  moor  and  heath-fields,  on  ac- 
count of  the  roots  of  the  grass  remaining- 
in  it,  which  are  very  stubborn  and  dura- 
ble, and  which  check  the  growth  of  corn^ 
turnips,  and  other  vegetables,  by  depriv- 
ing them  of  a  certain  portion  of  nourish- 
ment. Thev  serve  Ivkewise  as  a  harbour 


AGRICULTURE. 


for  worms,  the  only  efVecliul  way  to  clear 
the  ground  from  which  is  to  burn  it;  the 
old  and  the  young1,  together  with  their 
oggs,  being  thus  destroyed  or  smothered. 
The  ashes  procured  by  paring  and  burn- 
ing will  furnish  manure  for  several  crops. 
The  lessening  of  the  soil  by  this  husband- 
ry was  long  apprehended;  such  a  conse- 
quence, however,  may  be  safely  and  po- 
sitively denied,  unless,  perhaps,  in  cases 
n  which  the  practice  is  carried  to  great 
•  •xcess.  In  poor  soils,  peat  and  sedgy 
'Bottoms,  the  process  is  universally  admit- 
ted to  be  a  proper  one.  With  respect 
>-ven  to  clay  lands,  it  produces  not  only 
rhe  common  manure  found  in  vegetable 
ashes,  but  a  substance  which  acts  me- 
chanically to  the  utmost  advantage,  loos- 
ening and  opening  the  stubborn  adhesion 
of  the  soil.  In  loam  itself,  the  ploughing  of 
rough  pastures  to  the  depth  of  eight  or 
nine  inches,  and  burning  the  whole  fur- 
row in  heaps  of  about  thirty  bushels  each, 
has  been  attended  with  most  decided  and 
durable  improvement ;  and  even  though 
this  depth  be  nearly  twenty  times  the 
depth  of  common  paring,  the  soil  has  not 
been  supposed  to  be  wasted  eventually 
by  the  practice.  Its  texture  has  been 
rendered  less  stiff;  the  redundance  of 
water  has  been  expelled ;  and  the  imme- 
diate fertility  attending  this  method  of 
treatment  fills  it  speedily  with  far  more 
vegetable  particles  than  it  previously  pos- 
sessed. Sandy  grounds  are  as  improve- 
iible  by  this  method  as  those  of  a  dif- 
ferent description,  and  chalk  lands,  in 
every  part  ot'England,  have  been  so  treat- 
ed, and  most  profitably  been  brought  into 
culture.  In  Gloucestershire,  Yorkshire, 
and  Lincolnshire,  in  Hampshire,  Wilt- 
shire, and  Kent,  the  consequent  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  sainfoin,  have 
been  of  sufficient  value  to  buy  the  land  at 
more  than  forty  years  purchase,  at  a  fair- 
ly estimated  rent,  before  these  improve- 
ments were  applied.  But  whatever  dif- 
ference may  exist,  with  respect  to  the 
practice  on  such  lands  as  have  been  just 
mentioned,  and  which  is  rapidly  vanishing 
before  obvious  and  impressive  facts,  no 
one,  as  already  observed,  doubts  the  pro- 
priety of  it  on  peat.  From  the  fens  of 
Cambridgeshire  to  the  bogs  of  Ireland, 
the  moors  of  the  north,  or  the  sedgy  bot- 
toms abounding  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  united  kingdom,  paring  and  burning 
are  universally  employed,  on  their  being 
broken  up,  by  men  of  real  experience  and 
observation.  The  method  of  doing  ;t  by 
fallow  is  completely  abandoned  by  all 
persons  of  this  description,  after  the  most 


regular  and  decided  experiments  of  it* 
results.  In  Cambridgeshire  the  work  is 
performed  by  a  plough,  purposely  con* 
structed,  and  admirably  adapted  for  it, 
which  reduces  the  expence  considerably. 
With  respect  to  meadow  and  pasture 
land,  it  is  performed  by  what  is  denomi- 
nated a  breast-piough,  which,  requiring 
great  strength  and  labour  in  its  applica- 
tion, much  increases  the  cost.  With  re- 
gard to  the  general  practice,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  the  heaps  should  not  con- 
sist of  more  than  twenty  bushels.,  as,  if 
they  are  much  larger,  the  iurfs  will  be 
too  much  burnt.  Their  s;ze  must  be 
regulated,  in  a  great  degree,  by  the  na- 
ture of  the  weather  and  the  thickness  of 
the  paring.  When  the  ashes  are  spread, 
which  should  be  completed  as  soon  as 
possible,  the  land,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
should  be  thinly  ploughed.  In  almost  all 
circumstances,  the  ashes  should  be  left 
ploughed  in  for  sowing  turnips  upon  lands 
burnt  in  the  months  of  March  and  April. 
If  potatoes  arc  desired,  this  preparation 
is  excellently  adapted  to  them,  and  they 
should  be  planted  in  April  on  lands  burnt 
in  March. 

The  Culture  of  Grasses. 

A  close  and  sound  turf  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  best  manure  yet  discovered, 
on  which  account  it  is  justly  reroa/ked, 
that  those  who  have  grass  can  at  any  time 
have  corn,  the  reverse  of  which  is  by  no 
means  true.  Excellent  grass  lands,  there- 
fore, are  valuable,  not  on'y  directly,  for 
the  food  of  cattle,  but  indirectly,  as  con- 
taining ample  means  of  raising  grain, 
never  failing,  upon  being  broken  up,  to 
produce,  for  a  time,  a  succession  of  va- 
luable crops,  whether  of  grain  or  roots. 
The  small  decree  of  labour  and  hazard 
attending  the  pasture  of  land  recommends 
it  to  many ;  and  also  the  opportunity  it 
supplies  of  laying  out  considerable  pro- 
perty to  great  advantage  in  stock,  Lunds 
are  preserved  by  it  in  good  condition,  and 
large  estates  may  be  managed  under  it 
with  peculiar  ease. 

Grass  lands,  designed  to  be  cut  for 
hay,  are  to  be  distinguished  frcm  those 
on  which  the  herbage  is  intended  to  be 
consumed  by  cattle  on  the  sj'Ot :  In 
fields  of  the  latter  kind,  property  called 
pastures,  manure  is  supplied  by  the  cat- 
tle ;  in  the  others  it  must  be  applied  ar- 
tificially, as  large  crops  of  hay  exhaust 
the  land,  and  always  in  proportion  to  the 
maturitv  which  the  herbage  is  suffered 
to  attain  before  cropping,  while  nothing  is 


AGRICULTURE. 


returned  to  the  soil,  for  all  that  is  thus 
detatchedfrom  it.  In  consequence,  more- 
over, of  depasturing  lands,  the  plants, 
being  unable  to  propagate  themselves 
by  seed,  do  it  by  root,  forming  a  compact 
and  matted  turf,  incapable  of  sending 
forth  strong  and  powerful  stems,  to  form 
a  good  crop  of  hay,  but  abounding  in 
slender  and  delicate  shoots,  such  as  the 
closeness  of  the  turf  will  alone  permit  to 
pass,  and  which  constitute  a  most  nou- 
rishing and  pleasing  food  for  cattle.  These 
two  modes  of  employing  land  therefore 
should  not  be  intermixed.  What  has  for 
some  time  been  applied  to  either  pur- 
pose should,  by  all  means,  be  permitted 
to  remain  so  ;  and  to  attempt  to  alternate 
the  application  of  grass  lands  between 
pasture  and  cropping,  is  an  effectual  me- 
thod of  completely  defeating  botli  objects. 

The  difficulty  of  restoring  old,  rich, 
and  clean  pastures  to  their  original  state, 
after  their  being  broken  up,  should  ever 
prevent  their  being  so,  unless  in  very 
extraordinary  cases^  In  common  times 
they  can  be  applied  to  no  better  purpose 
than  their  actual  one  :  whenever  it  is  ex- 
pedient to  direct  them  to  the  raising  of 
grain,  they  will  be  certain  to  produce  it 
in  immense  abundance. 

With  respect  to  the  improvement  of 
which  grass  lands  are  generally  suscepti- 
ble, those,  of  course,  should  in  the  first 
instance  be  applied  to  them,  which  are 
connected  with  draining  and  inclosure, 
which  happily  coincide  with  each  other, 
as  the  ditch  serves  at  once  for  dividing 
and  defending  the  land,  and  for  cleaning 
off  the  redundant  moisture.  Irrigation 
also,  which,  as  well  indeed  as  the  last- 
mentioned  topics,  has  been  already  ad- 
verted to,  from  its  obvious  and  admirable 
utility  to  pasture,  will  derive  every  atten- 
tion in  this  connection.  In  spring  a  heavy 
wooden  roller  should  be  applied,  when 
the  weather  is  moist,  as  it  will  then  make 
the  greater  impression.  The  roots  of  the 
plants  will  thus  be  fixed  in  the  soil.  The 
mould  will  be  crushed,  and  the  worm- 
casts  levelled  by  this  practice  ;  and  the 
ground  is  prepared  by  it  for  the  applica- 
tion of  the  scythe,  which  will,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  operation,  cut  deeper,  and 
with  more  facility. 

The  stocking  of  poor  pastures  with 
sheep,  rather  than  black  cattle,  is  of  parti- 
cular consequence  to  their  improvement, 
and  the  perseverance  in  this  practice  for 
years,  the  sheep  being  folded  upon  the 
spot,  has  been  more  recruiting  to  poor 
soils,  than  any  other  practice.  A  habit 
of  matting  its  roots  is  given  to  the  grass 


by  the  close  bite  of  these  animals,  and  a 
growth  of  delicate  herbage  is  promoted. 
Weeds  are  likewise  cleared  by  sheep,  as 
every  thing1  young1  and  tender  (even 
heath  and  broom)  is  readily  eaten  by 
them.  By  means  also  of  the  dung"  neces- 
sarily arising,  an  amelioration  of  the  soil 
as  well  as  produce  takes  place,  of  extreme 
and  surprising  importance.  The  sweet- 
ness of  the  feed  on  the  downs  of  Wilt- 
shire arises,  not  so  much  from  any  natu- 
ral and  characteristic  excellence  of  the 
grass  grown  on  them,  as  from  its  being- 
kept  close,  and  eaten  as  rapidly  as  it  vege- 
tates. It  has  been  remarked,  that  on  cer- 
tain poor  soils,  it  requires  much  more 
time  to  produce  the  second  inch  of  vege- 
tation than  the  first,  making  allowance 
for  the  fuller  development  and  size  ac- 
companying the  second  ;  a  circumstance 
indicating  that  the  preference  should  in 
such  cases  be  given  to  the  feeding  by 
sheep  rather  than  by  cattle.  The  for- 
mer remarks,  however,  on  this  subject, 
concerning  the  inapplicability  of  land  thus 
depastured  for  rearing  crops  of  hay, 
must  never  be  forgotten. 

Quicklime,  spread  in  powder  over  the 
surface  of  pasture  lands,  will  scarcely  fail 
to  improve,  not  only  the  poor,  but  the 
more  valuable  ones.  The  moss  plants, 
which  are  so  particularly  pernicious,  are 
thus  destroyed,  and  converted  into  valua- 
ble manure.  Upon  impoverished  and 
worn-out  lands,  about  270  bushels  per 
acre,  on  the  sward,  in  the  summer,  will 
be  found  of  great  and  durable  efficacy  in 
cleaning  and  improving  them.  Mixing 
lime  with  earth  taken  from  ditches  or 
ponds  is  superior  to  using  it  alone,  and, 
as  a  general  rule,  double  the  quantity  of 
earth  should  be  mixed  with  that  of  lime. 
The  requisite  proportions  vary,  however, 
with  the  nature  of  the  soils;  but  are 
easily  ascertained  by  attentive  workmen. 

Paring  and  burning  may  be  applied  to 
pasture  with  great  success  in  a  partial 
manner,  by  grubbing  up  rushes  and  bush- 
es with  which  it  may  be  encumbered, 
burning  them  after  they  are  dried,  and 
before  the  autumnal  rains  come  on  spread- 
ing their  ashes  on  the  surface.  In  some 
instances  this  husbandry  may  be  success- 
fully exercised  on  pasture  over  the  whole 
surface,  as  particularly  on  a  poor  worn 
out  ley ;  which,  by  such  a  process,  attend- 
ed with  the  harrowing  in  of  white  clover, 
and  several  other  grass  seeds,  at  the  time 
of  spreading  the  ashes,  hasbeen  improved 
into  a  very  fine  meadow.  Where  suita- 
ble, such  a  practice  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  cheapest  of  all  improvements. 


AGRICULTURE. 


From  whatever  cause  land  may  be 
overrun  with  moss  plants,  or  covered 
with  fern,  rushes,  and  ant-hills,  it  should 
be  subjected  for  some  time  to  the  plough, 
^s  no  other  method  is  equally  useful  to 
prepare  for  permanently  ameliorating  its 
pasture. 

To  prepare  arable  land  for  grass,  it 
must  be  cleaned  from  weeds,  and  well 
manured,  just  in  the  same  manner  as  that 
which  is  required  for  a  crop  of  grain. 
Excepting  upon  stiff  clays,  the  most  eli- 
gible preparation  for  grass  is  a  crop  of 
turnips,  consumed  by  cattle  in  the  field  ; 
the  ground  being  thus  at  once  manured 
and  cleaned.  Where  lands  are  broken 
up  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  improv- 
ing the  pasture,  the  turnips  scarcely  fail 
to  succeed,  through  the  manure  afforded 
so  abundantly  by  the  fresh  turf;  and  the 
cattle  deriving,  from  the  abundant  crop 
consequent  on  this  circumstance,  a  plen- 
tiful food,  are  thus  enabled,  the  more 
extensively,  to  improve  the  soil  by  dung. 
On  the  clay  land,  the  soil  should  be  very 
liberally  manured  in  spring  or  autumn ;  it 
ought  to  be  ploughed  once  in  autumn,  and 
three  or  four  times  more  in  summer,  pre- 
viously to  the  period  of  sowing  the  seeds, 
which  should  take  place  in  August.  As 
to  the  much  agitated  question  of  sowing 
grass  seeds  with  or  without  a  crop  of 
corn,  it  may  be  observed,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible for  lands  intended  for  grass  crops, 
or  meadow,  to  possess  too  high  a  state  of 
richness,  and  that,  after  the  soil  is  im- 
proved with  a  view  to  its  permanent  fer- 
tility in  grass,  to  weaken  it  by  a  crop  of 
corn  appears  little  better  than  blind  or 
infatuated  counteraction.  If,  however, 
the  practice  be  persevered  in,  which  has 
so  generally  been  followed  in  this  respect, 
barley  should  be  the  grain  preferred,  as 
springing  up  with  a  slight  stalk,  and  not 
overshadowing  and  smothering  the 
grass  plants,  and  also  as  being  the  incum- 
brance  to  those  plants  more  speedily  re- 
moved than  any  other. 

Whether  the  grass  seeds  be  sown  in 
August  after  a  fallow,  or  with  corn  in 
spring,  all  trampling  by  horses  or  cattle 
should  be  effectually  prevented.  Every 
thing,  therefore,  should  be  kept  out  from 
it,  both  during  autumn  and  winter.  Not 
only  is  the  tender  soil,  which  is  extremely 
susceptible  of  injury,  thus  secured  from  it, 
but  the  pasturage  in  the  spring  is  of  pro- 
portionally more  value  for  not  having  been 
eaten  off  in  autumn,  and  affords  a  most 
valuable  early  bite  for  the  ewes  and  lambs. 

The  proper  treatment  of  leys  during 
the  lirst  year  is,  to  feed  them  with  sheep., 


unless,  after  a  crop  of  hay  be  taken  from 
them,  vast  quantities  of  manure  be  spread 
over  their  surface. 

The  chief  food  of  cattle  consisting  of 
grasses,  their  importance  is  as  obvious  as 
it  is  great,  and  the  distinguishing  and  se- 
lecting them  cannot  be  too  fully  attended 
to.  By  this  care  the  best  grasses,  and  in 
the  greatest  abundance  that  the  land  ad- 
mits of,  are  secured ;  while  for  want  of 
this  attention,  pastures  are  either  filled 
with  weeds,  or  bad  and  inappropriate 
grasses.  The  number  of  grasses  fit,  or  at 
least  necessary,  for  the  purposes  of  cul- 
ture, is  but  small,  scarcely  exceeding  half 
a  score,  and  by  the  careful  separation  and 
sowing  of  the  seeds  of  these,  the  hus- 
bandman would  soon  be  enabled  to  ac- 
commodate the  varieties  of  his  soil,  each 
with  the  herbage  best  adapted  to  it,  the 
advantage  of  which  would  infinitely  ex- 
ceed the  trouble  necessary  for  its  accom- 
plishment. Were  a  great  variety  of  grain 
to  be  sown  in  the  same  inclosure,  the  ab- 
surdity would  be  universally  ridiculed; 
and  scarcely  less  absurd  and  ridiculous 
is  the  common  practice,  of  indiscrimi- 
nately sowing  grass  seeds  from  the  foul 
hay  rack,  including  a  mixture  of  almost 
every  species  of  grass  seed  and  rubbish. 

The  species  of  grass  appropriated  to 
any  particular  soil  or  application  being 
determined  upon,  its  seeds  cannot  be  sown 
too  plentifully,  and  no  economy  less  de- 
serving the  name  can  possibly  exist,  than 
the  being  sparing  of  grass  seeds.  The 
seeds  of  grain  may  easily  be  sown  too 
thickly ;  but  with  respect  to  those  of 
grass,  it  is  scarcely  capable  of  occurring. 
The  smaller  the  stem,  the  more  accepta- 
ble it  is  to  cattle  ;  and  when  the  seeds, 
particularly  of  some  grasses,  are  thinly 
scattered,  their  stems  tend,  as  it  is  called, 
to  wood. 

The  most  valuable  grass  to  be  cut 
green,  for  summer's  food,  is  red  clover, 
which  also  is  an  admirable  preparation  for 
wheat.  To  have  it  in  perfection,  the 
weeds  must  be  cleared,  and  the  land  har- 
rowed as  finely  as  possible.  The  surface 
should  also  be  smoothed  with  alight  roll- 
er. The  seeds  should  likewise  be  well 
covered  with  earth,  as  should  all  small 
seeds,  notwithstanding  the  common  opi- 
nion to  the  contrary.  From  the  middle 
of  April  to  that  of  May  is  the  proper  sea- 
son for  sowing  it.  Although  it  will  last 
three  years,  if  cut  down  green,  the  safest 
course  is  to  let  it  stand  but  one.  It  is 
luxuriant  upon  a  rich  soil,  whether  of  clay, 
loam,  or  gravel,  and  will  grow  even  upon 
a  moor,  for  a.  wet  soil  it  is  totallv  unfit. 


AGRICULTURE. 


It  may  be  sown  with  grain  with  less  im- 
propriety than  perhaps  any  other  grass, 
and  particularly  with  flax.  When  a  land, 
left  unploughed,  spontaneously  produces 
this  plant,  the  soil  may  decidedly  be  pro- 
nounced good. 

Those  who  lay  down  land  permanently 
to  grass  may  best  depend  on  white,  or 
Dutch  clover,  for  all  rich  and  dry  loams 
and  sands,  and  for  rich  clays  that  have 
been  properly  drained. 

Rye  grass  will  flourish  on  any  land  but 
stiff  clays.  It  is  well  adapted  for  perma- 
nent pasture,  and,  if  properly  managed,  is 
one  of  the  best  spring-  grasses.  There 
are  few  so  early,  or  more  palatable  and 
nutritive  to  cattle.  It  is  less  subject  to 
injury  in  critical  hay  seasons  than  any 
other,  and  the  seeds  of  none  are  collected 
with  greater  facility.  It  should  be  cut 
for  hay  some  time  previously  to  its  being 
ripe,  as  the  stalks  will  otherwise  be  con- 
verted into  a  species  of  straw,  and  its  nu- 
tritive qualities  be  proportionably  weak- 
ened. 

Sainfoin  is  preferred  by  many  agricul- 
turists to  clover,  as  less  likely  to  injure 
cattle  when  they  eat  it  green,  producing 
larger  crops,  making  better  hay,  and  con- 
tinuing four  times  longer  in  the  ground. 
It  is  several  years  in  arriving  at  its  full 
strength.  The  quantity  of  milk  yielded 
by  means  of  it  from  cows  is  nearly  double 
of  what  is  prodouced  by  any  other  green 
food,  and  the  quality  also  of  the  milk  is 
proportionably  better.  It  is  much  culti- 
vated on  chalky  soils,  and  succeeds  best 
where  its  roots  run  deep.  Cold  and  wet 
clay  is  extremely  ill  adapted  for  it,  and 
the  dryness  of  land  is  of  more  conse- 
quence to  its  growth  than  even  the  rich- 
ness of  it.  It  is  best  cultivated  by  the 
drill  husbandry,  after  repeated  ploughing, 
harrowing,  and  rolling ;  and  while  care  is 
taken  not  to  leave  the  seeds  uncovered, 
they  must  also  not  be  buried  deeper  than 
about  an  inch.  They  should  be  sowed  in 
the  latter  end  of  March.  An  acre  of  very 
ordinary  land  will  maintain  four  cows  for 
eight  months,  and  afford  the  greatest  part 
of  their  food  in  hay  for  the  rest  of  the 
year. 

Lucerne  remains  at  least  above  twelve 
years  producing  very  large  crops,  and 
yielding  the  most  excellent  hay  to  the 
amount  of  about  seven  tons  per  acre.  It 
has  obtained  the  highest  praises  from  all 
agricultural  writers.  With  a  view  to  its 
successful  cultivation,  the  soil  must  be 
kept  open  and  free  from  weeds,  which  is 
most  effectually  done  by  horse-hoeing1.  It 
is  transplanted  with  extreme  advantage, 
VOL.  I. 


if  the  tap  root  be  cut  off,  by  which  it  is 
fitted  for  a  shallow  soil,  and  its  roots 
shoot  out  laterally  and  near  the  surface. 
The  culture  of  this  plant  is  a  principal  dis- 
tinction of  French  husbandry,  and  is  in 
that  country  a  source  of  almost  uniform 
profit.  The  best  preparation  for  it  is  a 
turnip  or  cabbage  crop.  No  manure  should 
be  allowed  after  the  sowing  till  the  crop 
is  two  years  old.  Its  improving  effect 
upon  the  soil  is  particularly  great. 

Burnet  is  a  grass  peculiarly  adapted  to 
poor  land,  and  is  so  hardy  as  to  flourish 
when  all  other  vegetation  fails.  Its  cul- 
tivation is  not  hazardous  or  expensive. 
It  is  best  sown  in  the  beginning  of  July. 
It  affords  rich  pleasant  milk,  and  in  great 
plenty.  For  moist  loams  and  clays  there 
cannot  be  a  better  grass  than  the  meadow 
fox-tail,  which  is  not  only  early,  but  re- 
mains for  nine  or  ten  years,  and  is  little  in- 
jured by  frost. 

To  these  remarks  on  a  few  of  the  grass- 
es it  may  be  added,  that  in  connection 
with  soils,  the  principal  grass  plants  have 
been  thus  arranged  by  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  agriculturists  of  the  day. 

Clay.             Loam.  Sand. 

Cow  grass    White  clover  'White  clover 

Cock's-foot  Rye  Rye 

Dog's-tail      York  white  York  white 

Ftescue          Fescue  Yarrow 

Fox-tail         Fox-tail  Burnet 

Oat  grass       Dog's-tail  Trefoil 

Trefoil          Poa  Rib 
York  white  Timothy 
Timothy       Yarrow- 
Luc  erne 

Chalk.  Peat. 

Yarrow  White  clover 

Burnet  Dog'-tail 

Trefoil  Cock's-foot 

White  clover  Rib 
Sainfoin  York  white 

Rye 

Fox-tail 

Fescue 

Timothy 

Instruments  and  Operations  of  Husbandry. 

The  instruments  used  in  husbandry  are 
so  numerous,  and,  under  the  same  deno- 
mination, often  so  differently  constructed, 
with  a  view  to  varieties  of  the  same  opera- 
tion, that  it  would  be  impossible,  in  a 
sketch  like  the  present,  to  detail  their 
structure  and  application.  In  the  process 
for  which  they  are  respectively  intended, 
every  agriculturist  will  of  course  arail 

H 


AGRICULTURE. 


himself  of  those,  the  utility  of  which  is 
best  decided  by  experience. 

PloiufMng. 

In  almost  all  lands  there  is  a  fixed  depth 
for  the  plough  to  go  to,  which  is  the  stra- 
tum between  the  fertile  and  unfertile 
moulds.  No  soil  should  be  ploughed  be- 
yond this  bottom,  or  sole,  which  is  the 
preservative  on  which  the  top  layer 
should  rest,  and  by  which  the  manure  laid 
upon  the  ground  is  prevented  from  losing 
its  effect.  In  fallowing  land,  therefore, 
the  plough  may  go  as  deep  as  the  fertile 
soil  will  allow,  as  also  in  breaking  up  land 
without  paring  and  burning.  When  land 
is  pared  and  burnt,  it  ought  to  be  plough- 
ed in  small  furrows,  and  not  so  deep,  as 
this  depth  of  furrow  would  hazard  the 
loss  of  the  ashes  for  the  immediate  and 
indeed  for  the  subsequent  crops.  Where 
the  sods  are  burned  in  small  heaps,  and  by 
slow  fires,  and  the  land  ploughed  shallow 
for  the  first  time,  and  successively  deep- 
er and  deeper,  poor  land  will  be  more  ef- 
fectually benefited  from  itself  than  by  any 
other  mode  ;  and  in  proportion  as  land 
can  be  made  to  maintain  or  improve 
itself,  the  benefit  to  the  farmer  is  obvious. 

Instead  of  ploughing  stubble  into  the 
land,  it  is  far  better  to  move  the  stubble, 
and  even  to  harrow  the  land  before  it  is 
fallowed.  In  soil  of  a  poor  quality,  a  cer- 
tain proportion  should  be  observed  be- 
tween the  depth  of  ploughing  and  the 
quantity  of  manure  usually  spread,  which 
on  better  soils  might  be  safely  disregard- 
ed. There  are  few  which  it  is  not  requi- 
site to  plough  to  the  depth  of  six  inches; 
and  for  many,  the  depth  of  ten  is  by  no 
means  too  great.  Once  in  twelve  or 
eighteen  months  it  is  highly  desirable  to 
plough  to  the  full  depth,  while  in  the  in- 
terval shallower  tillage  will  be  preferable 
to  deep  working,  for  wheat  particularly, 
which  is  best  promoted  by  a  firm  bottom. 
A  ploughing  before  harvest  is  of  extreme 
consequence  infallowing,  with  respect  to 
which  seasonableness  is  of  more  conse- 
quence than  the  number  of  earths  given. 
When  fallows  are  called  for,  they  should 
be  attended  with  an  observant  eye,  and  be 
kept  clean,  whatever  other  business  may 
press  upon  the  husbandman's  attention. 
On  a  well-managed  farm  servants  and  cat- 
tle will  be  kept  sufficient  for  every  neces- 
sary operation.  The  practice  of  fallows, 
however,  is  now  abandoned  in  a  variety 
of  cases  in  which  they  were  formerly 
deemed  absolutely  indispensable,  and  the 
well-informed  agriculturist  will  seldom 
have  recourse  to  them  after  his  first  year. 


Harrowing  is  not  only  necessary  > 
vering  the  seed,  but  also  for  preparing  the 
land  for  its  reception.  The  same  instru- 
ments, whatever  be  their  form,  cannot  an- 
swer the  different  purposes  of  this  opera- 
tion upon  all  soils,  whether  firm  or  loose, 
and  rough  or  smooth.  For  every  purpose, 
however,  and  of  whatever  size,  they  should 
be  so  constructed,  that  no  tooth  can  fol- 
low the  track  of  another,  and  that  every 
one  should  be  constantly  kept  acting. 
The  practice  is  best  performed  by  har- 
rowing a  square  piece  of  land  at  once,  so 
that  the  instrument  may  be  lifted  at  the 
corner,  and  the  refuse  stuff  left  there. 
The  following  harrows  will  thus  have  an 
opportunity  of  passing  over  every  part  of 
the  land,  and  it  will  be  completely  cleaned 
from  couch  grass  and  all  noxious  weeds. 

Till  of  late  years  the  practice  of  rolling 
was  but  little  used,  or  even  known,  and 
it  is  in  many  places  exercised  so  slightly, 
as  to  be  of  little  service.  Its  utility,  when 
it  is  exercised  as  it  ought  to  be,  consists 
in  rendering  a  loose  soil  more  compact 
and  solid,  which,  by  making  the  earth 
adhere  to  the  roots  of  plants,  cherishes 
their  growth.  No  roller  that  can  be 
drawn  by  two,  or  even  by  four  horses, 
will  carry  this  effect  too  far.  By  rolling, 
moreover,  the  moisture  of  the  earth  is 
kept  more  in,  and  in  a  dry  season,  this 
circumstance  may  reasonably  be  pre- 
sumed sometimes  to  constitute  "the  differ- 
ence between  a  good  and  a  bad  crop. 
The  common  practice  of  breaking  clods 
by  means  of  mallets,  may  judiciously  be 
superseded  by  the  roller,  preceded  for  a 
day  or  two  by  harrowing.  When  firm 
and  tough  clay  clods  are  to  be  broken,  a 
large  and  heavy  roller  will  be  required 
for  this  purpose,  with  circles  of  iron  of 
the  depth  of  six  or  seven  inches,  which 
will  completely  reduce  the  most  stubborn 
clods,  and,  from  its  decided  usefulness, 
must  by  no  means  be  regarded  as  a  refine- 
ment in  husbandry,  productive  of  expense 
without  ample  corresponding  advantage. 
With  respect  to  grass  lands,  the  mowing 
for  hay  is  extremely  facilitated  by  the 
practice  of  rolling. 

The  practice  of  scarifying  grass  lands 
is  used  by  a  variety  of  persons,  and  is  di- 
rectly opposite  to  that  of  rolling  them  in 
its  principle  and  effect.  For  this  purpose 
a  plough,  consisting  only  of  four  coulters, 
or  narrow  teeth,  is  employed ;  and  it  is  as- 
serted that  the  crops  of  hay  are  consider- 
ably increased  by  the  loosening  of  the 
earth  occasioned  by  this  process,  the  roots 
acquiring  the  power  of  fresh  vegetation, 
while  rolling1  is  stated  to  increase  the  te- 


AGRICULTURE. 


nacity  of  many  pastures,  in  which  it  ought 
rather  to  be  diminished.  Previously  to 
the  manurng  of  grass  land  it  is  observed 
to  be  particularly  beneficial,  as.  whate- 
ver it  be  that  is  spread  over  the  ground 
finds,  in  consequence  of  this  method, 
more  rapid  access  to  the  roots,  and  a 
smaller  quantity  is  remarked  to  answer 
the  end  proposed  than  a  considerably 
larger  one  without  this  practice.  The 
operation  may  undoubtedly  be  beneficial 
in  various  instances  and  soils,  and  expe- 
riments indeed  have  evinced  that  it  is  so. 
The  use  of  the  roller,  however,  upon 
grass  lands  of  a  certain  description,  will 
be  admitted  to  be  preferable  ;  and  with 
regard  to  arable  land,  this  new  process  by 
no  means  interferes  with  the  application 
of  the  roller,  for  all  the  purposes  which 
have  been  mentioned. 

Drill  Husbandry. 

The  system  of  drill  husbandry  has 
beenlong  known  to  be  extremely  prefera- 
ble on  sandy  soils  and  dry  loams,  and  in 
Norfolk  particularly  it  made  a  rapid  and 
extensive  progress  upon  such  lands.  It 
has  latter)}  been  introduced  on  the  strong 
soils  of  Suffolk.  The  objects  of  this  hus- 
bandry are,  the  promotion  of  the  growth 
of  plants  by  hoeing,  ai)d  the  saving  of 
seed ;  objects,  it  will  be  universally  ad- 
mitted, of  great  importance.  It  was  well 
known,  that  in  gardens  the  hoeing  and 
transplantation  of  vegetables  often  dou- 
bled their  vigour,  analogy  therefore  natu- 
rally led  to  the  conclusion,  that  a  similar 
result  would  occur  from  the  same  ma- 
nagement of  arable  lands,  and  experience 
has  decided  both  the  practicability  and  the 
advantage  of  it.  Land  sowed  with  wheat, 
however  well  prepared  and  finished  it 
may  be  in  the  autumn,  sinks  in  winter,  so 
that  in  the  spring  it  possesses  too  great 
tenacity  to  admit  the  free  extension  of 
the  roots  for  the  collection  of  nourish- 
ment, and  stands  in  extreme  need  of 
ploughing  and  hoeing  to  counteract  these 
effects.  Grain  sown  before  winter,  there- 
fore, requires  the  process  of  hoeing  inex- 
pressibly more  than  what  is  sown  in  the 
spring;  the  land  in  the  latter  case  not 
having  had  the  same  time  to  harden,  nor 
to  produce  many  weeds  by  exposure  to 
the  winter  snow  and  rain. 

As  the  vigour  of  the  plants  upon  the 
drill  system  is  very  considerably  increas- 
ed, the  land  must  be  sowed  much  thin- 
ner than  in  the  old  practice ;  a  circum- 
stance, which,  in  unreflecting  minds,  has 
operated  as  a  considerable  objection,  it 


appearing  at  the  first  view,  which  on  such 
is  not  only  strong,  but  often  indelibly  im- 
pressive, that  the  vacant  spots  are  com- 
pletely lost  or  wasted.  In  the  common 
practice,  however  e\vn  in  the  mos<.  pro- 
cluc'ive  lands,  the  seeds,  though  very 
thickly  sown,  produce  each  butone  or  two 
ears,  whereas  two  or  three  are  universally 
produced  by  each  in  the  latter  mode,  and 
sometimes  a  single  one  will  produce  18 
or  20.  In  the  old  method,  there  being  by 
far  more  plants  than  nourishment,  many 
must  perish  without  attaining  maturity, 
and  many  of  the  remainder  can  exist  on- 
ly in  a  languid  and  drooping  state ;  where- 
as in  the  other  method  ull  have  as  nmch 
nutriment  as  they  require,  and  though 
comparatively  few,  being  far  more  vigo- 
rous in  their  vegetation,  they  artbrd  a 
larger  produce  than  the  numerous  but 
sickly  plants  cultivated  in  the  ordinary 
method. 

For  the  application  of  this  new  mode, 
however^  it  is  expedient  that  land  should 
have  been  broi>g-ht  into  good  tilth  by  the 
old  method,  which  being  done,  it  should 
be  so  thinly  sown  as  to  leave  sufficient 
room  for  the  plants  to  extend  themselves. 
It  must  be  divided  for  this  purpose  into 
rows,  30  inches  distant  from  each  other, 
which  will  give  an  interval  of  two 
feet  between  the  rows,  every  plant  there- 
by having  ample  room  to  extend  its 
roots  and  collect  its  food.  In  such  con- 
siderable intervals,  also,  the  earth  may 
be  hoed  round  the  plants  without  the 
hazard  of  injury  to  them.  The  first  hoe- 
ing should  be  applied  when  the  wheat  is 
in  leaf,  before  winter,  and  is  designed  to 
draw  off  the  wet,  and  dispose  the  earth 
to  be  mellowed  by  frost.  The  second, 
after  the  hard  frosts  are  passed,  is  calcu- 
lated for  making  the  plants  branch  free- 
ly. The  third  may  be  very  slight,  and 
should  be  given  when  the  ears  begin  to 
appear.  The  last  should  be  given  when 
the  wheat  is  in  bloom,  and  is  of  the  great- 
est importance,  as  it  makes  the  ears  fill 
at  the  extremities,  and  increases  the  size 
of  the  grain.  In  the  middle  of  the  inter- 
vals a  deep  furrow  must  be  traced,  and 
the  earth  be  thrown  to  the  right  and  left 
on  the  foot  of  the  plants.  By  the  careful 
application  of  the  earth  in  this  manner 
the  plants  are  supported,  and  prevented 
from  being  laid,  and  the  ground  is  pre- 
pared for  the  next  sowing,  in  which  the 
seed  is  to  be  put  in  the  middle  of  the 
ground  that  formed  the  intervals. 

The  practice  of  hoeing  may  take  place 
at  almost  any  time  in  light  and  dry  soils ; 
but  on  strong  and  clay  ones,  in  which 


AGRICULTURE. 


the  extremes  of  wet  and  dry  are  particu- 
larly inimical  to  vegetation,  the  seasons 
for  its  exercise  are  often  short  and  critical. 

As  vigorous  plants,  such  as  are  produ- 
ced by  this  system,  require  a  longer  pe- 
riod for  attaining  maturity,  the  corn  thus 
cultivated  must  be  sown  earlier  than  in 
the  usual  mode.  The  intervals  are  usu- 
ally prepared  for  sowing  again,  by  pla- 
cing some  well-rotted  dung  in  the  deep 
furrows  made  in  the  middle  of  them,  and 
this  dung  must  be  covered  by  the  earth 
before  thrown  towards  the  rows  of  wheat. 
This  should  be  performed  immediately 
after  harvest,  that,  before  the  rows  are 
sowed,  there  may  be  time  for  slightly 
stirring  the  land.  The  intervals  of  the 
second  year  occupy  the  place  taken  up 
by  the  stubble  of  the  preceding. 

The  banishment  of  the  plough  in 
spring,  to  as  great  a  degree  as  possible, 
has  taken  place,  in  consequence  of  this 
most  useful  and  happy  innovation.  All 
peas  and  beans,  barley  and  oats,  not  only 
may  be  put  in  on  an  autumnal  ploughing, 
but  actually  are  so  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  (especially  in  Suffolk,)  the  stitch- 
es in  this  ploughing  being  carefully 
thrown  to  the  precise  breadth,  suited  to 
the  intention  of  the  farmer,  whether  to 
use  only  one  movement  of  the  drill,  or 
what  is  usually  denominated  a  bout  of  it; 
on  which  subject  opinions  differ.  By  the 
winter  frosts  a  friability  is  given  to  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  so  great,  that  very 
early  in  the  spring,  after  one  scarifying 
and  harrowing,  the  corn  may  be  drilled, 
and  without  a  horse-foot  treading  any 
where  but  in  the  stitch  furrows,  where  it 
can  do  no  injury.  Instead  of  losing  this 
admirable  gift  of  the  atmosphere  (which 
cannot  be  renewed,)  as  was  done  by  the 
former  practice  of  at  least  two  spring 
ploughings,  it  is  thus  completely  preser- 
ved, and  the  delay,  expense,  and  vexa- 
tion, occasioned  to  the  farmer,  by  the  suc- 
cession of  rains  and  north-easterly  winds, 
giving  the  dreadful  alternative  of  mire 
and  clods,  are  wholly  avoided. 

From  a  comparative  estimate  of  the 
profits  attending  the  different  modes  of 
husbandry,  that  of  the  new  is  stated, 
after  various  experiments,  to  be  very 
nearly  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two: 
and  making  the  utmost  allowance  for  the 
influence,  by  which  the  sanguine  tempe- 
rament of  the  partizan  will  interfere  with 
the  dispassionate  calculations  of  philoso- 
phy, the  advantage  on  the  side  of  profit 
is  indisputably  and  greatly  with  the  mo- 
dern system.  It  is  also  to  be  observed, 
that  most  of  the  accidents  attending 


crops  of  wheat  originate  in  their  being 
late  sown,  which,  on  the  old  plan,  is  una- 
voidable ;  whereas,  in  the  new  method, 
the  farmer  may  plough  the  furrows  for 
the  next  crop  as  soon  us  ever  the  first  is 
removed.  The  ground  may  be  ploughed 
dry,  and  may  be  drilled  wet.  The  seed, 
moreover,  is  not  planted  under  the  fur- 
rows, but  at  the  precisely  proper  depth. 
The  seed  has  all  the  advantage  of  early 
sowing,  therefore,  and  the  crop  is  more 
certain  than  by  any  other  mode.  The 
land,  also,  is  much  less  exhausted  by  this 
method,  the  weeds  being  completely  de- 
stroyed by  the  hoe,  and  none  of  the  plants 
existing  to  draw  nutriment  from  the 
ground  but  what  attain  their  full  matu- 
rity ;  whereas  in  the  usual  practice  seeds 
are  permitted  inevitably  to  impoverish, 
and  three-fourths  of  the  plants  them- 
selves, after  having  derived  a  certain  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  vegetable  food 
from  the  soil,  perish  abortively.  The 
state  of  the  land,  therefore,  must  neces- 
sarily and  obviously  be  left  far  better  by 
the  new  mode  than  by  the  old. 

The  practice  of  drill-husbandry  has 
been  justly  remarked  to  be  the  manage- 
ment of  the  garden  brought  into  the 
field  ;  and  the  grand  question  relating  to 
it  is,  whether  the  extraordinary  expence 
of  this  finer  cultivation  be  compensated 
by  the  superior  quality  or  abundance  of 
its  crop  ?  which  the  most  sagacious  and 
experienced  judges  have  determined  in 
the  affirmative. 

Even  admitting,  for  a  moment,  after  all, 
that  the  practice  is  not,  on  the  whole,  su- 
perior, or  equal,  to  the  old  mode,  its  in- 
troduction has  at  least  been  highly  ser- 
viceable in  correcting  and  refining  the 
old  method  of  cultivation,  and  some  of 
the  reputation  of  the  new  one  may  un- 
doubtedly be  allowed  to  have  arisen  from 
a  comparison  with  slovenly  and  defective 
methods  upon  the  old  plan. 

With  regard  to  white  crops,  there  are 
many  practitioners  of  liberality  and  sense 
who  reject  this  practice,  although,  with 
respect  to  potatoes,  cabbages,  beans,  and 
often  turnips  also,  it  is  admitted  by  them 
to  be  unexceptionable.  On  a  soil,  how- 
ever, in  which  the  drill  machine  can  move 
with  freedom,  there  appears  no  reason, 
and  it  may  be  almost  said  no  excuse,  for 
the  rejection  of  the  modern  system, 
which,  indeed,  however  recently  it  may 
have  been  introduced  into  this  country, 
is  practised  in  every  part  of  China,  and  is 
used  also  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Carna- 
tic,  and,  from  the  decided  aversion  of 
these  nations  to  innovation,  may  naturally 


AGRICULTURE. 


be  supposed  to  have  been  their  practice 
for  a  vast  succession  of  ages.  Tobacco, 
cotton,  and  the  castor-oil  plant,  are  culti- 
vated by  it,  as  well  as  every  species  of 
grain. 

The  Culture  of  Grain  and  Roots. 

Of  the  various  plants  raised  for  the  nou- 
rishment of  man,  wheat  is  of  the  chief 
importance.  To  prevent  the  disease  so 
fatal  to  this  vegetable,  called  the  smut, 
steeping  its  seed  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours  in  a  ley  of  wood  ashes,  in 
lime  water,  and  in  a  solution  of  arsenic,  is 
completely  efficacious,  even  although  it 
should  have  been  extremely  affected  by 
the  disease.  A  less  time  is  insufficient. 
On  cold,  wet,  and  backward  soils,  the 
best  season  for  putting  this  grain  into  the 
earth  is  September,  particularly  if  the 
weather  be  rainy,  as  wheat  should  never 
be  sown  in  U  dry  season.  On  dry  and 
warm  soils  the  sowing  may  be  best  post- 
poned till  October.  In  proportion  to  the 
earliness  of  the  sowing,  a  less  quantity  of 
seed  is  sufficient.  The  best  preparation 
for  it  is  by  beans.  Clover  forms  also  an 
excellent  preparation  for  it :  and  on  a 
farm  dry  enough  for  turnips,  and  rich 
enough  for  wheat,  the  Norfolk  practice 
of  turnips,  barley,  clover,  and  wheat,  is 
perhaps  the  most  eligible  that  can  be 
adopted. 

By  the  dibbling  of  wheat,  for  a  fort- 
night before  which  the  land  must  be 
ploughed,  and  rolled  down  with  a  heavy 
roller,  the  seedjis  deposited  in  the  centre 
of  the  flag,  and  the  regular  treading 
which  the  land  receives  presses  down  the 
furrows,  and  gives  it  a  most  valuable  de- 
gree of  firmness.  The  chief  attention 
required  in  dibbling  is,  to  make  the  holes 
deep  enough,  and  to  see  that  the  children 
drop  the  seed  equally,  without  scattering. 
After  this  dropping  is  completed,  bush- 
harrowing  follows.  The  quantity  of  seed 
should  be  about  six  pecks  in  two  rows  in 
a  flag.  If  the  drill-machine  be  used,  the 
preparation  of  the  land  by  ploughing, 
harrowing,  and  rolling,  must  be  extreme- 
ly accurate,  whether  for  one  stroke  of  the 
machine,  or  for  a  bout  of  it,  and  the 
quantity  of  seed  should  be  the  same  as 
that  used  in  dibbling.  In  February, 
slight  dressings  are  with  great  advantage 
spread  over  the  green  crop  of  this  grain  ; 
and  if  the  farmer  has  his  choice  for  this 
purpose,  he  can  never  hesitate  about  tak- 
ing them  from  dung  ;  as  dungs  of  all  sorts 
are  excellent,  and  no  other  manures, 
like  these,  are  universally  applicable.  In 


the  drill-husbandry,  the  practice  of  hoeing 
is  of  the  first  importance,  and  has  been 
already  mentioned.  If  horse-hoeing  be 
not  employed,  the  hand-hoe  may  be  used 
to  great  advantage,  and  should  be  per- 
formed, first,  early  in  March,  and  the  se- 
cond time  in  the  beginning  of  April.  A 
scarifier  is  by  many  employed  instead  of 
the  hoe,  with  the  same  object  and  effect. 
Whatever  the  operation,  employed  with 
this  view,  may  be,  the  bottom  should, 
with  respect  to  wheat,  be  left  firm  and 
untouched.  This  is  of  particular  import- 
ance. 

A  mild  and  open  winter  is  far  from 
being  favourable  to  this  grain,  pushing  it 
forward  with  too  rapid  vegetation,  and 
also  cherishing  those  weeds  which  be- 
come its  most  injurious  enemies.  No 
weather  is  so  injurious  to  wheat  in  the 
ground  as  wet.  If,  however,  it  have  a 
good  blooming  time,  though  the  rest  of 
the  summer,  both  before  and  after  this 
period,  maybe  unkindly,  little  apprehen- 
sion for  the  crop  need  be  entertained 
from  any  state  of  the  weather. 

If  wheat  be  attacked  by  mildew,  which 
is  most  likely  to  occur  in  the  month  of 
July,  the  only  effectual  application  is  the 
sickle,  which  ought  not  to  be  delayed  for 
a  moment,  though  the  ear  be  perfectly 
green. 

Barley  requires  a  mellow  soil,  and 
when  sown  upon  clay,  therefore,  extraor- 
dinary care  is  required  to  stir  the  land  im- 
mediately after  the  removal  of  the  previ- 
ous crop  ;  and,  with  this  view,  the  prac- 
tice of  rib-ploughing,  which  exposes  the 
greatest  possible  quantity  of  surface  to 
the  air  and  frost,  has  been  employed  by 
many.  This  object  should,  at  all  events, 
be  gained,  which  ever  method  be  adopted 
for  it,  of  the  many  which  have  been  sug- 
gested, and  are  indeed  practised.  Scari- 
fication, with  Mr.  Cooke's  machine  for 
this  purpose,  instead  of  ploughing,  is 
found  to  be  an  excellent  method.  In  pro- 
portion to  the  tenaciousness  of  the  soil 
must  be  the  extent  of  this  operation, 
which  is  easily  dispatched,  even  when 
repeated,  leaving  the  lands,  or  stitches,  in 
excellent  order  for  the  drill-machine  to 
advance  and  perfect  its  work. 

The  proper  season  for  getting  barley 
into  the  ground  is  March.  The  most 
useful  preparation  for  it  is  by  turnips.  To 
have  the  land  dry  for  sowing  is  of  more 
consequence  for  this  grain,  than  it  is  for 
almost  any  other.  It  should  always  fol- 
low either  an  ameliorating  crop  or  a  fal- 
low, and  in  many  cases  it  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  clover.  The  quantity  of  seed 


AGRICULTURE. 


barley  should  be  increased  as  the  season 
advances,  as  early  sown  crops  have  more 
time  to  tiller  than  later  ones ;  and  in  the 
same  proportion,  the  importance  of  the 
drill  husbandry  with  regard  to  this  arti- 
cle increases;  as,  if  sown  in  the  latter 
end  of  February,  in  the  broadcast  me- 
thod, it  would  get, the  start  of  weeds, 
which,  if  it  be  sown  early  in  April,  would 
extremely  annoy  it,  according-  to  the  old 
mode,  but  by  the  hoeing  practice  may  be 
easily  removed. 

Oats  should  never  be  sown  after  other 
corn  crops  (as  the  land  is  by  this  practice 
too  much  exhausted,)  and  should  receive 
the  same  preparation  as  barley:  a  circum- 
stance often  not  sufficiently  attended  to. 
Warm,  forward  sands  yield  as  great  a 
quantity  of  barley  as  of  oats,  and  should, 
therefore  be  applied  to  the  culture  of  the 
former,  as  generally  yielding  a  better 
price.  Upon  various  other  soils,  however, 
the  produce  of  oats  will  be  in  considerably 
greater  proportion  than  that  of  barley, 
and  by  superior  quantity  more  than  com- 
pensate for  being  sold  at  the  smaller  price. 
To  relieve  the  business  of  the  succeed- 
ing months,  oats  may  sometimes  be  sown 
in  January ;  without  this  view,  however, 
February  is  preferable.  The  land  should 
have  been  ploughed  in  October.  Six 
bushels  per  acre  may  be  sown  in  broad- 
cast, and  on  poor  soils  even  eight,  to  great 
advantage  :  the  crop  being,  by  thick  sow- 
ing, several  days  sooner  ripe,  and  the  idea 
of  saving  seed  with  respect  to  this  grain 
not  being  an  object  worth  any  particular 
attention.  In  the  drill  husbandry  five 
bushels  per  acre  are  sufficient,  and  they 
should  be  horse-hoed  early  in  the  month 
of  May. 

Peas  are  extremely  ameliorating  to  the 
soil,  and  may  therefore,  with  very  great 
advantage,  be  substituted  in  tillage  for 
white  corn,  a  succession  of  which  is  pe- 
culiarly impoverishing.  They  should, 
however,  not  be  sown  on  lands  negligent- 
ly prepared,  as  is  too  commonly  done;  and 
indeed  the  maxim  cannot  be  too  much 
attended  to,  with  respect  to  grain,  that 
none  should  be  sown  but  on  lands  in  real- 
ly good  order,  with  respect  to  heart, 
cleanness  from  weeds,  and  well-finished 
tilth.  The  uncertainty  generally  ascribed 
to  this  crop  is  to  be  attributed  in  a  great 
degree  to  a  neglect  of  these  circumstan- 
ces. At  the  same  time,  however,  it  is  not 
meant  to  be  asserted,  that  for  all  grain 
the  preparation  sh;n;ld  be  equally  high 
and  finished.  The  earlier  peas  are  sown, 
the  better  they  will  thrive,  and  the  more 
easily  they  will  be  moved  off  the  ground 


in  due  time  for  turnips,  a  circumstance  of 
particular  importance.  February  is  the 
proper  month  for  their  being  sown.  Ear- 
ly peas  will  seldom  prove  beneficial  upon, 
wet  soils,  and  should  be  cultivated  only 
on  dry  ones,  upon  sands,  dry  sandy  loams, 
gravels,  and  chalks.  The  broadcast  me- 
thod should  be  most  clearly  njected  in 
relation  to  them.  The  only  question  is 
between  drilling  and  dibbling  ih em.  On 
a  ley,  the  latter  practice  cannot  be  too  de- 
cidedly adopted.  Put  in  on  a.  layer,  they 
do  not  want  manure,  \vluc:i  will  often, 
make  them  run  to  long  .straw,  a  circum- 
stance unfavourable  to  podding,  and  like- 
wise encourages  weeds,  which,  in  the  in- 
fant stage  of  the  growth  of  peas,  cannot 
be  extirpated  without  danger.  If  the 
land  be  in  good  heart,  therefore,  as  it 
ought  to  be,  dung  may  be  applied  with 
much  more  advantage  to  other  crops ; 
and  being  an  article  for  which  the  farmer 
has,  perhaps  in  all  cases,  a  greater  de- 
mand than  he  can  supply,  should  be  used 
with  economy,  and  only  where  it  is  sure 
to  answer  best.  The  proper  quantity  of 
seeds  to  be  applied  in  the  drill-husbandry, 
in  equally  distant  rows,  about  one  foot 
asunder,  is  seven  pecks  per  acre.  It  is  a 
judicious  and  valuable  observation,  the 
result  of  long1  experience,  that  peas  should 
not  be  sown  above  once  in  about  ien  years, 
being  not  found  to  succeed,  if  sown 
oftener. 

Beans,  where  the  land  is  proper  for 
them,  deserve  from  the  farmer  every  at- 
tention, constituting  one  of  the  surest 
funds  of  profit.  He  is  enabled  by  them 
to  lessen,  if  not  absolutely  explode,  the 
practice  of  fallowing.  When  cultivated, 
however,  with  a  view  of  substituting  them 
in  the  room  of  fallow,  drilling  or  dibbling 
must  be  uniformly  employed,  so  as  to  ad- 
mit the  plough  between  their  rows,  as  no 
hand  work  will  sufficiently  pulverize  the 
lands  for  the  purpose,  without  extreme 
expence.  Dibbl  ng,  when  well  perform- 
ed, with  respect  to  beans,  is  an  admirable 
method.  The  difficulty,  however,  of  pro- 
curing it  to  be  well  done  must  be  consi- 
dered as  no  trifling  objection  to  it.  Beans 
are  too  often  imperfecily  delivered  by  the 
various  drill-machines  employed.  On  the 
other  hand,  however,  the  practice  is  less 
expensive  than  dibbling,  and  the  seed  is 
more  surely  put  into  the  desired  depth, 
so  that,  on  the  whole,  the  drilling  me- 
thod seems  preferable  to  that  by  dibbling. 
It  is  a  point  "n  which  different  circum- 
stances will  suiely  and  judiciously  lead  to 
different  conclusions;  and  soil,  season, 
dependance  upon  servants, together  with 


AGRICULTURE. 


ether  considerations,  will  be  resorted  to, 
previously  to  the  decision  upon  either  of 
these  methods.  Tije  common  little  horse- 
bean  has  the  advantage  of  being1  more 
marketable  than  any  other.  Beans  thrive 
upon  light  loams  better  than  has  been  ge- 
nerally imagined.  The  soils,  however, 
generally  applied  to  their  culture,  are  all 
the  strong  and  heavy  ones.  Wherever 
they  can  be  cultivated,  the  farmer  ought 
to  have  them.  They  do  not  exhaust  the 
soil.  Wheat  is  prepared  for  by  them, 
perhaps,  better  than  by  an*  other  mode. 
They  preserve  their  upright  attitude  to 
the  latest  period,  admitting  of  horse- 
hoeing  to  the  very  last.  The  ground 
is  well  shaded  by  them  from  the  sun  ; 
and,  if  they  are  harvested  favourably, 
their  straw  is  valuable,  and,  at  all  events, 
may  be  converted  into  admirable  dung. 
By  a  bad  crop  of  peas,  the  land  is  often 
filled  with  weeds;  but  though  a  crop  of 
beans  should  be  extremeh-  had,  the  land 
may  nevertheless  be  in  the  highest  state 
of  cleanness.  The  quantity  of  seed  dif- 
fers according  to  the  variety  of  the  grain. 
About  two  bushels  of  the  horse-heans  per 
acre,  in  rows  equi-distaut,  at  eighteen 
inches,  is  a  proper  allowance,  and  Febru- 
ary is  the  month  in  which  they  should  be 
put  in. 

Buck-wheat  is  known  to  a  vast  majority 
of  the  farmers  of  this  kingdom  only  by 
name.  It  has,  however,  numerous  excel- 
lencies, is  of  an  enriching  nature,  and  pre- 
pares well  for  wheat  or  any  other  crop. 
One  bushel  of  seed  is  sufficient  to  sow  an 
acre,  which  is  only  about  the  fourth  part 
of  the  expence  of  seed  barley.  It  is  sold 
at  the  same  price  as  barley,  and  is  equal 
to  it  for  the  fatting  of  hogs  and  poultry 
The  end  of  May  is  the  proper  season  for 
its  being  sown,  and  grass  seeds  may  be 
sown  with  it,  if  the  practice  should  be 
thought  in  any  instance  eligible,  with  more 
advantage  than  with  any  other  grain,  un- 
less barley  may  be  excepted.  Buck-wheat 
may  be  sown  even  so  late  as  the  first  week 
in  July,  a  circumstance,  by  which  the 
period  of  tillage  is  considerably  protract- 
ed, and  an  ameliorating  crop  may  thus 
be  produced,  after  the  usual  period  has, 
from  any  unavoidable  or  casual  occur- 
rence, been  neglected. 

Potatoes  form  a  most  important  article 
of  food,  both  for  the  human  species  and 
for  cattle,  and  are  an  inestimable  substi- 
tute for  bread  formed  of  grain,  the  best 
resource  in  periods  of  scarcity  of  wheat ; 
and,  happily,  when  the  crops  of  grain  fail, 
through  redundant  moisture,  the  potatoe 
is  far  from  being  equally  injured,  and 


sometimes  is  even  benefited  by  the  wet 
season.  The  choice  of  soil  for  the  culture 
of  this  root  is  of  prime  importance.  Po- 
tatoes never  make  palatable  nourishment 
for  man,  if  yrown  in  a  clay  soil,  or  in  rank, 
black  loam,  although  in  these  circum- 
stances they  are  well  fitted  for  cattle,  and 
relished  by  them,  and  also  produced  in 
great  abundance.  They  grow  to  perfec- 
tion for  human  food  in  gravelly  and  sandy 
soils.  The  drill  should  be  universally 
preferred  for  their  cultivation.  In  Sep- 
tember, or  October,  the  field  intended  for 
them  should  have  successively  a  rousing 
furrow,  a  cross  braking,  and  the  opera- 
tion of  the  cleaning  harrow ;  and  being 
formed  into  three-feet  ridges,  should  re- 
main in  that  state  till  April,  which  is  the 
proper  season  for  planting  this  root.  Af- 
ter cross  braking  them,  to  raise  in  a  small 
degree  the  furrows,  well  rotted  horse- 
dung  should  be  laid  along  them,  on  which 
the  roots  should  be  laid  at  eightinches  dis- 
tance. The  plough  should  then  pass  once 
round  every  row,  to  cover  them.  As  soon 
s  they  appear  above  ground,  the  plough 
should  be  passed  round  them  a  second 
time,  laying  on  the  plants  about  an  inch, 
or  somewhat  more,  of  mould,  in  addition. 
When  they  have  attained  the  height  of  six 
inches,  the  plough  should  go  twice  along 
the  middle  of  each  interval,  in  opposite 
directions,  laying  earth  first  to  one  row, 
and  then  to  another ;  and,  to  apply  it  more 
closely  to  the  roots,  a  spade  should  after- 
wards be  used  to  cover  four  inches  of  the 
plants,  and  bury  all  the  weeds.  The 
wevds  which  arise  afterwards  must  be  ex- 
tirpated by  the  hand,  as  the  hoes  would 
go  too  deep,  and  damage  the  roots  of  the 
plants.  From  ten  to  fifteen  bushels  will 
be  sufficient  to  plant  an  acre,  the  produce 
of  which  may  probably  be  three  hundred 
bushels.  Sets  should  be  cut  for  some  few 
before  they  are  planted,  with  at  least  one 
eye  to  each,  and  not  in  very  small  pieces, 
and  the  depredations  of  the  grub  upon 
them  may  be  effectually  prevented  by- 
scattering  on  the  surface  of  the  land  about 
two  bushels  per  acre  of  lime,  fresh  slak- 
ed. The  most  certain  method  of  taking 
them  up  is,  to  plough  once  round  every 
row,  at  the  distance  of  four  inches,  after 
which  they  may  easily  be  raised,  by  a 
three-clawed  fork,  rather  than  by  a  spade, 
and  scarcely  a  single  one  will  by  this 
practice  be  left  in  the  ground.  They  may 
with  care  be  preserved  till  the  ensuing 
crop,  particularly  by  the  allowance  ne- 
cessary till  April  being  closely  covered  in 
the  barn  with  dry  and  pressed  down  straw, 
while  the  remainder  for  the  ensuing-  part 


AGRICULTURE. 


of  the  year  is  buried  in  a  dry  cave,  mixed 
with  the  husks  of  dried  oats,  sand,  or 
leaves,  especially  if  a  hay  or  corn-stack  is 
erected  over  it. 

Potatoes  are  subject  to  a  disease  called 
the  curl,  which  has  drawn  the  attention 
of  sagacious  and  experienced  men,  and 
suggested,  in  consequence,  a  great  varie- 
ty of  opinions  on  its  cause  and  remedy. 
Some  kinds  of  this  root,  however,  it  is  al- 
most unanimously  agreed,  are  less  sus- 
ceptible of  the  disease  than  others,  and 
the  old  red,  the  golden  dun,  and  the  long 
dun,  are  the  least  of  all  so.  One  or  more 
of  the  following  circumstances  may  be 
most  probably  considered  as  causing  it ; 
frost,  insects,  the  planting  from  sets  of  un- 
ripe and  large  potatoes,  the  planting  in 
old  and  exhausted  grounds,  and  too  near 
the  surface,  or  the  small  shoots  of  the  sets 
being  broken  off  before  planting.  Where 
certainty  on  any  interesting  subject  can- 
not be  obtained,  the  hints  of  the  judicious 
are  always  desirable.  The  methods  most 
successfully  exercised  for  the  prevention 
of  the  curl  are,  to  cut  the  sets  from  smooth 
ripe  potatoes,  of  the  middle  size,  which 
have  been  kept  particularly  dry,  to  guard 
against  the  rubbing  off  the  first  shoots, 
and  to  plant  them  rather  deeply  in  fresh 
earth,  with  a  mixture  of  quick  lime. 

No  plant  thrives  better  even  in  the  cold- 
est part  of  this  island  than  the  turnip, 
and  none  are  more  advantageous  to  the 
soil.  Its  introduction  was  an  improve- 
ment of  the  most  valuable  nature.  There 
is  no  soil  which  will  not  produce  it,  when 
previously  prepared  for  it  by  art ;  but  the 
gravelly  one  is  best  of  all  adapted  to  it. 
No  root  requires  a  finer  mould  than  the 
turnip,  and  with  a  view  to  this  object,  the 
land  intended  for  it  should  be  exposed  to 
frost  by  ribbing  it  after  the  harvest.  The 
season  for  sowing  must  be  regulated  by 
the  time  intended  for  feeding,  the  later 
from  the  first  of  June  to  the  end  of  July, 
in  proportion  to  the  designed  protraction 
of  this  feeding.  The  field  should  be  first 
ploughed  by  a  shallow  furrow.  Lime,  if 
necessary,  should  be  then  harrowed  into 
it.  Single  furrows,  at  the  interval  of  three 
feet,  should  be  drawn,  and  dung  laid  in 
them,  which  should  be  then  covered  by 
going  round  it  with  the  plough,  and  form- 
ing the  three  feet  spaces  into  ridges. 
Wider  rows  answer  no  profitable  object, 
and  with  straiter  ones  a  h  orse  h  as  not  room 
to  walk.  Thick  sowing  is  far  better  than 
thin,  bearing  better  the  depredations  of 
the  fly,  and  forming  also  a  protection 
against  drought.  The  weeds  may,  in 
many  cases,  be  most  effectually  extirpa- 


ted by  women,  without  injuring  the  crop  ; 
and  the  standing  turnips  should  be  left  at 
twelve  inches  distance  from  each  other. 
On  average  seasons,  with  good  prepara- 
tion, the  produce  from  this  number  per 
acre  may  be  considered  as  amounting  to 
46  tons  of  valuable  nourishment.  For  pre- 
servation they  may  be  stacked  with  straw; 
and  42  tons  may  be  thus  secured  by  one 
load  of  straw,  orof  stubble  andold  haulm. 
A  method  preferred  by  many  is  that  of 
sowing  late  crops,  even  in  August,  by 
which  a  succession  of  them  remains  on 
the  field  to  be  consumed  on  the  spot,  even 
so  late  as  the  ensuing  May,  and  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  turnips  good  till  the 
spring  grasses  are  ready  for  food  has 
greatly  encouraged  this  practice.  To  pre- 
vent the  devastations  of  the  fly,  the  most 
destructive  enemy  to  a  crop  of  turnips, 
the  most  effectual  methods  as  little  de- 
pendance  can  be  placed  on  steepings,  or 
on  fumigations,  is  to  sow  the  seed  at  such 
a  season,  that  they  may  be  well  grown 
before  the  appearance  of  the  insect ;  and 
by  well  dunging  and  manuring  the 
ground,  to  hasten  their  attainment  of  the 
rough  leaf,  in  which  the  fly  does  not  at 
all  affect  them.  New  seed,  it  may  also 
be  observed,  vegetates  more  rapidly  and 
vigorously  than  old  ;  and  the  more  healthy 
and  vigorous  the  plants  are,  the  more 
likely  they  are  to  escape  depredation. 
The  sowing-  of  turnips  with  grain  is  by 
many  recommended  in  this  connection, 
and  stated  to  be  highly  efficacious. 

The  culture  of  cabbages  for  cattle  is  a 
subject  well  meriting  the  attention  of  the 
agriculturist.  The  cabbage  is  subject 
to  few  diseases,  and  resists  frost  more 
easily  than  the  turnip.  It  is  palatable  to 
cattle,  and  sooner  fills  them  than  carrots 
or  potatoes;  and,  in  every  respect  but 
one,  cabbages  are  superior  to  turnips. 
On  all  soils  they  require  manure  ;  where- 
as, on  good  land,  turnips  may  be  raised 
without  it.  Fifty-four  tons  have  been 
raised  upon  an  acre  of  groxind  not  worth 
more  than  twelve  shillings  per. annum. 
Some  lands  have  produced  sixty-eight. 
The  time  of  setting  them  depends  on 
their  intended  use.  If  for  feeding  in 
November,  plants,  procured  from  seed 
sown  in  the  end  of  July  in  the  former 
year,  must  be  set  in  March  or  April : 
if  for  feeding  in  March,  April,  and  May, 
they  must  be  set  in  the  beginning  of 
the  preceding  July,  from  seed  sown  in 
the  previous  February.  Repeated  trans- 
plantation may  be  applied  to  them  with 
singular  advantage.  When  they  are  of 
the  larg-e  species,  four  feet  by  two  and  u 


AGRICULTURE. 


half  are  a  full  distance  for  them.  The 
best  protection  for  them  from  the  cater- 
pillar, by  which  these  and  greens  in  gene- 
ral are  apt  particularly  to  be  injured,  is 
to  pull  off  the  large  umler-leaves,  (which 
may  be  given  to  cows  with  great  benefit) 
on  which  the  eggs  of  those  insects  are 
usually  deposited.  Sowing  beans  among 
the  cabbages  is  also  considered  a  most 
effectual  preventive  of  the  nuisance. 

Carrots  require  a  deeper  soil  than  any 
other  root,  and  when  the  soil  does  not  na- 
turally extend  to  the  depth  of  twelve 
inches,  equally  good  throughout,  it  must 
be  artificially  made  so  for  their  culture, 
which  may  be  easily  effected  by  trench- 
ploughing.  Loams  and  sandy  soils  are 
the  only  ones  in  which  they  will  flourish, 
and  no  dung  can  be  used  for  them  in  the 
year  they  are  sown,  as  it  will  inevitably 
rot  them.  The  ground  must  be  prepared 
for  them  by  the  deepest  possible  furrows, 
and,  when  they  are  sown  about  the  be- 
ginning of  April,  it  must  be  smoothed  by 
a  brake.  In  large  plots  of  ground,  where 
horse-hoeing  is  requisite,three  feet  should 
be  the  distance  between  the  drills.  Where 
an  acre  or  little  more  only  is  employed, 
the  interval  should  not  be  greater  than  a 
foot,  and  hand-hoeing  will  be  found  more 
convenient,  and  scarcely  attended  with 
greater  expense.  From  six  to  nine  hun- 
dred bushels  have  been  produced  per 
acre  of  this  root,  where  the  land  has  been 
carefully  prepared  and  attended  to.  As 
food  for  horses,  its  culture  is  rapidly 
spreading.  For  oxen,  milch  cows,  and 
pigs,  carrots  are  admirably  applicable  and 
nourishing,  and,  when  boiled,  turkeys  and 
other  poultry  are  fed  on  them  with  great 
success. 

The  ease  with  which  parsnips  are  cul- 
tivated, and  the  great  quantity  of  saccha- 
rine and  nutritious  matter  which  they 
contain,  in  which  they  are  scarcely  ex- 
ceeded by  any  vegetable  whatever,  ren- 
der them  well  worthy  of  the  attention  of 
the  husbandman.  Though  little  used  in 
Britain,  they  are  highly  esteemedin  many 
disHcts  of  France,  in  some  parts  being 
thought  little  inferior  to  wheat  as  food 
for  man.  Cows  which  are  fed  with  them 
are  stated  to  give  as  much  milk  as  they  do 
in  the  months  of  summer.  All  animals 
eat  them  with  avidity,  and  in  preference 
to  potatoes,  and  fatten  more  quickly  upon 
them.  In  the  cultivation  of  them  the  seed 
should  be  sown  in  the  autumn,  immedi- 
ately after  it  is  reaped.  When  the  seed 
is  put  in  at  this  season,  the  plants  will  an- 
ticipate the  growth  of  weeds  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Frost  never  does  them 

VOL.  I. 


any  material  injury.  The  best  soil  foi 
them  is  a  deep  rich  loam.  Sand  is  next 
suitable  to  them ;  and  in  a  black,  gritty 
soil  they  will  flourish,  but  not  in  gravel 
or  clay.  In  the  deepest  earth  they  are  al- 
ways largest.  In  an  appropriate  soil  no 
manure  is  necessary  for  them,  and  a  very 
good  crop  has  been  obtained  for  three 
years  in  succession,  without  using  any. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  in  drills,  at  the 
distance  of  eighteen  inches,  for  the  great- 
er convenience  of  hoeing;  and  by  a  se- 
cond hoeing  and  a  cautious  earthing,  by 
which  the  leaves  may  not  be  covered,  the 
crop  will  be  luxuriant.  In  Jersey,  the  root 
has  been  known  and  cultivated  for  seve- 
ral centuries,  and  is  highly  valued.  It  is 
considered  as  an  excellent  preparation  for 
wheat,  which,  after  parsnips,  yields  an 
abundant  crop  without  any  manure. 

The  profit  of  cultivating  hemp-seed  is 
by  no  means  small.  It  requires,  how- 
ever, the  best  land  that  can  be  found  on  a 
farm,  or  which  is  made  such  by  manuring. 
A  rich,  deep,  putrid,  and  friable  loam  is 
what  it  particularly  delights  in;  and  in 
addition  to  natural  richness,  forty  cubical 
yards  of  dung  per  acre  should  be  suppli- 
ed. Besides  this  original  cost  of  land  in 
natural  richness  and  preparation,  it  is  to 
be  considered  that  hemp  returns  nothing- 
to  the  farm  yard,  while  corn  will  give 
straw,  and  the  dung-hill  is  improved  by 
green  crops.  The  question  concerning- 
the  propriety  of  its  cultivation  by  any  in- 
dividual is  not  to  be  determined,  there- 
fore, only  from  the  circumstance  of  any 
price  in  the  market,  but  is  to  be  inferred 
from  a  view  of  all  its  bearings  and  con- 
nections. For  many  crops,  tillage  should 
be  given  with  caution.  With  hemp  such 
caution  is  unnecessary,  as  its  rank  and 
luxuriant  growth  proves  fatal  to  all  those 
weeds,  by  which  corn  would  not  only  be 
injured,  but  destroyed.  From  the  au- 
tumn preceding  to  the  time  of  sowing- 
hemp,  the  land  should  be  three  or  four 
times  ploughed,  and  be  well  harrowed  to 
a  fine  surface.  The  quantity  of  dung- 
should  be  proportioned  to  the  deficiency 
of  the  soil;  and  when  the  culture  is  con- 
tinued from  year  to  year,  a  plentiful  dress- 
ing must  be  every  time  applied.  About 
twelve  pecks  should  be  sown  per  acre  : 
and  as  the  destruction  of  weeds  in  the  till- 
age is  here  no  object,  the  broadcast  me- 
thod is  universally  preferable  to  the  drill. 
It  will  be  ready  for  pulling  in  August,  or 
about  thirteen  weeks  after  it  is  sown. 

Flax,  with  due  attention,  will  repav  its 
cultivation  ;  but,  generally  speaking,  in 
this  country  the  same  land  and  manure 

I 


AGRICULTURE. 


may  be  more  conveniently  and  profitably 
applied.  Two  bushels  an  acre  is  the. re- 
quisite quantity  of  seed,  and  the  land,  if 
it  be  not  particularly  rich  by  nature,  must 
be  rendered  so  by  art,  must  be  worked  to 
a  fine  surface,  and  be  kept  perfectly  free 
from  weeds. 

The  preparation  for  rape-seed  is  the 
same  which  is  necessary  for  that  of  tur- 
nips. It  is  a  crop  subject  to  great  injury, 
and  extremely  uncertain.  In  the  con- 
quered countries  in  the  north  of  France, 
the  practice  is  to  sow  it  in  a  seed  bed  for 
transplantation,  which  is  begun  in  Octo- 
ber, and  if  there  be  no  frost  in  November, 
is  continued  through  that  month,  when 
the  plants  are  about  two  feet  long.  Were 
this  operation  to  take  place  earlier,  they 
would  be  more  secure  from  the  frost. 
Dibbling  is  employed  for  the  purpose,  and 
the  plants  are  set  at  about  the  distance  of 
eighteen  inches  by  ten.  In  a  favourable 
year  the  profit  is  considerable,  as  indeed  it 
ought  to  be,  to  compensate  for  the  fre- 
quent and  inevitable  failure  attending  this 
Cultivation.  An  indispensable  point,  in 
regard  to  this  article,  is  to  catch  at  oppor- 
tunities of  fine  weather,  for  the  purpose 
of  reaping  and  threshing,  which  must  be 
done  in  immediate  succession.  In  reaping, 
extreme  care  is  requisite,  to  prevent  the 
shedding  of  the  seed.  Both  in  lifting  it 
from  the  ground  and  conveying  it  to  the 
ba'-n  floor,  the  utmost  attention  must  be 
applied.  As  rain,  at  this  critical  period, 
may  be  considered  nearly  fatal  to  this 
produce,  celerity  of  operation  is  of  the 
first  consequence,  and  as  many  assistants 
as  possible  should  be  procured,  and  not  a 
moment  of  fine  weather  should  be  suffer- 
ed to  pass  unimproved. 

The  cultivation  of  hops  demands  a 
greater  capital  than  that  of  any  other 
plant.  The  cost  of  the  first  year's  prepa- 
paration  and  planting  will  amount  to  about 
eighty  pounds  per  acre,  and  the  subse- 
quent annual  expense  will  be  little  less 
than  half  that  sum,  and  after  all  the  ex- 
pense, preparation,  and  attention,  which 
may  be  employed,  no  crop  is  more  preca- 
rious. The  serious  consideration  of  a 
farmer  is  demanded,  before  he  resolves  to 
introduce  this  plant  where  it  has  not  been 
usually  cultivated.  And  not  only  the  cir. 
cumstances  already  mentioned,  but  that 
of  the  accessibility  or  distance  of  manure, 
(for  which  the  largest  quantities  are  call- 
ed for  by  hops,)  and  the  fact,  that  a  small 
solitary  hop  ground  seldom  thrives  like 
those  which  cover  a  large  extent  of  coun- 
try, from  whatever  cause  this  may  pro- 
ceed, should  be  fully  weighed.  Ruin  may 


easily  follow  the  want  of  adverting"  t» 
these  and  other  considerations,  and  they 
cannot  therefore  be  too  strongly  impress- 
ed on  the  sanguine  adventurer.  A  flat 
deep  bog-,  in  a  sheltered  situation,  makes 
an  excellent  hop  soil,  constituting  indeed, 
a  natural  dung-hill.  For  the  application 
of  such  land  to  hops,  the  chances  are  fa- 
vourable. The  best  preparation  for  this 
plant  when  such  a  spot  as  this  does  not 
occur,  is  made  by  two  successive  crops 
of  turnips  or  cabbages,  fed  off  by  sheep, 
early  enough  for  the  ploughing  and  plant- 
ing in  March  The  plants  should  be  in- 
serted in  rows,  at  eight  feet  distance  from 
each  other,  and  about  six  feet  from  hill 
to  hill.  Four  fresh  cuttings  should  be 
planted  in  each  spot  which  is  to  form  a 
hill.  In  April  they  should  be  poled,  an 
operation  requiring  that  critical  accuracy 
which,  depending  on  changeable  and  ca- 
sual circumstances,  can  be  derived  only 
from  experience.  The  binds  must  next 
be  tied  to  the  poles.  The  superfluous 
vines  must  be  pruned  about  midsummer, 
and  are  useful  food  for  cows.  Septem- 
ber is  the  month  for  pulling  them.  But 
the  management  of  hops  is  a  subject  most 
operose  and  delicate,  requiring  extreme 
experience,  attention,  and  dexterity ;  and 
the  details  of  which  would,  if  extended 
only  equally  to  its  importance,  occupy 
bulky  volumes. 

Course  of  Crops. 

No  subject  of  greater  importance  has 
been  treated  by  modern  writers  on  hus^ 
bandry,  than  the  succession  of  crops.  Be- 
fore the  present  reign,  although  a  consi- 
derable number  of  writers  on  agriculture 
existed,  this  topic  was  little  treated,  and 
by  many  scarcely  adverted  to.  It  has  at 
length  obtained  something  approaching 
to  that  attention  which  it  merits.  The 
main  principles  upon  which  all  practices 
on  this  subject  proceed  are,  that  some 
crops  are  more  exhausting  than  others  ; 
that  some,  although  of  a  very  impoverish- 
ing character,  yet,  by  being  consumed  on 
the  farm,  return  to  it  as  much  as  they  de- 
ducted originally  from  it,  and,  perhaps, 
even  more,  that  some  admit  profitable  till- 
age and  accurate  cleaning,  during  their 
growth  ;  while  by  others  the  land  is  almost 
unavoidably  rendered  foul  by  weeds,  is 
exhausted  without  return,  and  when  they 
are  applied  in  succession,  will  be  extreme- 
ly and  fatally  impoverished.  By  experi- 
ence, much  is  found  to  depend  on  a  cer- 
tain arrangement  of  crops  of  these  differ- 
ent and  opposite  characters;  and  in  no 


AGRICULTURE. 


tme  circcumstimcG  is  the  theory  or  prac- 
tice of  husbandry,  in  the  present  day,  so 
materially  a-  vanced  as  in  relation  to  this 
subject.  Unless  this  department  be  well 
understood,  the  efforts  of  the  farmer  in 
others  are  either  abortive  or  injurious.  An 
important  difference  is  observable  be- 
tween culmiferous  and  leguminous  plants, 
or  those  which  are  cultivated  for  their 
seed,  and  such  as  are  raised  for  their 
roots.  The  former  bisid  the  soil,  while 
the  latter  uniformly  give  it  openness  and 
freedom.  The  former  also  are  decidedly 
more  exhausting,  though  unquestionably 
in  themselves  the  most  profitable.  No 
soil  can  bear  them  in  long  and  uninter- 
rupted succession.  And,  on  the  other 
hand,  without  the  interposition  of  them 
among  leguminous  crops,  the  soil  in 
which  the  latter  grow  would  by  their  loos- 
eningquality  become  deficient  in  the  tena- 
city which  is  necessary  for  vegetation. 
Some  crops  are  rendered  valuable  chiefly 
from  their  preparation  for  others,  that 
are  more  valuable,  of  a  different  kind. 
The  husbandmen  of  a  former  age  sowed 
frequently  in  succession  that  species  of 
grain  which  they  wished  to  possess  abun- 
dantly: whereas,  by  this  practice,  their 
object  was  often,  at  length,  completely 
defeated.  And  if  wheat,  oats,  or  barley, 
were  for  a  certain  period  sown  in  the 
same  field,  the  land  would  eventually, 
and  that  in  no  long  time,  scarcely  return 
the  seed  which  was  put  into  it. 

That  rotation  is  admitted  to  be  best, 
which  enriches  the  land  with  abundant 
manure,  preserves  it  best  from  weeds,  pul- 
verizes the  soil  most  effectually  when  it 
is  too  tenacious,  and  binds  it  most  com- 
pletely, where  it  is  naturally  too  open. 
As  a  general  rule,  those  who  are  engaged 
in  agriculture  cannot,  with  a  view  to  these 
purposes,  have  the  importance  of  provid- 
ing food  for  large  quantities  of  cattle 
too  repeatedly  and  emphatically  recom- 
mended to  them.  Indeed,  by  attending 
to  this  circumstance,  larger  quantities  of 
grain  are  produced  than  by  any  other 
mode,  while  that  produce  of  the  land, 
which  consists  of  milk,  butter,  cheese, 
butcher's  meat,  and  other  articles  con- 
nected with  cattle,  is  nearly  so  much 
clear  gain.  Grass  prepares  a  turf,  which, 
when  broken  up,  constitutes  the  most  va-v 
luable  of  all  known  manures.  Turnips, 
cabbnges,  beans,  peas,  and  a  variety  of 
other  similar  food  for  cattle,  supply  admir- 
able opportunities  for  cleaning  and  pul- 
verizing the  soil  by  repeated  hoeings  ; 
the  close  covering  which  they  bestow  on 
the  land  smothers  those  weeds  which  th<? 


hoe  does  not  destroy,  and  they  leave  the 
land,  besides,  in  a  state  of  increased  and 
great  fertility.  Certain  exceptions  to  the 
necessity  of  rearing  cattle  may  undoubt- 
edly occur,  as,  near  towns  and  cities,  the 
easy  accessibility  of  dung  will  supersede 
very  considerable  preparation  of  it  on  the 
premises.  Lands  also  may  possibly  be 
so  rich  as  to  require  neither  cattle  .or 
sheep,  and  like  some  which  are  said  to  lie 
near  the  river  Garonne,  in  France,  might 
produce  even  hemp  or  wheat  in  perpetui- 
ty. Certain  crops,  moreover,  may  hap- 
pen to  be  in  such  particular  demand,  as 
to  make  it  desirable  to  cultivate  their  by 
fallow,  and  not  for  cattle  or  sheep.  These 
exceptions  can  never  interfere  with  the 
general  rule,  as  such,  that  that  farm  will 
be  most  productive  and  profitable,  in  re- 
spect to  grain,  on  which  is  kept  the  great- 
est quantity  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Two 
crops  of  white  corn  ought  never  to  be 
produced  from  a  field  in  immediate  suc- 
cession. In  reference  to  several  varieties 
of  soil,  it  may  be  useful  to  give  a  suc- 
cessions of  crops,  which  has  been  recom- 
mended by  a  gentleman  of  considerable 
judgment  and  experience.  It  should  be 
observed,  that  on  this  plan  the  crops  must 
be  all  particularly  well  hoed,  and  kept 
properly  clean  ;  and  that  the  turnips, 
peas,  and  beans,  must  be  put  in  double 
rows,  on  three  feet  ridges  ;  the  cabbages 
in  single  rows  of  three  feet  ridges. 

Clay.  Clayey  loams. 

Turnips  or  cabbages  Turnips  or  cabbages 
Oats  Oats 

Beans  and  clover       Clover 
Wheat  Wheat 

Turnips  or  cabbages  Turnips  or  cabbages 
Oats  Barley 

Beans  and  vetches    Beans 
Wheat  Wheat 

Rich  loams  and  sandy  loams.         Peat  earth* 
Turnips  &  po-  Beans     Turnips     Turnips 

tatoes  Barley  Barley  ±.  Barley 

Barley  Peas      Clover      Clover 

Clover  Wheat  Wheat      Wheat 

Wheat  Jld.  in/in.  Poi&toes  Potatoes 

Beans  Barley    Barley 

Barley  Peas        Peas 

Peas  Wheat     Wheat 

Wheat 

Chalky  sub- 

stratum. 
Turnips  Turnips  Turnips 
Barley     Barley    Barley 
Clover     Clover    Clover  and  rye-grass 
Wheat     Wheat    Clover  and  rye-gra*s 


AGRICULTURE. 


Chalky  sub^    d          Li  j   landSf 

stratum. 

Potatoes     oisitoes  Clover  and  rye-grass 

Barley      Barley  Peas 
Peas        Peas  Wheat  or  rye 

Wheat     Wheat 

Reaping  and  Storing. 

In  converting-  artificial  grasses  into  hay, 
the  method  should  be  different  from  that 
used  with  natural  ones.  They  should  for 
a  day  or  two  lie  in  swath,  after  which,  be- 
ing carefully  turned,  they  should  remain 
for  a  day  or  two  longer ;  by  which  easy 
and  simple  process  the  hay  is,  in  good 
weather,  sufficiently  made.  After  re- 
maining two  days  in  cocks,  these  should 
be  carted  to  the  stack. 

With  regard  to  the  mowing  of  grass, 
in  general,  for  hay,  the  workmen  should 
be  made  to  cut  as  low  as  possible,  by* 
which  the  crop  is  increased,  and  the  re- 
mainder  thrives  better  than  it  would  do 
otherwise.  Many  hands  should  be  ready 
to  assist,  and  five  makers  are  not  too  ma- 
ny for  every  mower.  The  grass  should 
be  shaken  out  immediately  after  the 
scythe.  By  the  evening  it  should  be  ra- 
ked into  rows.  The  next  morning  it 
should  be  again  shaken  and  spread,  and 
in  the  evening  it  should  be  put  up  into 
oocks.  These  being  opened  on  the  fol- 
jowing  morning,  after  a  similar  process, 
may  in  fine  weather  be  safely  collected 
into  the  great  hay-cock  at  night.  If  suc- 
cessive rains  come  on  to  damage  it,  as  it 
is  stacked,  a  peck  of  salt  should  be  strew- 
ed in  layers  on  every  load,  which  will 
sweeten  it,  and  render  it  palatable  for 
cattle,  which  would  not  taste  it  without 
this  preparation.  The  stack  should  be 
covered  within  a  week  after  it  is  finished; 
and  a  trench  should  be  dug  near  it,  to  car- 
ry off  any  wet,  if  it  be  placed  in  a  situation 
subject  to  damp.  The  hard  hay  of  a  poor 
soil  is  little  subject  to  firing,  which  often 
occurs  with  respect  to  that  made  of  suc- 
culent herbage.  The  latter,  therefore, 
requires  longer  time  for  its  making.  To 
preserve  as  much  of  the  sap  of  grass  as 
possible,  without  incurring  the  danger  of 
firing,  is  *he  grand  practical  problem  of 
hay-making. 

When  the  stems  of  culmiferous  plants 
are  totally  divested  of  green,  they  are  per- 
fectly ripe.  Some  farmers  recommend 
that  wheat  should  be  cut  before  this  ma- 
ture stage,  not  only  to  prevent  any  of  the 
gnun  from  shaking  out,  but  as  being 
found  to  make  more  excellent  flour  from 
being  cut  before  perfect  ripeness,  than 


after  having  attained  it.  The  latter  ou 
servation  may  very  safely  be  controverted , 
But  as  it  is  admitted  that  every  moment 
it  remains  standing,  after  complete  matu- 
rity, is  critical,  it  may  often  be  judicious 
to  commence  the  reaping  of  it  before  the 
period  of  full  ripeness.  Wheat  has  been 
immemorially  reaped  instead  of  being 
mowed,  and  this  method  ought  always  to 
be  adopted,  as  from  its  high  growth  it  be- 
comes untractable  to  the  scythe.  When 
barley  ground  is  purposely  smoothed  by 
rolling,  that  crop  may  be  cut  down  with 
the  scythe,  which  not  only,  from  the 
greater  rapidity  of  its  operation,  removes 
that  grain  more  effectually  from  the  dan- 
ger of  being  shaken  by  winds,  but  brings 
with  it  a  much  greater  proportion  of  the 
straw,  for  manure,  than  any  other  mode, 
a  circumstance  well  deserving  attention. 
Cutting  of  corn  in  wet  weather  ought  ever 
to  be  avoided,  if  possible  ;  and,  however 
obvious  this  caution,  it  cannot  be  regarded 
as  superfluous,  as  it  is  unfortunately  very 
often  neglected.  Barley  is  particularly  sub- 
ject to  injury  by  wet,  having  no  protecting 
husk ;  and  has  a  strong  tendency,  when 
cut  in  this  state,  to  run  to  malting ;  it 
should  not  only  be  cut  dry,  but  immedi- 
ately, if  possible,  be  bound  up,  to  prevent 
its  being  discoloured,  which  will  other- 
wise easily  occur.  Peas  grow  so  irregu- 
larly as  to  make  the  sickle  necessary.  For 
removing  the  produce  from  the  field,  long 
carts,  moveable  upon  the  axle,  by  which 
the  whole  load  is  moved  at  once  upon  the 
ground,  and  lifted  to  the  stack  by  per- 
sons appointed  for  the  purpose,  are  pre- 
ferable to  other  modes.  Dispatch  is  thus 
obtained,  when  particularly  required,  a 
circumstance  always  worthy  of  regard. 
Instead  of  housing  corn,  stacking  it  is  a 
far  superior  practice,  as  it  not  only,  by 
the  consequent  exposure  to  the  air,  car- 
ries what  is  called  a  finer  countenance, 
but  as  it  is  more  completely  preserved 
from  vermin,  than  by  being  deposited  in  a 
barn.  Every  sheaf  should  be  made  to  in- 
cline downward  from  its  top  to  its  bot- 
tom. Where  they  are  laid  horizontally, 
rain  will  be  taken  in  both  above  and  be- 
low. The  best  form  for  a  stack  is  that  of 
a  cone,  (the  top  of  which  should  be 
formed  with  three  sheaves  united  in  a 
point)  placed  upon  a  cylinder.  The  mo- 
ment the  stack  is  finished,  the  covering  of 
it  should,  if  possible,  commence;  mate- 
rials should  ihcrefove  be  previously  col- 
lected. If  much  rain  should  fall  before 
this  operation  is  performed,  it  will  he  dif- 
ficult, and  perhaps  impossible,  to  render 
the  stack  dry  while  it  stands  ;  and,  in  qr» 


AGRICULTURE. 


iler  to  prevent  putrefaction,  it  will  be  of- 
ten requisite  to  pull  it  down,  and  after 
fully  exposing  every  sheaf  to  the  air,  to 
re-construct  it. 

The  method  of  preserving  potatoes  has 
already  been  suggested,  and  to  go  far- 
ther into  detail  on  this  subject  would  ex- 
ceed our  limits. 

Threshing. 

The  usual  mode  of  threshing  is  attend- 
ed with  the  inconvenience  of  the  straw 
being  very  often  not  thoroughly  cleared, 
by  which  much  grain  is  lost ;  and  with 
that  of  affording  the  workmen  great  and 
perpetual  incentives  to  depredation, 
which,  perhaps,  are  rarely  resisted,  or  at 
least  are  certainly  often  yielded  to.  A 
fixed  threshing  mill  will  give  compara- 
tive security  against  these  evils ;  and  one 
worked  by  two  or  three  horses  may  be 
purchased  for  from  sixty  to  a  hundred 
guineas,  and  which,  in  eight  hours,  will 
thresh  fifteen  quarters  of  wheat.  The 
granary  should  be  over  this  mill,  and  the 
corn  may  then,  immediately  after  thresh- 
ing, be  drawn  up  into  it,  and  deposited 
safe  under  the  key  of  the  farmer.  Fresh 
threshed  straw  is  better  than  old  for 
feeding  cattle,  and  is  best  managed  for 
them  by  being  cut  into  chaff'. 

Fruit  trees. 

The  culture  of  trees,  for  the  purpose 
fjf  deriving  a  fermented  liquor  from  their 
juice,  employs  a  great  proportion  of  the 
land  of  this  and  of  other  countries,  and  is, 
therefore,  an  important  branch  of  agricul- 
tural attention.  The  preparation  of  the 
juice  of  apples  is  more  particularly  at- 
tended to  in  the  British  empire,  than  that 
of  any  other  fruit ;  and  the  few  remarks 
on  the  general  subject  which  our  limits 
will  permit  will  be  confined  to  that  fruit. 
The  varieties  of  apples  are  entirely  artifi- 
cial, nature  having  produced  only  one 
species,  which  is  the  common  crab.  But 
different  culture  produces  very  great  dif- 
ferences, which  are  preserved  by  artifi- 
cial propagation.  The  seeds  of  the  finest 
flavoured  apples  among  the  native  spe- 
cies should  be  sown  in  seed  beds,  in  an 
extremely  rich  soil;  and  the  assistance  of 
a  frame,  or  even  a  stove,  may  be  applied. 
In  the  first  or  second  winter  the  plants 
should  he  removed  to  the  nursery;  while 
they  remain  there,  the  intervals  between 
them  may  be  occupied  with  garden  stuff, 
which  should  not,  however,  crowd  or 
overshadow  them ;  and  weeds,  whenever 


they  appear,  should  be  extirpated.  In 
pruning,  particular  attention  must  be  gi- 
ven to  the  leader;  and,  where  there  are 
two,  the  weakest  of  them  must  be  cut 
off.  The  undermost  boughs  should  be 
gradually  removed,  and  not  all  in  one  sea- 
son. The  height  of  the  stem  should  be 
seven  feet,  or  seven  and  a  half,  as  the 
crops  on  a  tree  of  this  elevation  are  less 
exposed,  and,  indeed,  the  tree  itself  is 
less  susceptible  of  injury.  When  they 
have  attained  five  inches  in  girt,  which 
they  will  do  in  seven  or  eight  years,  they 
may  be  safely  planted  out.  Tillage  is  fa- 
vourable, as  the  ground  is  thus  stirred 
about  them ;  and  where  cattle  are  per- 
mitted to  feed  among  them,  they  are  apt 
to  injure  them,  and,  indeed,  also  to  injure 
themselves  after  the  trees  begin  to  bear, 
by  the  fruit  sticking  in  their  throats  ;  on 
which  account  apple  grounds,  not  in  til- 
lage should  be  eaten  bare  before  the  sea- 
son of  gathering.  Apple  trees  should  be 
carefully  cleared  of  a  redundance  of  wood, 
which  intercepts  the  free  circulation  of 
the  air.  They  should  be  kept  clear  also 
of  the  misletoe,  which  is  often  extremely 
injurious.  Moss  likewise  should  never 
be  permitted  to  incumber  them.  The 
failure  of  crops,  in  particular  years,  i: 
often  ascribed  to  what  is  called  blight; 
but,  to  adopt  more  intelligible  language, 
is  probably  imputable  to  the  great  ex- 
haustion of  the  trees  by  recent  bear- 
ings ;  to  prevent  or  mitigate  which  ex- 
haustion, the  best  application  is  that  oi' 
care,  to  bestow  upon  them  all  the  natu- 
ral means  of  healthy  and  vigorous  vege- 
tation. Excess  of  bearing,  however,  will 
inevitably  impair  strength.  Grafting  in 
the  boughs,  and  when  they  are  fully 
grown,  thinning  the  branches  will  prevent 
excessive  produce,  and  may  be  consider- 
ed as  a  very  probable  method  of  procu- 
ring fruit  in  moderate  quantities  every 
year.  As  general  management,  with  re- 
spect to  orchard  grounds,  it  is  a  judici- 
ous rule  to  plant,  for  such,  a  broken  up 
worn  out  sward,  keeping  it  under  arable 
till  the  trees  have  attained  tolerable 
growth,  when  it  may  with  advantage  be 
laid  down  to  grass,  and  be  permitted  to 
remain  in  that  state  till  the  trees  are  final- 
ly removed.  After  one  set  of  graft-stocks 
on  the  stem  have  become  effete,  a  second 
has  been  successfully  applied  :  and  *hus, 
though  the  effect  of  ag'e  will  at  length 
prove  fatal,  the  bearing  of  trees  has  been 
often  very  long  protracted.  The  pear 
tree  is  of  much  longer  duration  than  the 
apple.  Both  should  be  extirpated  with- 
out reluctance,  when  their  produce  no 


AGRICULTURE. 


jnger  compensates  for  the  ground  occu- 
ied  by  them. 

Timber  trees  and  coppices. 


ion 
pie 


The  planting1  of  timber  trees  is  an  im- 
portant aid  to  general  cultivation,  parti- 
cularly in  mountainous  and  moorish  situ- 
ations, where  they  afford  shelter  both  for 
corn  crops  and  cattle.  Wherever  planta- 
tions are  formed  in  such  situations,  the 
aspect  of  the  surrounding  land  is  always 
improved,  and  exhibits  a  richer  verdure. 
When  suddenly  removed,  the  contrary 
effect  takes  place ;  the  efforts  of  human 
industry  are  then  impaired ;  the  warmth 
of  the  soil  is  dissipated ;  vegetation  is 
pierced  and  chilled  by  the  unresisted 
blasts  which  sweep  along  its  surface  .  and 
the  cattle  are  benumbed  and  stunted,  for 
want  of  protection  from  its  fury. 

in  a  flat  and  rich  country,  plantations 
often  operate  injuriously ;  and  lofty  hedge 
rows,  containing  stately  trees,  check  the 
free  passage  of  the  air  and  light,  prevent 
the  seasonable  drying  of  the  ground,  and, 
in  a  changeful  and  critical  climate,  the 
corn  is  consequently  delayed  in  its  pro- 
gress to  maturity,  often  cannot  be  gather- 
ed in  proper  condition,  and,  sometimes, 
is  completely  ruined.  These  considera- 
tions will  generally  be  sufficient  to  de- 
cide the  question  of  planting  timber  trees 
in  particular  situations.  Where  the  prac- 
tice is  thought  judicious,  with  a  view  to 
the  melioration  of  the  soil,  the  larch, 
which  is  the  quickest  grower,  and  the 
most  valuable  of  all  the  resinous  trees, 
will  be  entitled  to  a  preference.  The 
most  barren  ground  will  answer  all  its 
demands  for  nourishment.  For  oak,  bet- 
ter lands  are  indispensible.  Beech  trees 
under  the  protection  of  Scotch  firs,  pre- 
viously planted  for  their  shelter,  will  lay 
hold,  eventually,  even  of  a  soil  which 
possesses  neither  clay  nor  loam,  and 
thrive  so  rapidly  as  to  require,  in  a  short 
period,  that  the  firs  should  be  cut  down, 
to  afford  freer  air  and  ramification. 

The  use  of  small  plantations  of  timber 
on  large  estates  is  very  considerable.  A 
vast  quantity  of  posts,  spars,  and  rafters, 
for  buildings  of  every  description  on  the 
j'arni,  is  perpetually  called  for  in  such 
circumstances,  and  will  thus  be  fully  sup- 
plied on  the  spot ;  whereas  the  want  of  it 
is  attended  with  extreme  expense  and  in- 
convenience. Planting  should  commence 
in  October,  and  may  be  continued  till 
April,  excepting  during  frost.  Injuries 
from  cattle  must  be  effectually  guarded 
•  7 uinst  in  plantations,  in  their  infant 


stage,  which  are  as  easily  ruined  as  fields 
of  corn.  The  fences,  therefore,  should 
be  kept  in  the  best  possible  repair. 

With  respect  to  coppices,  the  caution 
about  cattle  is  equally  necessary.  When 
coppices  have  attained  the  age  of  four- 
teen years,  they  may,  generally  speaking, 
be  cut  down  more  profitably  than  at  any 
other  age ;  and  the  most  advantageous 
method,  after  this,  is  to  sort  out  the  wood 
for  appropriate  purposes,  whether  for  fu- 
el, hoops,  or  hop  poles ;  which  arrange- 
ment will,  in  almost  all  cases  furnishing 
such  varieties,  abundantly  compensate 
for  the  time  taken  up  in  making  it.  In 
some  situations,  as  in  Surry,for  stakes  and 
adders,  in  Gloucestershire  for  cord  wood, 
in  Yorkshire  for  railing,  these  articles 
yield  a  considerable  advantage ;  and  as 
they  are  sure  of  a  market  within  a  small 
distance,  which,  with  respect  to  the  car- 
riage of  so  bulky  a  commodity,  is  a  point 
of  the  first  consequence,  an  annual  fall 
of  wood  applicable  to  these  purposes  may 
be  desirable.  The  ground  appropriated 
for  its  growth  should  be  divided  into  that 
number  of  sowings  or  plantations,  which 
will  equal  the  number  of  years  intended 
for  their  growth  before  cutting.  The  ma- 
nagement will  thus  be  easy  as  well  as 
profitable,  and  fall  naturally,  without  agi- 
tation and  embarrassment,  into  the  regu- 
lar business  of  the  year.  These  planta- 
tions may  be  sown  either  in  October  or 
March.  The  land  being  in  good  order, 
it  should  be  sown  with  corn  or  pulse, 
appropriate  to  the  season  and  soil,  after 
which  the  tree  seeds  should  be  put  across 
the  land  in  drills.  '  Acorns  and  nuts  must 
be  dibbled,  and  the  key  berries  scattered 
in  trenches,  drawn  by  the  hoe,  at  four 
feet  distance.  Osiers  may  often  be  culti- 
vated to  great  advantage,  yielding  a  profit 
in  the  second,  or  at  least  in  the  third  year; 
while  a  coppice  requires  15  or  20,  and 
an  oak  100  years,  to  attain  to  its  maturity. 

Cattle. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  stock  of  a 
farmer  must  always  consist  of  cattle ; 
and  the  maintenance  and  management  of 
these,  therefore,  must  ever  he  an  object 
of  great  consequence  ;  and  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  them  which  he  keeps 
for  sale,  in  addition  to  those  which  he 
employs  on  account  of  their  immediate 
service  and  labour,  the  importance  of  the 
subject  is  increased  to  him.  Whether, 
in  the  latter  point  of  view,  oxen  or  horses 
are  the  more  advantageous,has  been  a  long- 
agitated  question.  In  situations  in  whicn 


AGRICULTURE. 


there  is  a  breed  of  cattle  particularly 
adapted  to  work,  and  such  situations  do 
occur,  the  employment  of  the  ox  may 
probably  be  most  beneficial.  And  when 
a  farm  is  of  so  great  extent,  that  a  con- 
siderable number  of  beasts  may  be  annu- 
ally bought  at  a  small  expense,  and  no 
inconvenience  may  be  incurred  by  turning 
out  those  to  fatten  which  are  ill  qualified 
for  labour,  the  same  preference  may  be 
wisely  made.  Bulls  ure  on  some  accounts 
to  be  preferred  to  oxen,  being-  procured 
at  a  cheaper  rate,  and  more  active  and 
persevering  in  labour.  In  other  cases  than 
those  just  mentioned,  the  question  will  be 
decided  differently.  The  activity  of  the 
horse  is  extremely  superior  to  that  of 
oxen,  and  it  is  more  applicable  to  differ- 
ent species  of  employment.  Its  hoof  is 
Jess  susceptible  of  injury,;  and,  with  re- 
spect to  well  managed  farms,  in  which 
dispatch  is  more  required  than  absolute 
strength  in  the  operation  of  ploughing, 
the  quickness  with  which  the  horse  com- 
pletes the  business,  in  comparison  with 
the  ox,  will,  it  may  be  presumed,  at  length 
generally  diffuse  that  preference  of  the 
one  to  the  other,  which  is  obviously  in- 
creasing every  day.  Yorkshire  is  the  most 
distinguished  part  of  England  for  the 
breed  of  horses,  particularly  for  the  sad- 
dle, and  the  black  cart  horse  of  the  mid- 
dle counties  has  been  long  celebrated. 
In  the  north  of  England,  a  very  valuable 
breed  from  Lanarkshire  in  Scotland  has 
lately  been  encouraged,  of  extreme  acti- 
vity, though  not  fit  for  particularly  heavy 
draught,  passing  over  a  vast  surface  of 
land  in  a  short  time,  and  highly  useful, 
therefore,  not  only  in  ploughing,  but  in 
the  general  work  of  a  farm.  The  Nor- 
folk management  of  horses,  as  instru- 
ments of  agriculture,  is  considered  by 
many  as  the  cheapest  that  can  be  practis- 
ed. In  the  winter  months  their  sole 
rack  meat  is  barley  straw.  In  the  most 
busy  season  a  bushel  of  corn  is  thought 
an  ample  allowance,  and  the  chaff  of  oats, 
which  is  far  preferable  to  that  of  barley, 
is  universally  mixed  with  it.  They  are 
in  summer  kept  out  all  night,  and  their 
feed  is  generally  clover  only.  A  great 
saving  in  the  maintenance  of  horses  has 
been  obtained  by  the  substitution  of 
roots  for  grain.  Turnips  and  potatoes 
have  been  given  them  in  a  raw  state,  in 
which  case,  if  hard  labour  is  required  of 
them,  some  corn  in  addition  may  be  ex- 
pedient. If  these  roots  are  boiled,  how- 
ever, the  corn  may  without  injury  be  dis- 
pensed with.  Carrots  are  better  for  horses 
than  potatoes,  and  both  are  thought  e-x- 


tremely  serviceable  in  preventing  various 
disorders  to  which  they  are  subject,  par- 
ticularly the  grease.  Carrots  are  deemed 
an  effectual  cure  for  what  is  denominated 
thick  wind  in  horses ;  and  to  broken  wind- 
ed ones,  are  of  admirable  use  in  palliat- 
ing the  complaint. 

The  practice  of  soiling  horses,  instead 
of  turning  them  to  grass  in  summer,  is 
by  many  experienced  men  thought  by 
far  the  superior  method.  The  produce 
thus  managed  goes  three  times  as  far  as 
if  consumed  in  the  field.  The  injury 
done  by  feeding  pastures  with  horses  in- 
stead of  sheep  or  oxen,  an  injury  very 
material  and  obvious,  is  avoided ;  and 
the  dunghill,  which,  in  all  situations  at  a 
distance  from  towns  and  cities,  is  an  in- 
valuable object,  especially  if  plentiful 
littering  be  allowed,  is  sufficiently  bene- 
fited to  compensate  for  this  expense  of 
their  keeping. 

Black  cattle  intended  for  feeding,  should 
be  chosen  for  their  being  short-legged, 
which  quality  is  almost  uniformly  con- 
nected with  a  general  good  make. 
Straightness  of  back  is  another  important 
recommendation,  and  the  more  perfectly 
straight  they  are,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  are  very  broad  and  flat  on  the  loins, 
the  more  readily  experienced  judges  will 
decide  on  their  worth.  Smallness  of 
dewlap,  and  the  barrel  form  of  carcase, 
both  in  the  fore  and  hind  quarters,  are 
also  justly  insisted  upon  as  points  of  ex- 
cellence. A  curled  hide  is  indicative  of  a 
thriving  beast,  and  worthy  of  observa- 
tion in  the  choice  of  these  animals.  A 
still  more  favourable  symptom  is  a  soft- 
ness or  sleekness  of  skin.  Indeed,  the 
nice  touch  of  the  hand  is  requisite  in  the 
judge  of  cattle,  perhaps  nearly  as  much 
as  the  keen  observation  of  the  eye.  Oxen 
that  have  been  worked  are  more  valuable 
to  graziers  than  others,  as  not  only  fat- 
tening with  greater  rapidity,  but  furnish- 
ing more  excellent  beef.  After  working- 
till  the  age  of  fourteen  years,  which  is 
within  two  of  the  usual  extent  of  their 
natural  life,  they  have  often  supplied 
most  tender  and  admirable  meat. 

It  is  a  consideration  of  great  importance 
to  the  grazier,  that  he  should1  always' 
secure  such  a  stock  of  winter  food  for 
his  cattle  as  will  maintain  them  during 
that  season,  reserving  them  for  the  spring- 
market,  which  is  always  superior  to  that 
of  autumn.  From  the  beginning  of 
March  to  that  of  June,  the  change  of 
prices  will  be  completely  in  his  favour  ; 
and  in  order  to  avail  himself  of  this,  he 
must  so  arrange  his  affairs,  as  to  pro- 


AGRICULTURE. 


cure  ah  adequate  stock  of  winter  main- 
tenace.  Whatever  food  is  used  for  this 
purpose  besides  hay,  the  latter  is  always 
to  be  implied,  and  from  seven  to  fourteen 
pounds  a  day  should  always  be  allowed 
to  each  beast.  For  hastening-  the  process 
of  fattening  an  ox,  linseed  cake  has  been 
found  superior  to  every  other  article.  Its 
price,  however,  of  late  years  has  been 
more  than  proportional  to  this  advantage. 
Carrots  complete  their  fattening  with  a 
nearly  equal  degree  of  celerity  ;  and  an 
ox  will  eat  a  sixth  part  of  his  weight  of 
this  root  everyday;  at  which  rate  an  ox 
of  sixty  stone  may  be  supported  by  the 
produce  of  an  acre  of  these  roots  for  up- 
wards of  five  months.  Two  beasts,  of  the 
weight  just  mentioned,  if  half  fat 
when  put  to  carrots,  might  become  com- 
pletely so  by  consuming  the  produce  of 
nn  acre.  Cabbages  are  but  little  inferior 
for  the  purpose  to  carrots  and  oil  cake. 
An  ox  will  eat  of  them  nearly  one  fifth  of 
his  weight.  Turnips  are  the  most  common 
description  of  winter  food,  but  possess 
not  the  same  fattening  quality  with  the 
substances  enumerated ;  and,  being  a 
crop  susceptible  of  various  injuries,  are 
much  less  to  be  relied  on  than  many 
others.  Of  these  the  consumption  of 
twenty -five  ton  is  deemed  necessary  to 
fatten  a  beast  of  about  sixty  stone. 

In  consequence  of  eating  succulent 
plants,  and  particularly  clover,  beasts  are 
apt  to  swell  greatly  and  very  dangerous- 
ly, in  which  case  driving  them  about 
with  great  rapidity  is  often  practised  with 
success,  though  a  still  more  effectual 
method  is,  to  stab  them  between  the  ribs 
and  hip  bone,  to  the  depth  of  about  four 
inches.  A  flexible  tube  has  also  been 
frequently  passed  through  the  mouth  into 
the  gullet,  by  which  the  air,  which  causes 
this  disease,  is  easily  discharged. 

The  practice  of  stall-feeding,  or  keep- 
ingthe  cattle  in  the  house  at  every  season 
of  the  year,  and  feeding  them,  when  prac- 
ticable, with  green  food,  where  there  is 
abundant  litter,  is  considered  by  excel- 
lent judges  as  the  best  method  of  turning 
to  account  the  produce  of  the  soil.  Dou- 
ble the  usual  quantity  of  manure  also  is 
thus  produced;  and  the  annoyance  of 
the  cattle  in  any  great  degree  by  flies 
and  insects  is  effectually  precluded.  This 
plan  has  been  long  and  extensively  prac- 
tised in  Germany,  and  is  making  its  wav 
,n  England,  under  the  encouragement  of 
:nany  judicious  agriculturists.  Not  only 
may  grass  be  thus  employed  for  food 
more  profitably  than  in  any  other  way, 
'toiled  roots  mav  be  used  with  ex- 


treme advantage,  with  a  view  either  to 
maintain  or  to  fatten  cattle  ;  and,  ridicu- 
lous as  the  idea  of  this  management  for  a 
vast  number  of  cattle  and  horses  might  at 
first  appear,  it  is  found  capable  of  being 
performed  with  the  aid  of  a  steam  engine, 
by  one  superannuated  attendant.  The 
roots  may  be  permitted  to  retain  their 
original  form,  or  may  be  mashed  and  con- 
verted into  thick  soup,  as  is  deemed  most 
eligible. 

Cleanness  and  temperate  warmth  in  the 
process  of  fattening  beasts  for  human 
food  are  of  the  utmost  importance  ;  and 
it  has  been  philosophically  remarked,  that 
analogy  will  lead  ustoconclude,  what  ob- 
servation justifies  from  fact,  that  whatever 
tends  to  form  in  beasts  a  state  of  feeling, 
unirritated  by  fear,  vexation,  or  pain, 
must  tend  to  shorten  the  period  necessary 
for  advancing  them  to  their  maturity  of 
size  and  excellence. 

Sheep. 

Towards  the  end  of  August,  the  annual 
purchase  of  wether  lambs,  for  an  estate 
on  which  regular  flocks  are  not  kept,  ge- 
nerally takes  place.  These  are  justly  pre- 
ferred for  stock  to  all  others.  The  new 
Leicester  have  the  advantage  in  compe- 
tition with  all  the  long-wooled  breeds,  and 
the  South  Down  with  all  those  of  short 
or  middling  wools.  For  severe  and  moun- 
tainous moors,  the  black-faced  andcoarse- 
wooled  Scotch  sheep  are  by  far  to  be  pre- 
ferred, being  able  to  sustain  the  most  ri- 
gorous weather,  and  to  live  on  the  most 
scanty  food.  Instead  of  putting  sheep, 
after  the  above  mentioned  purchases,  to 
the  highest  feed,  and  pushing  them  to 
perfect  fattening,  the  better  way  is  to 
keep  them  tolerably  well  till  March,  and 
to  begin  then  to  fatten  them,  by  which  me- 
thod they  will  be  fit  for  sale  at  a  season  of 
more  advanced  price  ;  and  upon  this  plan 
the  purchase  money  is,  with  good  ma- 
nagement, generally  doubled,  and  the 
fleece  found  an  additional  clear  advantage. 
Whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  stock,  to- 
wards the  middle  of  May  they  should  be 
turned  into  their  summer-grass,  and,  in 
an  inclosed  farm,  the  division  of  the  fields 
into  different  parcels  intended  to  be  fed 
is  an  object  of  great  importance.  It  is 
justly  thought,  that  in  large  parcels  they 
do  not  thrive  equally  well  as  in  small 
ones,  and  the  waste  of  food  is  considera- 
bly greater.  It  will  be  found,  that  in 
flocks  of  from  ten  to  twenty  the  same  farm 
will  keep  considerably  more  than  in  one 
flock.  The  number  should  be  approprl- 


AGRICULTURE. 


ated  to  each  field,  according  to  what  it  is 
enabled  to  carry,  and  suffered  to  remain, 
without  any  other  change  than  what  de- 
pends upon  the  state  of  individuals  from 
accident  or  season.  They  will  thus  inevi- 
tably flourish.  By  adhering  to  the  prac- 
tice of  folding,  which,  however,  in  certain 
cases  may  be  necessary,  much  loss  is  of- 
ten sustained;  much  food  is  spoiled;  and 
injury  arises  from  numbers  being  so  close- 
ly crowded  together  :  and  although  the 
practice  may  be  highly  beneficial,  as  pre- 
parative for  corn,  this  advantage  is  often 
too  dearly  paid  for.  Another  point  of  very 
considerable  consequence  with  respect  to 
sheep  is  the  practice  of  close  feeding. 
Even  in  pasturage  shorn  completely  to  the 
ground,  the  herbage  is  found  rapidly  to 
spring  up  ;  and  when  drought  is  observed 
nearly  to  destroy  the  produce  of  fields 
treated  in  a  different  manner,  by  being 
permitted  to  run  to  bent,  such  as  are  ma- 
naged in  this  close  way  are  in  comparison 
at  least  highly  productive.  In  all  plants  cul- 
tivated for  pasture,  the  moment  the  seed 
stem  runs,  the  grand  effort  of  the  system  is 
directed  to  the  formation  of  the  seed ;  and 
the  way  to  produce  the  greatest  abun- 
dance of  leaves,therefore,is  to  prevent  the 
rising  of  these  stems,  which,  by  close  feed- 
ing, is  of  course  effectually  accomplished. 

In  the  whole  range  of  husbandry,  per- 
haps, the  most  perplexing  point  of  ma- 
nagement is  the  providing  for  flocks  of 
sheep  in  the  months  of  March  and  April. 
Turnips  and  hay  are  generally  depended 
upon  ;  but  being  frequently  inadequate, 
rye  is  sometimes  sown  on  purpose,  and 
crops  of  wheat  are  also  sometimes  eaten 
down  by  them.  All,  however,  is  too  fre- 
quently found  insufficient,  and  they  are 
permitted  to  run  over  the  clover  and  pas- 
tures of  the  farm,  committing  great  waste 
and  damage.  To  prevent  these  evils, 
burnet  should  be  cultivated  by  the  farm- 
er. It  is  a  most  hardy  plant,  and  pre- 
serves its  green  leaves  through  the  win- 
ter, and  under  deep  snows  vegetates  with 
singular  luxuriance.  This  will  be  an  ad- 
mirable feed  for  sheep  in  April,  when 
turnips  ought  no  longer  to  remain  upon 
the  ground.  But  kept  grass  on  dry  mea- 
dow and  pasture,  or  what  is  called  rouen, 
is  preferable  to  every  other  dependance, 
and  though  consisting  as  it  were  of  hay 
and  grass  in  the  same  mouthful,  being  the 
autumnal  growth  at  top,  sheltering  the 
more  recent  vegetation  beneath,the  sheep 
eat  both  together  without  the  slightest 
hesitation,  and  are  found  to  thrive  upon 
it  extremely.  Ten  ewes,  with  their  lambs, 

VOL,  I 


may  be  supported  throughout  April  on 
one  acre  of  this  rouen,  and  no  cheaper 
mode  of  keeping  a  full  stock  in  April  can 
possibly  be  adopted. 

In  June  the  washing  of  the  sheep  should 
generally  take  place  previously  to  the 
shearing.  The  washing  may  be  best  per- 
formed by  a  stream  of  water  ;  and  those 
who  are  engaged  in  it,  instead  of  standing 
in  the  water,  in  which  their  uncomforta- 
ble situation  leads  them  to  hurry  negli- 
gently over  the  business,  should,  by  means 
of  a  cask  or  tub,  be  freed  from  such  un- 
pleasant and  dangerous  exposure.  The 
shearing,  which  speedily  follows  this  ope- 
ration, should  be  as  close  as  possible,  and 
the  circular  is  by  far  preferable  to  the  lon- 
gitudinal met  hod  with  a  view  to  this  object. 

Sheep  that  are  kept  in  inclosures,  and 
particulai-ly  in  a  woodland  country,should 
be  examined  twice  every  day,  to  guard 
against  injury  to  them  from  the  fly, which, 
in  twenty-four  hours  after  having  struck, 
sometimes  produces  incurable  disease. 
The  most  efficacious  treatment  on  this 
subject  is,after  partingthe  wool  wherever 
the  maggots  are  found,  and  picking  them 
out  with  a  knife,  to  scrape  a  small  quan- 
tity of  white  lead  among  the  wool,  so  that 
it  may  be  carried  evenly  down  to  the 
wound.  Regular  and  minute  inspection 
will  prevent  such  a  circumstance  as  a 
broken  coat  in  any  of  these  animals,  from 
a  cause  so  dangerous  and  fatal,  where 
they  are  neglected. 

When  ewes  are  about  to  lamb,  their 
keep  should  be  of  the  most  nourishing 
kind,  consisting  of  plenty  of  turnips  or 
cabbage.  Till  this  period  they  may  do 
without  them.  But  all  cattle  that  have 
young  require  as  good  keeping  as  those 
which  are  fatting.  The  turnips  or  cabba- 
ges should  be  drawn  for  them,  and  given 
them  on  dry  ground.  A  standing  rack  of 
hay  should  "be  left  for  them  on  the  field, 
which  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  them. 

Swine. 

The  quick  multiplication  and  growth  of 
swine  render  them  a  species  of  stock  high- 
ly profitable,  and  if  reared  systematically, 
and  upon  a  large  scale,  none  will  be 
found  to  answer  the  purpose  of  the  farmer 
better.  Though  supposed  to  be  filthier 
than  any  other  animals,  they  enjoy  a  clean 
and  comfortable  place  for  laying  down  in, 
and  their  thriving  and  feeding  are  at  least 
as  much  improved  by  cleanly  manage- 
ment as  those  of  any  other  stock.  Their 
styes  should  therefore  be  constructed 

K 


AGRICULTURE. 


sloping  to  carry  off  all  moisture.  The 
different  sorts  of  swine  should  be  kept 
separate  in  them,  and  many  should  never 
be  put  together,  and  particularly  if  they 
be  of  different  sizes.  Too  much  attention 
cannot  easily  be  paid  to  the  rearing  of 
these  animals.  The  large  Chinese  breed 
is  generally  and  justly  preferred.  When 
swine  are  reared  on  a  comprehensive  plan, 
crops  must  be  sown  purposely  for  their 
support,  and  the  dairy  cannot  be  consider- 
ed as  that  resource  which  it  is  naturally 
regarded  in  small  farms.  From  October 
till  May,  potatoes,  carrots,  cabbages,  and 
the  Swedish  turnip,  which  is  a  most  use- 
ful vegetable  for  this  particular  purpose, 
must  be  provided  for  the  swine,  and  stores 
from  October  till  the  end  of  May,  when 
they  may  be  received  into  lucerne,  chico- 
ry, or  clover,  on  which  they  will  be  main- 
tained till  the  clearing  of  the  stubble;  and 
thus,  with  the  offal  of  the  barn  and  the 
corn-fields,  and  the  plants  and  roots  just 
mentioned,  the  whole  year  will  be  amply 
provided  for.  In  summer,  meal  must  be 
mixed  with  water  for  the  sows  as  they 
pig,  and  in  winter  boiled  roots,  peas,  and 
oats,  should  be  given  to  the  young  ones. 
Dairy  wash  is  a  capital  addition  to  this 
mixture.  The  sows  should  be  permitted 
to  pig  but  twice  a  year,  in  April  and  Au- 
gust. When  great  with  pig,  they  must 
be  carefully  secluded  from  the  boars,  and 
shut  up  about  a  fortnight  beforehand  in 
the  stye ;  and  while  pigging,  it  is  of  ex- 
treme consequence  that  no  one  approach- 
es them,  or  is  even  seen  looking  at  them, 
as  in  this  case  they  will  often  devour  their 
farrow.  After  a  week  from  this  period, 
they  should  for  a  few  hours  in  the  day 
have  the  freedom  of  the  yard,  which  will 
be  a  great  relief  from  total  confinement. 
Winter  pigs,  if  not  kept  with  great  atten- 
tion, are  found  less  profitable  than  others. 
Milk  and  whey  may  so  usefully  be  applied 
to  them,  that  perhaps  no  other  mode  of 
their  application  is  equally  advantageous; 
and  the  best  process  for  weaning  them  is 
by  giving  these  articles  to  them  mixed  up 
with  pea-soup,  though  the  latter  alone 
will  answer  well.  When  three  or  four 
months  old,  nothing  is  better  for  them 
than  clover :  turnips  alone  will  not  be 
proper,  but  corn  should  be  added  to  them. 
Carrots  and  potatoes  will  keep  them  well 
till  their  full  growth.  Malt  grains,  if  easi- 
ly and  cheaply  to  be  procured,  are  high- 
ly to  be  recommended. 

With  a  view  to  fattening  hogs,  the  corn 
employed  should  be  ground  into  meal, 
and  in  the  proportion  of  five  bushels  to 
100  gallons  of  water  should  be  mixed  in 


large  cisterns:  the  mixture  should  for 
three  weeks  be  well  stirred  every  day, 
and  at  the  end  of  that  period  will  have 
fermented  and  become  acid,  before  which 
it  should  not  be  given.  A  succession  of 
vessels  should  be  filled  with  this  ferment- 
ed food,  that  some  may  be  always  ready ; 
and,  before  it  is  applied,  it  should  be  al- 
ways stirred.  Peas-soup  is  perhaps  equal- 
ly wholesome  food  with  the  above,  and 
especially  if  made  with  warm  milk.  The 
preparation,  however,  is  more  expensive. 
Fatting  hogs  should  be  constantly  well 
littered,  and  be  kept  perfectly  clean. 

Poultry. 

Writh  respect  to  poultry,  constituting  as 
they  generally  do  part  of  the  stock,  how- 
ever small,  upon  farms,  a  few  observations 
on  them  may  not  be  thought  superfluous. 
If  kept  merely  for  domestic  supply,  parti- 
cular attention  is  needless.  When  rear- 
ed with  a  view  to  profit,  however,  and  on 
a  somewhat  large  scale,  they  will  repay, 
as  they  indeed  require,  considerable  at- 
tention. A  house  should  be  erected  for 
them  containing  divisions  appropriately 
for  roosting,  sitting,  fatting,  and  food. 
The  building  should  be  constructed  near 
the  farm-yard,  having  clear  water  conti- 
guous to  it.  Warmth  and  smoke  are 
great  cherishers  of  poultry.  All,  of  every 
species,  must  have  access  to  gravel  and 
grass.  Their  cheapest  food  consists  of 
boiled  potatoes,  on  which  it  appears  that 
they  can  be  supported  and  fattened  with- 
out the  aid  of  any  corn.  Where  numbers 
of  them  are  kept  upon  a  farm,  if  permitted 
to  go  at  large,  they  will  often  do  consi- 
derable injury  both  in  the  fields  and  barn- 
yard; besides  which  they  will  be  extreme- 
ly exposed  to  the  attacks  of  vermin,  and 
will  lose  a  considerable  number  of  their 
eggs.  A  full-grown  hen  continues  in  her 
prime  for  three  years,  and  may  be  sup- 
posed in  that  time  to  lay  200  eggs,  which 
number,  however,  by  warmth  and  nour- 
ishment, might  be  greatly  exceeded. 

The  quality  and  size  of  the  Norfolk 
turkeys  are  superior  to  those  of  any  other 
part  of  the  kingdom.  They  are  fed  almost 
entirely  with  buck-wheat,  which,  perhaps, 
may  account  for  their  excellence,  and  are 
bred  by  almost  every  little  farmer  in  the 
county.  When  young,  they  demand  per- 
petual attention,  and  must  be  fed  with 
alum  curds,  and  chopped  onions,  and  the 
expense  attending  their  management  and 
food  can  be  compensated  only  where 
broods  are  tolerably  successful,  and  the 
prices  high. 


AGRICULTURE. 


The  Dairy. 

In  the  conduct  of  a  dairy,  which,  in  all 
but  the  most  productive  corn  countries, 
is  an  object  of  particular  consequence  to 
the  farmer,  it  is  obviously  of  the  first  im- 
portance to  select  cows  of  the  best  sort, 
and  in  judging  of  the  value  of  this  ani- 
mal, the  best  method  of  deciding  it  is  by 
the  quantity  of  cream  produced  in  a  given 
time,  rather  than  of  milk.  The  richest 
milk  known  is  produced  by  cows  of  the 
Alderney  breed;  but,  in  all  countries, 
cows  yielding  a  very  superior  quantity  of 
milk  to  the  generality  are  to  be  found, 
and  should  be  sought  for  by  those  per- 
sons to  whom  their  produce  is  a  particular 
object  of  attention;  and  the  breed  of  such 
should  be  particularly  cultivated.  Rough 
waste  lands,  when  the  soil  is  wet,  will  do 
better  for  cows  than  sheep,  and  should 
be  always  appropriated  to  them,  not  in- 
deed because  they  are  the  best  for  cows, 
but  because  no  stock  will  so  well  pay  up- 
on them. 

The  grand  object  of  keeping  cows  be- 
ing the  production  of  abundance  and  ex- 
cellence of  milk,  they  must,  for  this  pur- 
pose, be  supplied  with  food  of  the  same 
description.  About  a  month  before  they 
calve  they  should  be  taken  from  the  straw- 
yard,  and  have  green  food  given  them 
twice  a  day*  with  the  roots,  whatever  they 
may  happen  to  be,  which  have  been  rais- 
ed for  their  w  inter  food.  Having  calved, 
they  should  be  kept  perfectly  separate 
from  the  Jean  stock,  whether  in  the  house 
or  in  another  yard,  and  their  food  should 
be  continued  as  before.  Winter  feeding 
cows  with  hay,  even  though  none  be  given 
them  before  they  calve,  breaks  in  greatly 
upon  the  profits  of  the  dairy.  Cabbages 
will  maintain  them  in  the  cheapest  man- 
ner, and  not  give  any  unpleasant  flavour 
to  the  milk  and  butter.  The  heart  alone 
of  the  cabbage,  however,  should  be  given 
to  them,  and  the  refuse  leaves  be  left  to 
be  picked  up  by  the  lean  cattle.  In  the 
month  of  May  they  should  be  kept  in  par- 
ticular good  feed,  for  which  purpose  they 
should  be  turned  into  the  fields  of  clo- 
ver, which  had  been  early  eaten  off  by 
sheep.  Lucerne  is,  however,  perhaps 
preferable  to  clover,  as  it  is  equally  nour- 
ishing, and  gives  no  ill  flavour.  When 
mown,  and  given  in  racks  or  cribs,  it  will 
go  farther  than  in  any  other  way,  and 
yield  an  increased  quantity  of  the  most  va- 
luable manure,  a  circumstance  which  has 
been  often  insisted  upon,  and  cannot  be 
too  frequently  suggested.  The  feeding 
»lace  should  be  kept  extremely  well  lit- 


tered. The  profit  of  cows,  in  these  cir- 
cumstances, will  be  greater  than  turning 
them  into  luxuriant  fields  of  these  artifi- 
cial grasses,  although  the  quantity  of 
their  produce  might,  by  the  latter  me« 
thod,  probably  be  increased ;  but  by 
trampling  upon  and  spoiling  considerably 
more  than  they  would  eat,  the  little  su- 
perior milk  in  richness  or  quantity,  which 
might  be  produced,  would  be  purchased 
at  a  most  heavy  expense,  and  one  acre  so 
managed  would  be  requisite  for  every 
cow,  while,  by  soiling,  it  would  be  amply 
sufficient  for  three.  The  clear  profit  in 
the  comparison  of  any  two  modes  of 
management  is  the  grand  point  of  the  far- 
mer's consideration,  and  whatever  the 
farmer  finds  most  profitable  will,  eventu- 
ally, it  must  be  remembered,  most  benefit 
the  public.  Whatever  green  meat  be 
thus  used  in  soiling, should  be  fresh  mown 
every  two  days,  the  quantity  being,  as 
nearly  as  may  be,  adapted  to  the  number 
so  fed,  not  only  of  cows,  but  of  other 
stock.  Lucerne,  if  well  managed,  will 
bear  four  mowings  for  this  purpose. 

Cows  should  be  milked  three  times  a 
day,  if  fully  fed,  throughout  the  sum- 
mer; and  great  caution  should  be  ex- 
ercised by  the  persons  employed  to 
draw  the  milk  from  them  completely, 
not  only  to  increase  the  quantity  of  pro- 
duce, but  to  preserve  its  quality.  Any 
portion  which  may  be  left  in  the  udder 
seems  gradually  to  be  absorbed  into  the 
system,  and  no  more  is  formed  than, 
enough  to  supply  the  loss  of  what  is  taken 
away  ;  and  by  the  continuance  of  the  same 
mode,  a  yet  farther  diminution  of  the  se- 
cretion takes  place,  until  at  length  scarce- 
ly any  is  produced.  This  mode  of  milk- 
ing is  always  practised,  when  it  is  intend- 
ed that  a  cow  should  be  rendered  dry. 

The  apartments  appropriated  to  dairy 
purposes  should,  if  possible,  possess  a 
moderate  temperature  throughout  the 
year,  and  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean 
and  dry.  The  temperature  of  about  fifty- 
five  degrees  is  most  favourable  for  the  se- 
paration of  the  cream  from  tUe  milk.  The 
utensils  of  the  dairy  are  best  made  of 
wood ;  lead  and  copper  are  soluble  in 
acid,  and  highly  pernicious;  and  though 
iron  is  not  injurious,  the  taste  of  it  might 
render  the  produce  of  the  dairy  unpala- 
table. 

Objects  of  attention,  with  a  view  to  the  settle- 
ment and  success  of  a  young  Agriculturist. 

It  is  an  object  of  extreme  importance 
and  difficulty  to  awaken,  due  attention, 


AGRICULTURE. 


without  exciting1  useless  anxiety.  In  se- 
lecting a  situation  in  which  to  exercise 
the  occupation  of  a  farmer,  various  cir- 
cumstances are  minutely  and  deliberately 
to  be  Regarded,  and  great  consideration 
is  required  to  form  an  accurate  compari- 
son of  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
After  these  have  been  fully  ascertained, 
a  balance  is  to  he  drawn,  and  a  decision 
to  be  made.  More  attention  than  time 
is  requisite  for  this  purpose,  and  hesita- 
ting, broken  application  will  often  occu- 
py'a  longer  period  in  arriving  at  an  injudi- 
cious determination,  than,  with  persever- 
ing and  dispassionate  examination,  is  ne- 
cessary to  obtain  a  correct  one.  Headlong 
temerity,  which  diminishes,  or  even  anni- 
hilates to  the  mind,  substantial  evils,  and 
minute,  apprehensive  prudence,  by  which 
every  ant-hill  of  difficulty  is  made  to  swell 
into  a  mountain,  are  both  to  be  carefully 
avoided  ;  and  a  firm  confidence  in  human 
exertion  should  unite,  on  this  critical  oc- 
casion, with  keen  and  comprehensive  ob- 
servation. The  soil  is  an  object  of  parti- 
cular consideration,  in  reference  to  a  vast 
variety  of  circumstances;  as  to  its  stiff- 
ness and  moisture  ;  levelness  or  slope  ;  its 
exposure  or  its  stoniness  ;  the  manuring, 
draining,  and  fencing  that  may  be  requir- 
ed; the  state  of  the  roads;  the  accessibi- 
lity of  markets ;  the  prices  of  manufac- 
tures, of  produce,  and  labour  ;  the  cus- 
tom of  tythes  ;  the  amount  of  poor-rates; 
the  compactness  of  the  land,  and  the 
covenants  concerning  crops ;  are  only  a 
few  of  the  points  which  demand,  in  such 
circumstances,  to  be  duly  ascertained 
and  estimated.  To  fix  on  good  land  is  a 
prudential  general  direction.  For  such  it 
is  not  easy,  with  ordinary  discretion,  to 
pay  too  much,  while  for  poor  soils  a  small 
rent  very  frequently  exceeds  their  worth. 
The  most  advantageous  of  all  soils  are, 
the  mellow,  putrid,  crumbling,  sandy 
loams ;  those  which  will  admit  tillage, 
soon  after  rain,  and,  though  finely  har- 
rowed, will  not  harden,  as  if  baked,  in 
consequence  of  the  hottest  sunshine,  after 
violent  rains.  The  stiff  loam,  which  is 
very  nearly  approaching  to  proper  brick 
earth,  is,  without  plenty  of  manure,  an 
unfavourable  soil.  On  walking  over  it,  it 
is  found  extremely  adhesive  in  wet  wea- 
ther, and  it  requires  a  long  time  to  dry. 
It  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  medi- 
um between  the  clods  of  clay  and  the 
crumblings  of  loam.  In  stubble,  a  small 
green  moss  is  frequently  seen  to  cover  it. 
By  farmers,  poverty  and  hunger  are  me- 
taphorically and  most  expressively  ap- 
plied to  this  land,  which  has  a  great  num- 


ber of  varieties.  It  requires  a  large  quan- 
tity of  manure,  and  is  wonderfully  im- 
proved by  hollow  ditching.  The  expense 
of  these  operations  must  never  be  forgot- 
ten in  connection  with  an  estimate  of 
their  result. 

Warm,  dry,  gravelly  'cams  are,  in  win- 
ter, easily  distinguishable.  Unless  in  a 
particularly  wet  winter,  they  may  be 
ploughed  during  almost  any  part  of  it, 
and  will  break  up  in  a  state  of  crumbling, 
running  mould.  A  very  bad  soil  is  con- 
stantly formed  by  wet,  cold  gravel,  which* 
in  winter,  is  always  indicated  by  its  wet- 
ness, and  in  spring  is  known  by  the  bind- 
ing effects  produced  upon  it  by  short  and 
violent  showers.  It  can  be  fertilized  only 
by  very  extraordinary  quantities  of  ma- 
nure ;  and  drains,  fully  and  neatly  com- 
pleted in  it,  will  considerably  improve  it. 
Some  gravels  are  of  so  particularly  sharp 
and  burning  a  nature,  that,  unless  the 
summer  be  particularly  wet,  they  will  pro- 
duce absolutely  nothing.  At  any  season 
ttiis  soil  is  obviously  distinguishable. 
With  respect  to  sands,  the  rich,  red  sand 
possesses  always  a  dry  soundness,  and  a 
temperate  moisture,  and  will  in  the  driest 
summer,  secure  a  crop.  Its  excellence 
and  profitableness  can  scarcely  be  ex- 
ceeded. Another  admirable  soil  is  form- 
ed of  the  light,  sandy  loam.  It  may  be 
ploughed  during  the  whole  winter.  The 
degree  of  its  adhesion  is  precisely  that 
of  its  perfection.  It  may  be  usefully  ob- 
served, that  when  stiff  land  is  dry  and 
crumbling,  it  is  a  sure  indication  of  its 
goodness,  as  the  adhesive  quality  of  a 
sandy  soil  is,  with  respect  to  that  species 
of  land,  an  equally  decisive  symptom  in  its 
favour.  That  which  falls  flat  in  powder 
is  a  mere  barren  sand.  The  chalk  marie 
runs  exceedingly  to  mortar  from  vio- 
lent showers,  after  being  pulverised, 
and  is  a  cold  and  unprofitable  soil.  Clay 
land  of  great  tenacity  is  usually  let  for 
more  than  it  is  worth  ;  and,  though  it  will 
yield  abundance  of  wheat,  is  attended,  in 
its  management  and  preparation,  with 
so  great  expence,  that  its  profit  is  often 
trifling,  and  fortunes  are  far  more  fre- 
quently made  by  lands  of  a  directly  op- 
posite description,  consisting  of  light  and 
dry  sand.  The  common  fault  of  stiff 
clays  is  wetness.  Where  fields  are  level, 
and,  even  though  the  furrows  are  well 
ploughed,  the  water  stands  in  the  land, 
the  extreme  tenacity  of  the  soil  is  obvi- 
ous. It  is  also  broken  up  by  the  plough 
only  by  a  very  powerful  draught  of  cattle, 
and  in  pieces  of  vast  size  and  extreme 
hardness.  In  winter,  soils  approaching  to 


AGRICULTURE. 


this  character  are  most  to  be  distinguish- 
ed. They  will  yield  large  crops  of  beans 
and  wheat,  but  the  sight  of  these  should 
always  be  blended  with  the  consideration 
of  the  immense  expense  at  which  they 
are  necessarily  raised.  There  are  many 
variations  of  peat,  bog,  and  fen,  and  all 
may  be  found  exceedingly  profitable  ;  and 
if  marl  or  lime  be  in  the  neighbourhood, 
that  circumstance  is  a  most  important 
inducement  to  undertake  the  manage- 
ment of  them. 

With  regard  to  grass  lands,  they  are  to 
behest  examined  at  several  seasons,  in 
order  to  ascertain  their  character.  If 
they  be  too  wet,  this  is  shown  by  walking 
over  them  in  winter,  and  by  rushes,  flags, 
and  moisture,  which,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  are  always  observable  upon  them. 
The  grass  is  general!}  blue  at  the  poinis, 
and  always  coarse.  Draining  may  correct 
stiff  loams,  but  the  stiff  tenacious  clay  is 
scarcely  susceptible  of  cure.  Grass,  on 
gravelly  soils,  will  inevitably  burn  in  hot 
summers,  but  will  extremely  abound  on 
loams  in  wet  ones.  On  the  banks  of 
brooks  and  rivers,  meadow  of  almost  any 
soil  may  be  considered  good,  but  the  cir- 
cumstance of  their  liability  to  summer  in- 
undations ought  never  to  be  forgotten. 

The  herbage  on  many  fields  is  some- 
times composed  of  weeds  and  the  coarsest 
and  worst  of  grasses,  which  are  at  all 
times  discernible,  and  indeed  glaring. 
Under  a  prohibition  of  arable,  which  is 
sometimes  and  not  unfrequently  the  case, 
fields  of  this  description  are  worth  little  or 
nothing.  A  river,  well  restrained  within 
its  banks,  running  through  a  farm,  is  a  cir- 
cumstance decidedly  favourable  The 
grass  lands  may  thus  be  presumed  to  have 
water  for  the  accommodation  of  cattle. 

The  quantity,  as  well  as  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  is  likewise  to  be  considered,  and 
no  larger  quantity  should  be  occupied 
than  can  conveniently  be  stocked.  The 
bad  management,  and  the  perpetual  em- 
barrassment occurring  in  the  contrary 
situation,  are  often  ruinous  to  the  health 
and  to  the  fortunes  of  those  who  are  in- 
volved in  it. 

The  disjoined  situation  of  the  various 
fields  of  a  farm  is  a  circumstance  attend- 
ed with  great  vexation  and  expense. 
Compactness  of  estates  will  always  ren- 
der them  far  more  valuable  ;  and  oppor- 
tunities of  producing  this  compactness, 
by  purchasing  at  a  fair  valuation,  will 
never  be  neglected  by  vigilant  and  weal- 
thy landlords. 

To  estimate  the  rent  correctly,  it  has 
been  judiciously  recommended  to  con- 


nect it  with  tithes  and  poor  rates.  What- 
ever sum  be  intended  to  be  invested  in 
the  farm,  its  interest  may  be  fairly  calcu- 
lated at  not  less  than  ten  per  cent.  A  va- 
luation of  the  expense  and  the  produce 
should,  for  the  next  step,  be  carefully 
made  :  and,  after  the  former  is  deducted 
from  the  latter,  what  remains  will  be  the 
sum  which  can  be  allowed  for  the  de- 
mand of  rent,  in  the  three  different  forms 
above  mentioned.  If  the  amount  of  tithes 
and  rates  be  deducted  from  this,  what 
remains  will  be  the  sum  which  the  occu- 
pier can  afford  to  pay  the  landlord. 

The  nature  of  the  covenanis  required, 
which  are  sometimes  only  absurd,  and 
therefore  admissible  without  difficulty, 
but  sometimes  equally  absurd  and  mis- 
chiveous,  ought  ever  to  be  considered  in 
connection  not  only  with  general  but  lo- 
cal and  peculiar  circumstances.  The  un- 
reasonableness of  the  conditions  propos- 
ed will  sometimes  be  a  valid  objection 
to  that  occupancy,  which  rent  and  situa- 
tion, and  all  other  circumstances,  might 
render  highly  eligible,  and  compensation 
injdmi'mished  rent  will  be  necessary,  to  in- 
demnify for  tying  dowrn  the  farmer  from 
modes  of  cultivation  uninjurious  to  the 
land-  and  inexpressibly  the  most  benefi- 
cial to  the  occupier. 

From  three  to  five  pounds  per  acre 
was,  about  forty  years  since,  considered 
adequate  to  the  stocking  of  any  farm, 
partly  grass  and  partly  tillage,  of  the 
average  fertility.  The  increase  of  rents 
and  of  rates,  the  higher  composition  for 
tithes,  the  advance  upon  all  implements 
of  husbandry,  and  upon  every  species  of 
sheep  and  cattle,  may  be  justly  consider- 
ed as  having  raised  the  sum  necessary 
for  the  above  purpose  to  seven  or  eight 
pounds.  To  form  calculations  upon  this 
subject  as  accurately  as  possible,  and 
ascertain  that  the  requisite  capital  is 
possessed,  for  the  due  management  of 
the  land  to  be  occupied,  cannot  be  too 
emphatically  insisted  upon.  The  profit 
attending  an  increased  expense  in  stock- 
ing will,  in  some  cases,  more  than  double 
the  ratio  of  profit  before  that  increase;  and 
if  the  farmer  be  incapable  of  availing  him- 
self of  striking  opportunities  for  improve- 
ment, by  the  purchase  of  litter  or  of  ma- 
nure, and  indeed  by  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances which  may  easily  be  suggested, 
for  want  of  capital,  his  situation  must  be 
highly  disadvantageous. 

The  choice  of  servants  is  a  point  re- 
quiring extreme  attention.  Where  the 
assistance  of  a  bailiff  is  required,  as  in  all 
farms  of  very  considerable  extent,  he 


AGRICULTURE. 


should  be  of  a  same  what  superior  de- 
scription to  those  whom  he  must  be  au- 
thorized to  command.  The  making-  of 
contracts,  and  receiving1  money,  which  af- 
ford agents  great  temptation  to  dishones- 
ty and  to  excess,  should,  whenever  prac- 
ticable, be  performed  by  the  principal. 
Of  the  inferior  servants,  the  ploughmen 
are  of  most  consequence,  and  skill  and  do- 
cility are  their  grand  recommendations. 
It  is  desirable  that  all  the  servants  should 
be  under  the  master's  eye.  His  constant 
superintendance  will  have  great  effect  in 
promoting  their  sobriety  and  regularity, 
and  not  only  will  their  permanent  happi- 
ness be  improved  by  this  plan,  a  circum- 
stance to  a  man  of  humanity  of  no  light 
consideration,  but  their  greater  tractabi- 
lity  and  obedience  will  render  the  prac- 
tice of  this  domesticating  method,  in  a 
selfish  point  of  view,  more  useful  to  him, 
than  that,  according-  to  which,  on  many 
extended  estates,  the  men  and  boys  are 
all  committed  to  the  boarding  and  ma- 
nagement of  the  bailiff.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered as  in  general  preferable,  to  keep 
many  servants  and  few  day-labourers  in 
the  present  times.  The  certainty  of  com- 
manding hands  at  all  seasons  is  an  object 
of  prime  importance,  and  the  difficulty  of 
procuring  additional  ones,  when  they  are 
most  wanted,  is  often  upon  the  other 
plan  insuperable. 

It  will  be  always  eligible  and  expedient 
to  pursue  a  system  of  management,  com- 
prehending every  department  of  business 
and  expenses.  The  carelessness  of  pro- 
fusion and  the  sordidness  of  penury  must 
both  be  avoided  with  equal  caution.  A 
fixed  sum,  formed  upon  calculations,  re- 
sulting from  actual  experiment,  should 
be  allotted  for  the  expenses  of  the  house, 
for  personal  expenses,  for  family  dress, 
and  other  necessary  demands,  to  be  by 
no  means  exceeded ;  and  as  casual  de- 
mands will  always  occur,  a  reserve  should 
always  be  provided  for  contingencies. 
This  methodical  arrangement  cannot  be 
too  strongly  enforced  on  the  young  prac- 
titioner, who,  without  it,  is  in  danger  of 
inextricable  confusion  and  ruin.  If  the 
investment  on  a  farm  be  eight  thousand 
pounds,  after  clearing  all  expenses  arising- 
from  regular  or  contingent  demands,  and 
maintaining  the  establishment  in  liberal 
but  accurate  economy,  if  a  hundred  a 
year  be  not  annually  added  to  the  occu- 
pier's capital,  the  concern  must  decided- 
ly be  a  bad  one.  The  addition  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  is  very  far  from  unrea- 
sonable. Whatever  it  be,  in  general,  it 
cannot  be  better  employed,  than  in  prose- 


cuting ascertained  modes  of  improve- 
ment upon  the  farm,  if  itbe  the  property  of 
the  occupier,  or  if  he  is  in  possession  of  a 
long  lease. 

Attendance  at  markets  and  fairs  is  an 
indispensable  part  of  the  farmer's  occupa- 
tion, but  in  a  young-  man  is  attended  with 
various  temptations,  such  as  sanguine  and 
social  temperaments  find  it  difficult  to 
resist.  Caution,  therefore,  to  such  is  per- 
petually requisite .  Moreover,  the  society 
of  persons  in  a  superior  style  or  rank  in 
life,  which,  in  consequence  of  establish- 
ments for  agricultural  improvement,  is  ea- 
sily accessible  to  the  young  man  of  viva- 
city and  spirit,  cannot  be  cherished  with- 
out danger.  His  mind  is  thus  alienated 
from  his  regular,  and  comparatively  very 
laborious,  and,  as  it  may  weakly  be  deem- 
ed, humble  occupation,  and  fastidious- 
ness, discontent,  and  neglect,  will  usurp 
the  place  of  tranquil  and  active  industry. 

Such  intercourses  are  completely  be- 
set with  temptation,  and  have  often  in- 
duced imitation,  and  profusion,  neglect- 
ed business,  and  eventual,  and  indeed 
speedy  destruction. 

Impediments  to  Agricultural  Improvements. 

The  want  of  wise  laws  on  this  subject 
has  ever  been  a  serious  obstacle.  The 
produce  of  land,  and  the  various  manures 
which  are  necessary  for  fertilizing  it,  can 
be  easily  and  cheaply  conveyed  only 
along  good  roads  and  navigable  canals, 
and  in  proportion  as  a  country  is  destitute 
of  these,  it  is  deficient  in  a  grand  source  of 
national  and  agricultural  prosperity.  Ar- 
rangements on  these  topics  cannot  easily 
occupy  too  much  of  the  attention,  or  at 
least  meet  with  too  much  of  the  encou- 
ragement, of  the  wise  statesman.  And  as 
indefinite  advantages  might  be  derived 
from  positive  regulation  on  these  and  oth- 
er details,  in  behalf  of  husbandry,  much 
might  also  be  done  in  many  countries  by 
the  removal,  as  well  as  by  the  enaction  of 
laws.  Where  the  husbandman  is  preclud- 
ed from  the  best  markets,  the  art  of  cul- 
tivation cannot  possibly  be  pushed  up  to 
that  point  of  maturity  which  it  would 
otherwise  acquire  ;  the  attainable  perfec- 
tion of  this,  as  well  as  every  other  art, 
depending  on  the  encouragement  it  finds, 
or,  in  no  less  accurate,  thoug-h  perhaps 
more  harsh  and  grating  language,  on  the 
profit  it  produces.  The  most  effectual 
mode  of  procuring  the  growth  of  any  ar- 
ticle in  abundance  is  to  insure  it  a  reason- 
able price  and  a  rapid  sale.  Freedom  of 
exportation  from  one  country  to  another 


AGRICULTURE. 


affords  considerable  facility  for  these,  and 
promotes,  therefore,  the  object  which  the 
blindness  of  former  times  supposed  to  be 
counteracted  by  it.  Abundance  is  ascer- 
tained to  be  secured  by  the  very  means 
which  the  contracted  policy  of  departed 
legislators  imagined  necessarily  to  defeat 
it.  Such  naiTow  views  are,  however,  in 
general  exploded.  And  though  in  coun- 
tries, where,  as  in  Great  Britain,  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  population  is  inadequately 
provided  for  by  the  natural  produce,  even 
in  the  best  of  seasons,  there  is  less  reason 
on  this  subject  for  complaint,  than  would 
operate  in  other  circumstances,  it  is  still 
an  invariable  and  invaluable  maxim,  that 
no  lands  can  be  cultivated  to  their  high- 
est point  of  perfectibility,  where  restraints 
are  permitted  to  operate  on  the  disposal 
of  their  produce. 

The  operation  of  the  tythe  system  must 
be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  serious 
impediments  on  the  subject  under  consi- 
deration. This  odious  and  oppressivemode 
of  providing  for  a  class  of  persons,  whose 
peculiar  duty  it  is  to  polish  the  uncouth- 
ness  of  savage  man,  to  inculcate  on  the 
world  the  principles  of  conciliation  and 
kindness,  furnishes  a  most  singular  dis- 
sonancy  between  the  means  and  the  end  of 
those  who  instituted  it ;  and  its  unmitiga- 
ted continuance  to  the  present  day  is  a 
reflection  on  the  sagacity,  the  energy,  or 
the  patriotism  of  the  British  legislature. 
Regulations,  by  which  those  who  have  no 
share  whatever  in  the  expense  of  im- 
provement should  participate  in  its  advan- 
tages, are  not  mere  topics  of  theoretical 
absurdity,  but  attended  with  serious  de- 
triment in  their  operation  throughout 
this  country,  in  a  moral,  a  religious,  and 
what  is  most  of  all  to  the  present  purpose, 
an  agricultural  point  of  view.  With  all 
the  respect  due  to  the  representatives  of 
a  mighty  empire,  and  with  the  most  deci- 
ded detachment  from  all  points  of  vague 
and  general  innovation,  this  important 
subject  can  not  be  too  frequently  present- 
ed to  parliamentary  attention.  Human 
wisdom  and  human  virtue  will,  it  is 
hoped,  be  at  length  found  equal  to  the 
correction  of  an  absurdity  at  once  so  gla- 
ring and  so  prejudicial. 

The  want  of  due  estimation  of  the  oc- 
cupation of  husbandry,  is  in  many  coun- 
tries a  grand  impediment  to  it  progress. 
Where  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  re- 
garded with  contempt,  or  as  beneath  the 
attention  of  men  of  rank  and  education,  it 
will  be  entrusted  to  the  management  of 
persons  of  narrow  capitals,  and  still  nar- 
rower minds.  Such  prejudices  operate 


in  various  places.  They  till  lately  exist- 
ed to  a  great  extent  in  France,  and  are 
yet  deplorably  prevalent  in  Spain.  In 
England,  fortunately,  they  are  every  day 
rapidly  dissipating.  Agriculture  is  ascer- 
tained to  be  the  road  to  wealth  and  re- 
spectability ;  and  men  of  high  connections 
and  distinguished  fortunes  think  them- 
selves honoured,  instead  of  being  degra- 
ded, by  a  regular  and  assiduous  applica- 
tion to  it,  and  by  establishing  their  sons 
in  situations,  in  which  they  may  look  to  it 
as  the  means  of  maintaining  families,  ac- 
cumulating property,  and  doing  service 
and  honour  to  their  country. 

Agriculture  is  very  injuriously  checked 
by  the  occupier  of  land  not  possessing  in 
it  a  requisite  interest.  Even  in  this  coun- 
try, large  portions  of  land  are  held  by 
communities  of  persons,  the  individuals  of 
which  have  no  right  to  any  particular  spot 
of  it,  and  are  not  only  thus  precluded 
from  personal  and  active  cultivation,  but, 
by  the  scanty  right  and  profit  which  they 
possess  in  the  general  property,  possess 
no  sufficient  motive  to  enforce  correct 
management  and  improving  cultivation  on 
those  persons  by  whom  it  is  actually  oc- 
cupied. Family  entails  and  short  leases 
are  likewise  eminently  hostile  to  full  cul- 
tivation, upon  the  obvious  principle,  that 
men  will  ever  apply  their  capital  and  ex- 
ertionsonly  in  proportion  to  then-expecta- 
tion of  advantage.  Even  when  leases  are 
granted  of  a  reasonable  number  of  years, 
restrictive  clauses  are  too  frequently  in- 
troduced, by  which  the  progress  of  im- 
provement is  arrested,  and  a  mode  of  cul- 
tivation insisted  upon  contrary  to  the  views 
and  the  interest  of  the  occupier,  and  not 
by  any  means  more  beneficial  to  the  own- 
er, than  what  was  designed  to  be  adopt- 
ed, often  inexpressibly  less  so.  Preju- 
dice and  caprice  in  theproprietorare  often 
substituted  for  the  judgment  of  experi- 
ence; and  a  routine  of  practice  compelled 
upon  the  cultivator,  in  consequence  of 
which,  curious  research  and  attentive  ex- 
periment are  rendered  nearly  superfluous. 
Superior  knowledge,  which  would  in 
these  circumstances  be  almost  useless, 
ceases  to  be  sought  for,  and  stupid  ac- 
quiescence is  substituted  for  lively  obser- 
vation. It  is  however  of  importance,  that, 
towards  the  close  of  a  term,  the  series  of 
cropping  should  be  regulated  by  covenant, 
as  the  inducement  to  exhaust  land,  to  the 
extreme  injury  of  the  owner  and  the  pub- 
lic, would  otherwise  be  seldom  resisted. 
Beyond  thisobject,  it  is  unwise  to  enforce 
restriction,  or  to  yield  to  it,  and  whatever 
discoveries  are  made  by  the  personal  ex- 


AGRICULTURE, 


perience  of  the  farmer  himself,  or  are  de- 
rived from  the  experience  and  practice 
of  others,  it  is  desirable  that  he  should 
ever  be  free  to  avail  himself  of  them. 
The  liberal  ideas  on  this  subject,  which 
have  been  suggested  by  the  best  writers, 
and  adopted  by  enlightened  landlords, 
will  unquestionably,  in  time,  and  it  is  hop- 
ed, rapidly  prevail,  to  the  almost  total  ex- 
clusion of'  those  narrow  and  pernicious 
notions  which  have  hitherto  existed. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  farmer  should 
occupy  a  sufficient  tract  of  land  to  en- 
gage his  time,  not  irregularly  and  occa- 
sionally, but  fully  and  completely,  by 
which  means  his  attention  is  not  distract- 
ed from  this  important  employment  to 
others  which  would  interfere  with  it,  and 
necessarily  prevent  its  correct  and  profit- 
able management;  and  those  idle  habits, 
connected  with  public  injury  and  individ- 
ual ruin,  are  effectually  precluded.  A  large 
farm,  therefore,  generally  speaking,  is  far 
preferable  to  a  small  one,  in  this  as  in  eve- 
ry other  point  of  view.  Some  persons,  not 
having  employment  for  themselves  in  the 
superintendance  of  the  different  depart- 
ments of  husbandry  on  their  land,  have 
recourse  to  personal  exertion,  and  sub- 
stitute themselves  for  labourers,  a  plan 
which  is  extremely  unwise.  The  true  art 
of  farming  consists,  not  in  driving  the 
plough,  or  engaging  in  other  memal  of- 
fices, but  in  allotting  and  superintend- 
ing labour,  in  recording  its  results,  and 
contriving  how  and  where  to  dispose  of 
it  to  the  most  perfect  advantage.  To 
read,  and  think,  and  attend  the  public 
markets,  and  regulate  accounts,  and  ob- 
seve  what  others  in  the  same  occupation 
in  the  neighbourhood,  or  even  at  some 
distance,  are  engaged  in,  is  of  far  more 
importance  to  the  advance  of  agriculture, 
and  the  profit  of  the  individual  cultivator, 
than  for  him  to  engage  in  those  manual 
operations,  which,  in  consequence  of  more 
practice,  are  generally  performed  with 
more  rapidity  and  success  by  common 
labourers.  On  urgency  of  business,  or  as 
an  example  to  his  men,  and  to  give  their 
employment  that  estimation  and  dignity, 
the  idea  of  which  will  ever  render  them 
at  once  more  happy  and  more  dexterous 
in  it,  it  will  be  extremely  proper  for  him  to 
engage  occasionally  even  in  these,  and 
his  education  ought  always  to  have  been 
such,  as  to  enable  him  to  practise  them 
with  some  degree  of  skill  and  neatness, 
by  which  he  will  of  course  be  better  ena- 
bled to  judge  when  they  are  well  perform- 
ed by  others.  But  let  him  consider  him- 
self as  the  manager  of  a  grand  manufac- 


turing establishment,  requiring  peculiar 
and  incessant  vigilance  ;  of  a  concern  in 
which  occurring  contingencies  often  re- 
quire a  change  of  plan,  in  which  the  ex- 
ercise of  judgment  is  perpetually  demand- 
ed ;  and  through  the  want  of  a  sagacious 
and  presiding  mind,  the  manual  labour  of 
many,  convertible  to  extreme  advantage, 
may  easily  become  productive  only  of 
mischief,  or  may  have  substituted  for  it 
negligence,  indolence  and  dishonesty. 
This  situation  of  continued  superinten- 
dance is  the  proper  situation  of  the  far- 
mer; and  in  proportion  as  he  does  not 
occupy  land  sufficient  to  require  it,  he 
engages  in  the  profession  with  incorrect 
views,  and  misemploys  his  time. 

But  whatever  this  quantity  of  land  may 
be  thought  to  be,  differing  certainly  in  re- 
lation to  different  individuals,  the  im- 
portance of  adequately  stocking  and  pre- 
paring what  is  actually  occupied  is  ex- 
treme. To  unite  the  portion  of  land  ne- 
cessary to  occupy  the  time  of  the  experi- 
enced farmer,  with  the  complete  means  of 
its  fertility  and  improvement,  affords  the 
most  suspicious  foundation  for  the  hope 
of  success.  For  frequent  and  fine  tillage, 
and  abundant  manure,  which  are  essential 
to  the  perfection  of  husbandry,  consider- 
able expence  is  demanded.  The  most 
skilful  servants,  the  most  correct  imple- 
ments, the  most  robust  cattle,  are  neces- 
sary to  produce  that  improved  tilth,  which 
is  the  most  productive  cultivation,  and 
will  amply  repay  the  extraordinary  ex- 
pense incurred  in  obtaining  them.  The 
procuring  of  manure  in  abundance,  to  re- 
pair the  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  and  not 
only  keep  it  in  heart,  but  carry  it  to  wards 
that  point  of  fertility,  beyond  which  ad- 
ditional expense  will  be  incapable  of  re- 
turning proportional  produce,  is  also  a 
matter  often  of  extreme  difficulty  and 
cost.  The  importance  indeed  of  adequate 
means  is  so  obvious,  that  it  might  perhaps 
by  some  be  scarcely  thought  excusable  to 
insist  upon  the  subject.  But  the  frequent 
and  ruinous  neglect  of  this  consideration 
will  by  others  be  regarded  as  an  ample 
justification  of  enforcing  most  emphatical- 
ly and  repeatedly  the  idea,  that  the  per- 
fection of  agriculture  can  never  be  attain- 
ed without  an  unembarrassed  and  abun- 
dant capital.  With  an  inadequate  capital, 
on  a  large  extent  of  land,  the  same  conse- 
quences will  take  place,  which  formed 
the  most  striking  and  decided  objection  to 
those  little  farms,which,  however  strange 
it  may  now  appear,  were  formerly  thought 
the  grand  foundation  for  national  plenty 
and  perfect  husbandry.  The  produce 


AGRICULTURE. 


must  be  can-led  to  market,  not  at  the  sea- 
son most  advantageous,  but  almost  im- 
mediately after  the  harvest,  in  order  to 
enable  the  farmer  to  extricate  himself 
from  immediate  embarrassment,  and  pre- 
pare the  soil,  inadequately  as  it  must  be 
done  in  these  circumstances,  for  fresh 
cultivation.  Commercial  monopoly  is  con- 
siderably favoured  by  this  compulsion 
upon  the  farmer  tor  selling1  at  whatever 
price  is  offered,  and  artificial  scarcity, 
though  now  not  much  to  be  dreaded  in 
this  country,  is  more  likely  to  originate 
from  this  circumstance  than  any  other. 
Those  grand  operations  of  spreading  marl 
over  lar^re  dis'  ricts,  at  the  rate  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  tons  per  acre,  of  conveying 
immense  quantities  of  dung  from  towns 
at  the  distance  of  twenty  miles,  of  floating 
meadows  at  the  cost  of  five  pounds  per 
acre,  of  draining  lands  at  the  expense  of 
three,  of  paying  persons  to  reside  in  dis- 
tant shir  -s,  or  eVen  countries,  to  acquire 
superior  practical  h.iormation,  or  of  im- 
proving the  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle, 
by  giving  for  the  use  of  a  single  animal, 
for  a  season,  a  price  at  which  our  ances- 
tors would  have  been  aosolutely  astonish- 
ed and  confounded;  practices,  which, 
happily,  have  been  far  from  uncommon  in 
the  British  empire,  and  are  daily  adding, 
perhaps  more  than  any  other  cau  e,  to 
its  stability  and  prosperity,  have  depend- 
ed entirely  upon  abundant  capital.  Such 
processes  for  improvement  might  aseasily 
be  expected  in  the  management  of  those 
small  farms,  formerly  so  highly  extolled, 
and  now  so  justly  in  theory  exploded,  as 
in  the  conduct  of  large  tracts  occupied 
only  by  men  of  embarrassed  means.  The 
supply  of  present  exigencies  preclude 
those  comprehensive  and  remote  views,on 
which  the  success  of  the  art  most  materi- 
ally depends,  and  unthrifty  savings  and 
corroding  cares  are  substituted  for  the  li- 
beral expenses  and  delighted  hopes, 
which  must  attend  the  skilful  application 
of  comparative  opulence. 

Finally,  as  the  art  of  husbandry  is  par- 
ticularly intricate  and  comprehensive,  and 
those  engaged  initare  generallypersons  of 
slight  education,  secluded  in  a  great  de- 
gree from  mutual  intercourse  and  compa- 
rative observation,  ignorance  may  very 
justly  be  considered  as  an  obstacle  to  its 
improvement,  perhaps  the  most  operative 
of  all.  Instead  of  being  collected,  like  ar- 
tists in  cities,  and  possessing  opportuni- 
ties for  animating  curiosity,  and  benefiting 
by  communication,  they  are  scattered 
over  the  surface  of  the  country,  and  have 
Cultivated  generally  the  same  lands,  and 

VOL.  I. 


the  same  prejudices,  as  their  ancestors, 
for  a  series  of  generations.  Unless  there 
be  among  the  number  of  those  engaged 
in  this  art,  a  certain  proportion  of  persons 
of  intelligent  and  educated  minds,  capable 
of  turning  the  experience  of  themselves 
and  others  to  advantage,  and  deriving  as- 
sistance to  agriculture,  from  the  discove- 
ries of  other  sciences  or  arts,  it  would  be 
vain  in  any  country  to  expect  its  rapid  ap- 
proach towards  that  perfect  standard,  to 
which  every  human  effort  should  be  re- 
ferred. That  the  proportion  of  such  cha- 
racters has  considerably  increased  of  late 
years  in  this  country,  is  an  observation  no 
less  true  than  pleasing  ;  and  in  the  class 
of  persons  engaged  in  agricultural  pur- 
suits, it  may  be  safely  affirmed  there  ex- 
ists much  less  tenacity  of  prejudice,  a 
far  greater  disposition  to  research,  and 
openness  to  conviction,  than  were  to  be 
found  in  any  former  age.  Even  though, 
in  some  instances,  old  and  absurd  rou- 
tines of  practice  may  have  been  maintain- 
ed with  more  constancy,  through  the  has- 
ty projects  and  absurd  expenses  of  some 
innovaters,  whose  failure  has  checked  the 
spirit  of  improvement,  and  unjustly  invol- 
ved in  one  common  ridicule  all  deviations 
from  ancient  custom  ;  these  effects,  how- 
ever much  to  be  regretted,  are  only  par- 
tial, and  information  is  still  making  its 
way  into  the  most  remote  recesses,  and 
the  most  stubborn  minds.  With  a  view 
to  lessen  the  darkness  and  intricacy  yet 
connected  with  the  subject,  to  prevent 
random  speculations  and  ruinous  pro- 
jects, with  their  ill  consequences  of  every 
kind,  it  may  be  observed,  that  it  is  of  the 
very  first  importance,  that  persons  enga- 
ged, particularly  on  a  large  scale,  in  the 
profession  of  agriculture,  should  keep 
correct  accounts  of  all  their  transactions, 
and  of  all  their  profits  and  losses.  The 
advantages  of  clear  accounts  are  obvious 
in  every  other  occupation  of  life.  Per- 
sons who  are  engaged  in  speculations  of 
merchandize,  to  any  extent,  and  who  are 
known  not  to  attend  to  this  department, 
are  always  supposed  to  be  in  dangerous 
circumstances.  Agriculture  seems  by  ma- 
ny to  be  considered  an  exception  to  all 
other  species  of  business;  that  it  may  be 
engaged  in  without  preliminary  study, 
and  is  capable  of  being  properly  con- 
ducted, even  to  a  large  extent,  with- 
out any  regular  accounts,  necessary  as 
these  are  admitted  to  be  in  other  situa- 
tions. With  respect  to  experimental 
agriculture,  no  correct  conclusions  are 
to  be  drawn  but  from  correct  and  minute 
details.  Suppositions  drawn  from 


AGRICULTURE. 


fal  observation  are  of  no  utility,  or  de- 
ceive rather  than  inform.  The  difficulty 
of  keeping  accounts,  which,  however 
commonly  neglected,  it  is  allowed  never 
ought  to  be  so,  is  certainly  not  inconsi- 
derable. The  mode  must  often  be  regu- 
lated by  the  nature  of  the  farm.  The 
possessor  of  open  fields,  where  scraps  of 
land  belonging  to  others  are  intermingled 
with  his  own,  can,  with  extreme  difficul- 
ty only,  keep  an  account  of  every  part, 
which,  however,  it  is  justly  thought  of 
the  first  importance  to  do  in  general,  as 
the  knowledge  of  what  every  field  has 
paid,  in  certain  circumstances,  is  the  only 
basis  for  correct  decision  on  its  applica- 
tion. Small  fields  are  from  this,  as  well 
as  from  other  causes,  extremely  inconve- 
nient.  They  are  not  only  inconvenient  in 
preparation,  and  attended  with  much 
loss  in  borders  and  ditches,  but  they  de- 
range the  accuracy  of  accounts,  if  they 
are  not  fully  noticed,  and  occupy  a  great 
portion  of  the  time  of  the  farmer,  if  they 
are.  When  all  the  produce  of  several 
fie  ids  is  thrown  together,  which  is  far 
from  an  uncommon  case,  some  objects, 
very  interesting  to  be  ascertained,  must  be 
left  entirely  to  conjecture  ;  and  when  a 
comparison  is  made  by  guesses,  the  con- 
clusion formed  must  be  totally  invalidated 
as  authority.  The  separation  of  crops 
is  therefore  an  important  object,  with  a 
view  to  accounts,  and  is  essential,  indeed, 
to  their  beingkept  with  accuracy.  For  the 
rent,  tithes,  and  parochial  rates,  three  se- 
parate accounts  should  be  kept,  but  the 
amount  of  all  should  be  divided  on  every 
field,  for  which  an  account  should  be 
kept  according  to  the  real  contents  of  it. 
A  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the 
gross  and  net  contents  of  the  field ;  as, 
otherwise,  in  the  comparison  of  husban- 
dry, that  field  might  be  concluded  the 
most  advantageous,  which  had  the  least 
border,  and  merely  for  that  reason,  the 
cultivation  practised  in  the  other  being, 
in  fact,  more  profitable.  But  detail  on 
this  subject  is  here  impracticable,  and  we 
rnust  be  satisfied  with  observing,  that 
without  correctness  of  data  for  a  compa- 
rison, the  conclusions  formed  will  consti- 
tute only  a  catalogue  of  errors.  The  ar- 
ticle of  sundry  expenses  must  universally 
have  place  in  a  well  regulated  account, 
and  should  include  whatever  payments 
concern  the  farm  in  general,  (and  are  not 
included  in  any  distinct  article)  and  not 
any  object  or  ileld  in  particular.  With 
respect  to  tine  article  of  wear  and  tear, 
the  arable  lands  will  swallow  up  by  far 
t.he  greater  proportion  of  these  expenses. 


As  they  principally  attach  to  the  team, 
the  proper  mode  of  setting  them  down  is, 
after  ascertaining  them  ai  so  much  pel- 
pound  on  the  team  account,  to  charge 
thus  proportionally  per  acre.  The  land 
appropriated  for  feeding  grass  will  have 
very  little  concern  in  them,  and  that  for 
mowing  by  no  means  much .  To  settle  the 
expense  of  the  team  work,  the  green  food 
for  the  teams  in  summer,  the  hay  and. 
oats  consumed,  the  shoeing  and  farrier- 
ing1,  their  real  decline  in  value,  the  pay 
for  attendance,  are  each  to  be  itemed 
down  separately ;  and  to  apportion  the 
whole  expense  to  the  work  executed  by 
them,  a  dav-book  must  contain  an  account 
of  this  work  every  day  in  the  year,  with  a 
specification  of  the  field  or  business  they 
were  engaged  in.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
a  clear  result  may  be  obtained,  by  pro- 
portionally dividing  the  amount  of  the 
expense  among  the  work.  The  article 
manure  should  be  arranged  under  the 
head  farm-yard,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
complex  and  difficult.  This  account 
should  be  charged  with  the  price  of  the 
straw  used  in  the  yard,  at  what  it  could 
be  sold  for,  deducting  the  carriage, 
and  it  should  be  credited  with  the  price 
per  week  of  keeping  the  cattle.  All  the 
labour  employed  in  turning  over  the 
dung  and  cleaning  the  yard  is  charged  to 
this  account.  The  total  expense  of  the 
dung  when  carted  to  the  land,5s  divided  by 
the  number  of  loads,  giving  so  much  per 
load:  it  should  be  charged  the  following* 
year  on  the  lands  on  which  it  is  spread, 
although  the  benefit  of  it  is  not  confined 
to  that  single  year:  but  keeping  open  the 
account  fora  longer  time  would  expose  to 
great  and  inextricable  confusion.  One  of 
the  most  complex  of  all  accounts  is  that  of 
grass  lands  fed.  To  reduce  the  difficulty, 
one  account  should  be  opened  for  mow- 
ing ground,  to  w7hich  all  expenses  of  rent, 
tithe,  taxes,  &c.  should  be  carried  for 
every  field  mown  ;  while  its  credit  con- 
sists of  the  value,  at  the  market  price  of 
all  the  mown  produce,  as  delivered  to  the 
cattle  of  any  description.  The  after  grass 
on  these  fields  must  be  estimated  at  a 
certain  sum  per  acre,  and  charged  to  the 
account  of  feeding  ground.  To  this  ac- 
count must  be  carried  all  the  debits  of  the 
fields  fed,  while  the  credit  should  consist 
of  all  the  food  of  the  team,  at  a  certain 
weekly  estimate  ;  and  of  any  cattle  taken 
to  joist.  The  account  for  sheep,  dairy, 
and  fatting  beasts,  is  each  to  be  charged 
its  peculiar  expenses;  wages,  hurdles, 
shepherd,  &c.  forthe  first;  fuel  and  straw, 
&c.  for  the  second  ;  and  the  purchase 


AGR 


AGR 


money  of  lean  stock  for  fatting  beasts. 
Amidst  all  this  minuteness  and  complexi- 
ty of  account,  order  must  be  produced. 
The  cattle,  cows,  and  sheep,  have  turnips, 
with  respect  to  which  the  estimate  of 
them  must  be  made,  not  at  what  they  cost, 
but  ac  what  they  would  sell  for  eaten  oft* 
the  field,  as  they  cost  more  than  the  lat- 
ter price,  and  were  intended  to  ntpay  in 
the  crops  for  which  they  prepare.  The 
books  shouldbe  every  year  balanced,about 
the  season  at  which  the  farm  was  entered 
upon ;  and,  to  avoid  arbitrary  valuation, 
the  old  year's  accounts  must  be  continu- 
ed open  considerably  after  the  new  ones 
have  commenced,  till  the  fatting-  beasts 
and  the  corn  are  sold,  and  those  points 
decided  on  \v  hich  the  profit  or  loss  of  tne 
former  year  depended.  By  these  means 
conjectures  may  be,  in  a  great  degree, 
preciuded,  but  not  altogether,  as  these 
must  extend  to  the  estimate  of  the  live 
stock  bought  and  sold  within  the  year,  and 
to  the  implements  of  husbandry.  The 
stock  must  be  estimated  every  year ;  and 
in  settling  this  estimate,  their  worth  at  the 
very  time  of  :ts  being  made,  that  is,  the 
price  they  would  then  sell  for,  must  be 
set  down.  With  respect  to  fatting  beasts, 
cows,  and  sheep,  this  proceeding  must 
equally  take  place.  Every  year,  also,  im- 
plements should  be  valued,  and  the  ba- 
lance must  be  carried,  where  alone  it  is 
applicable,  to  the  general  head  of  wear 
and  tear. 

The  minuteness  and  accuracy  neces- 
sary for  this,  or  any  other  efficient  mode  of 
account,  may  deter  many  from  its  adop- 
tion, and  undoubtedly  has  this  effect  on 
thousands.  The  want  of  attention,  how- 
ever, to  this  subject  has,  unquestionably, 
been  the  cause  to  which  many  individuals 
may  justly  ascribe  their  failure  in  this  art, 
and  has  operated  extremely  to  check  the 
progress  of  it  in  general.  The  hints  sug- 
gested will  be  sufficient  to  evince  its  ge- 
neral and  particular  importance,  and  in- 
duce some,  perhaps,  to  follow  up,  with 
care  and  correctness,  a  practice,  which 
can  alone  enable  them  to  give  the  fair  re- 
sults of  interesting  experiments,  or  quali- 
fy them  to  ascertain  the  particular  causes 
of  success  or  failure  in  general  manage- 
ment. The  obscurity  and  perplexity  of 
conjecture  can  by  such  means  alone  be 
changed  for  the  clearness  of  fact,  and  the 
beauty  of  order;  and,  in  short,  they  can 
thus  only  decide  with  truth,  and  act  with 
confidence. 

AGR1MONIA,  agrimony,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  Dodecandria  Dygmia  class 
and  order :  the  calyx  is  one-leafed,  perma- 


nent, perianthium  fenced  with  an  out- 
er calyx ;  the  corolla  has  five  petals  ;  the 
stamina  are  capillary  filaments,  shorter 
than  the  corolla;  the  anthers  are  small; 
the  pistillum  is  a  germ  inferior  ;  the  style 
simple  ;  the  stigmas  obtuse  ;  no  pericar- 
dium ;  there  are  two  roundish  seeds.  Of 
this  genus  there  are  five  species  :  the  A. 
parviflora  grows  in  the  borders  of  corn- 
fields, shady  places,  and  hedges,  in  Great 
Britain,  and  most  parts  of  Europe,  also  in 
similar  places  in  the  United  States ;  it  is 
perennial,  and  flowers  in  June  and  July. 
The  root  is  sweet-scented ;  an  infusion  of 
it  is  used  by  the  Canadians  with  success 
in  burning  fevers.  Dr.  Hill  says,  that  an 
infusion  of  six  ounces  of  the  crown  of  the 
root  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water,  sweeten- 
ed with  honey,  and  drank  to  the  quantity 
of  half  a  pint,  thrice  a  day,  is  a  cure  for 
the  jaundice.  When  the  plant  comes  in- 
to flower,  it  will  dye  wool  of  a  bright  full 
nankeen  colour;  if  gathered  in  Septem- 
ber, it  yields  a  darker  yellow.  In  Prussia 
it  is  used  for  the  dressing  of  leather.  The 
American  species  are  three  in  number :  1. 
A.  cupatoria,  of  which  there  are  two  va- 
rieties, the  hirsuta  and  the  glabra ;  2.  A. 
parviflora ;  3.  A.  pumila. 

AGROSTEMA,  the  garland  of  the  field, 
in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Decandria  Pen- 
tagynia  class  and  order  :  the  calyx  is  one- 
leafed;  the  corolla  has  five  petals;  the 
stamina  are  ten  awl-shaped  filaments  ;  the 
pistillum  an  ovate  germ,  with  erect  styles 
and  simple  stygmas  ;  the  pericarpium  is 
one-celled,  the  seeds  are  numerous. 
There  are  four  species,  riz.  1.  A.  githago, 
corn  campion,  or  cockle  :  2.  A.  corona- 
ria,  rose-campion  :  3.  A.  flosjovis:  and  4. 
A.  cceli  rosa,  smooth  campion.  The  first 
species  is  a  common  annual  weed  in  corn 
fields,  and  flowers  in  June  or  July ;  the 
seeds  are  black,  with  a  surface  like  sha- 
green, and  appears  in  the  microscope  like 
a  hedge-hog  rolled  up.  The  second  spe- 
cies is  biennial,  a  native  of  Italy,  the  Va- 
lais,  and  Siberia ;  but  so  long  an  inhabi- 
tant of  English  gardens,  that  it  is  become 
a  kind  of  weed.  Of  this  plant  there  are 
three  varieties,  one  with  deep  red,  anoth- 
er with  flesh-coloured,  and  a  third  with 
white  flowers  ;  but  they  are  not  much  es- 
teemed, as  the  double  rose-campion, 
which  is  a  fine  flower,  has  excluded  the 
others  from  most  good  gardens.  The 
single  rose-campions  are  sufficiently  pro- 
pagated by  the  self-sown  seeds.  The  va- 
riety with  double  flowers,  having  no  seeds, 
is  propagated  by  parting  the  roots  in  au- 
tumn, and  planting  them  in  a  border  of 
fresh  undunged  earth,  at  the  distance  of 


AGY 


AJQ 


jibout  six  inches,  they  should  be  watered 
gently  till  they  have  taken  root  ;  after- 
wards wet,  as  well  as  dung, is  injurious  to 
them.  In  spring  they  should  be  removed 
into  the  borders  of  the  flower-garden, 
where  they  will  be  very  ornamental  whilst 
they  flower  in  July  and  August.  The  third 
species  grows  naturally  on  the  Swiss  and 
Piedmontese  mountains,  and  in  the  Pala- 
tinate, and  was  cultivated  in  1739,  by  Mr. 
Miller.  It  flowers  in  July,  and  the  seeds 
ripen  in  September.  It  will  thrive  best 
in  a  moist  soil,  and  a  shady  situation.  The 
fourth  species  is  annual.  It  is  a  native  of 
Italy,  Sicily,  and  the  Levant,  but  being  a 
plant  of  little  beauty,  it  is  preserved  in 
botanic  gardens  merely  for  variety. 

AGROSTIS,  beiit-grass,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  Triandria  Digynia  class  of 
plants,  the  calyx  of  which  is  composed  of 
u  glume,  consisting  of  two  valves,  and  in- 
closing a  single  flower ;  it  is  of  an  acu- 
minated figure  ;  the  corolla  is  also  of  an 
acuminated  figure,  and  composed  of  two 
valves;  it  is  scarce  so  long  as  the  cup, 
and  one  of  the  valves  is  larger  than  the 
other,  and  aristated  ;  the  corolla  serves  in 
place  of  a  pericarpium  ;  it  surrounds  and 
every  way  incloses  the  seed,  which  is 
single,  roundish,  and  pointed  at  each 
end. 

There  are  42  species,  distributed  into 
two  classes ;  the  aristatse,  or  those  with 
awns;  and  the  muticae,  or  naked,  without 
awns.  The  A.  spica  venti,  silky  bent 
grass,  with  entire  petals,  the  outer  one 
having  a  stiff,  straight,  and  very  long  awn, 
and  the  panicle  spreading  ;  is  an  annual, 
and  common  in  sandy  corn-fields.  It  flow- 
ers in  June  and  July,  and  is  liable  to  be 
smutted.  Horses  and  goats  eat  it,  but 
sheep  refuse  it.  The  A.  arundicea,  fur- 
nished with  a  writhed  awn;  is  a  native  of 
many  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  a  perennial. 
The  Kalmuc  Tartars  weave  mats  of  it, 
and  thatch  their  houses  with  it.  The  al- 
ba, or  white  bent-grass,  is  perennial,  and 
grows  in  ditches,  marshes,  and  moist 
meadows  :  there  are  four  varieties,  some 
of  which  are  found  among  potatoes  in 
light  sandy  soils,  and  some  among  wheat, 
flowering  from  Ji'lyto  September. 

AGUE.  See  MKDICINE. 

AGYNEIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Triandria  Monogynia  class  and  order :  the 
male  flowers  are  below  the  female,  the  ca- 
lyx is  six-leaved  ;  no  corolla;  in  the  male, 
instead  of  filaments,  are  three  or  four  an- 
thers :  in  the  female  flowers,  the  germ  of 
the  size  of  the  calyx ;  neither  style  nor 
stigma.  There  are  two  species,  viz.  A. 
impubes,  with  leaves  smooth  on  both 


sides  ;  and  A.  pubera,  with  leaves  downy 
underneath  ;  both  species  are  natives  of 
China. 

AID  de-camp^  in  military  affairs,  an  offi- 
cer employed  to  receive  and  carry  the  or- 
ders of  a  general.  He  ought  to  be  alert 
in  comprehending,  and  punctual  and  dis- 
tinct in  delivering  them.  He  is  seldom 
under  -the  degree  of  a  captain,  and  all 
aids  Je  camp  have  ten  shillings  a  day  al- 
lowed fortheir  duty. 

AIGUISCE,  AI&UISSE,  EGUISCE,  in 
heraldry,  denotes  a  cross  with  its  four 
ends  sharpened,  but  so  as  to  terminate  in 
obtuse  angles. 

It  differs  from  the  cross  fitchee,  in  as 
much  as  the  latter  goes  tapering  by  de- 
grees to  a  point,  and  the  former  only  at 
the  ends. 

AILANTHUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  Decandria  Trigynia  class  and 
order;  it  has  male,  female,  and  herma- 
phrodite flowers.  The  calyx  of  the  male 
is  one-leafed;  the  corolla  has  five  petals  : 
the  stamina  have  ten  filaments,  the  an- 
thers are  oblong  and  versatile.  The  ca- 
lyx and  corolla  of  the  female  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  male:  the  pistillum  has 
from  three  to  five  germs ;  the  styles  are 
lateral,  and  the  stigmas  capitate  ;  the  pe 
ricardium  has  as  many  capsules  as  there 
are  germs ;  the  seeds  are  solitary.  The 
calyx  and  corolla  of  the  hermaphrodite 
are  the  same  with  those  of  the  male  and 
female  ;  the  stamina  have  two  or  three  fi- 
laments; the  pistillum,  pericarpium,  and 
seed,  as  in  the  female.  There  is  one  spe- 
cies, viz.  A.  glandulosa,  or  tall  ailanthus, 
which  is  a  tree  with  a  straight  trunk, 
forty  or  fifty  feet  high,  a  native  of  China, 
It  grows  fast  in  our  climate,  and,  as  it 
rises  to  a  considerable  height,  it  is  pro- 
per for  ornamental  plantations.  A  resin  • 
ous  juice,  which  soon  hardens,  flows  from 
the  wounded  bark.  The  wood  is  hard, 
heavy,  glossy,  like  satin,  and  susceptible 
of  a  fine  polish. 

AILE,  or  AIEL,  in  law,  a  writ  which 
lies  where  a  person's  grandfather,  or 
great  grandfather,  being  seised  of  lands, 
&c.  in  fee-simple  the  day  that  he  died,  and 
a  stranger  abates  or  enters  the  same  day. 
and  dispossesses  the  heir  of  his  inheri- 
tance. 

AJOVEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  order  : 
the  calyx  is  single. leaved,  the  corolla  has 
three  petals,  the  stigma  is  divided  into 
six  segments,  and  the  miit  is  a  roundish, 
single-celled  monospermous  berry.  There 
is  one  species  that  grows  in  the  forests  of 
Guiana. 


AIH 


AIR,  a  thin  elastic  fluid,  surrounding- 
tile  globe  of  the  earth.  It  iscompounded 
principally  of  two  gasses,  viz.  oxygen  and 
azote,  together  with  a  variety  of  other 
substances,  suspended  or  dissolved  there- 
in. The  mechanical  and  chemical  effects 
of  this  extensive  fluid  mass  are  discussed 
under  various  heads  of  science.  See  AT- 
JNIOSPHERE,  CHEMISTRY,  and  the  articles 
thence  referred  to. 

AIR,  in  music,  generally  speaking1,  is 
any  melody,  the  passages  of  which  are  so 
constructed  as  to  lie  within  the  province 
of  vocal  expression,  or  which,  when  sung 
or  played,  forms  that  connected  chain  of 
sounds  which  we  call  tune.  The  strict 
import  of  the  word  is  confined  to  vocal 
music,  and  signifies  a  composition  writ- 
ten for  a  single  voice,  and  applied  to 
words. 

AiR-gvm,  a  machine  for  exploding  balls 
by  means  of  condensed  air. 

Authors  describe  two  kinds  of  this  ma- 
chine, viz.  the  common  one,  and  what  is 
called  the  magazine  air-gun.  See  PXEU- 

-HATICS. 

AiR-pipes,  a  contrivance  invented  by 
Mr.  Sutton,  a  brewer  of  London,  for  clear- 
ing the  holds  of  ships,  and  other  close 
places,  of  their  foul  air.  The  principle 
upon  which  this  contrivance  is  founded  is 
well  known.  It  is  no  other  than  the  rare- 
fying power  of  heat,  which,  by  causing  a 
diminution  of  the  density  of  the  air  in  one 
place,  allows  that  which  is  in  contact  with 
it  to  rush  in,  and  to  be  succeeded  by  a 
constant  supply  from  remoter  parts,  till 
the  air  becomes  every  where  equally  elas- 
tic. If  a  tube  then,  be  laid  in  the  well- 
hold,  or  any  other  part  of  a  ship,  and  the 
upperpart  of  this  tube  be  sufficiently  heat- 
ed to  rarefy  the  impending  column  of  air, 
the  equilibrium  will  be  maintained  by  the 
putrid  air  from  the  bottom  of  the  tube, 
which,  being  thus  drawn  out,  will  be  suc- 
ceeded by  a  supply  of  fresh  air  from  the 
other  parts  of  the  ship;  and  by  continuing 
the  operation,  the  air  will  be  changed  in 
all  parts  of  the  ship.  Upon  this  principle, 
Mr.  Sutton  proposed  to  purify  the  bad  air 
of  a  ship  by  means  of  the  fire  used  for  the 
coppers,  or  boiling  places,  with  which 
every  ship  is  provided.  Under  every  such 
copper  or  boiler  there  are  two  holes,  se- 
parated by  a  grate,  one  for  the  fire  and 
the  other  for  the  ashes  ;  and  there  is  also 
a  flue,  communicating  with  the  fire  place, 
for  the  discharge  of  the  smoke.  The  fire, 
after  it  is  lighted,  is  preserved  by  the  con- 
stant draught  of  air  through  these  two 
holes  and  the  flue  ;  and  if  the  two  holes 
are  closed,  the  fire  is  extinguished.  But 


when  these  are  closed,  if  another  hole, 
communicating  with  any  other  airy  place, 
and  also  with  the  fire,  be  opened,  the  fire 
will  of  course  continue  to  burn.  In  order 
to  clear  the  holds  of  the  ships  of  the  bad 
air,  Mr.  Sutton  proposed  to  close  the  two 
holes  above  mentioned,  viz.  the  fire-place 
and  ash-place,  with  substantial  iron  doors, 
and  to  lay  a  copper  or  leaden  pipe,  of  suf- 
ficient size,  from  the  hold  into  the  ash- 
place,  and  thus  to  supply  a  draught  of  air 
for  feeding  the  fire  ;  a  constant  discharge 
of  air  from  the  hold  will  be  thus  obtained, 
and  fresh  air  will  be  supplied  down  the 
hatches,  and  by  such  other  communica- 
tions as  are  open  into  the  hold.  If  other 
pipes  are  connected  with  this  principal 
pipe,  communicating  either  with  the 
wells  or  lower  decks,  the  air  that  serves 
to  feed  the  fire  will  be  drawn  from  such 
places. 

AiR-shafts,  among  miners,  -are  holes 
made  from  the  open  air  to  meet  the  adits, 
and  supply  them  with  fresh  air. 

These,  when  the  adits  are  long,  or  ex- 
ceeding thirty  or  forty  fathoms,  become 
highly  necessary,  as  well  to  give  vent  to 
the  damps  and  noxious  vapours,  as  to  let 
in  fresh  air. 

AiR-Zr?mfc,  a  simple  contrivance  by  Dr. 
Hales,  for  preventing  the  stagnation  of 
putrid  effluvia,  and  purifying  the  air  in 
jails  and  close  rooms ;  which  consists  of 
a  square  trunk,  open  at  both  ends,  one  of 
which  isfixedin  the  ceiling,  and  the  other 
is  extended  to  a  considerable  height 
above  the  roof.  The  noxious  effluvia,  as- 
cending to  the  top  of  the  room>  escape  by 
this  trunk.  Some  of  these  have  been 
nine,  and  others  six,  inches  in  the  clear  ; 
but,  whatever  be  their  diameter,  their 
length  should  be  proportional,  in  order 
to  promote  the  ascent  of  the  vapour.  As 
the  pressure  of  fluids,  and  consequently 
of  the  air,  corresponds  to  their  perpendi- 
cular altitude,  the  longer  these  trunks 
are,  so  much  the  greater  will  be  the  dif- 
ference between  columns  of  air  pressing 
at  the  bottom  and  at  the  top  ;  and  of 
course  so  much  the  greater  wilt  be  their 
effect.  See  VENTILATOR. 

Am-vesset,  in  hydraulics,  is  a  name 
given  to  those  metalline  cylinders,  which 
are  placed  between  the  two  forcing- 
pumps  in  the  improved  fire-engines.  The 
water  is  injected  by  the  action  of  the 
pistons  through  two  pipes,  with  valves, 
into  this  vessel :  the  air  previously  com- 
tained  in  it  will  be  compressed  by  the 
water,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  ad- 
mitted,  and  by  its  spring  force  the  water 
into  a  pipe,  which  will  discharge  a  con- 


AIR 


AJU 


slant  and  equal  stream  ;  whereas,  in  the 
common  squirting  engine,  the  stream  is 
discontinued  between  the  several  strokes. 
Other  water-engines  are  furnished  with 
vessels  of  this  kind. 

Ain-vessels,  in  botany,  are  certain  ca- 
nals or  ducts,  whereby  a  kind  of  absorp- 
tion and  respiration  is  effected  in  vegeta- 
ble bodies. 

Air-vessels  have  been  distinguished 
from  sap-vessels  ;  the  former  being  sup- 
posed to  correspond  to  the  trachea  and 
lungs  of  animals  ;  the  latter  to  their  lac- 
teals  and  blood-vessels. 

Dr.  Grew,  in  an  inquiry  into  the  motion 
and  cause  of  the  air  in  vegetables,  shows, 
that  it  enters  them  various  ways,  not  only 
by  the  trunk,  leaves,  and  other  parts 
above  ground,  but  at  the  root.  For  the 
reception,  as  well  as  expulsion  of  the  air, 
the  pores  are  so  very  large  in  the  trunks 
of  some  plants,  as  in  the  better  sort  of 
thick  walking-canes,  that  they  are  visible 
to  a  good  eye  without  a  glass;  but  with  a 
glass,  the  cane  seems  as  if  it  were  stuck 
lull  of  large  pin-holes,  resembling  the 
pores  of  the  skin  in  the  ends  of  the  fin- 
gers, and  ball  of  tiie  hand.  In  the  leaves 
of  the  pine,  through  a  glass,  they  make 
an  elegant  show,  standing  almost  exactly 
in  rank  and  file  throughout  the  length  of 
the  leaves.  But  though  the  air  enters  in 
partly  at  the  trunk,  and  also  at  other 
parts,  especially  in  some  plants,  yet  its 
chief  admission  is  at  the  root;  much  as, 
in  animals,  some  part  of  the  air  may  con- 
tinually pass  into  the  body  and  blood  by 
the  pores  of  the  skin  ;  but  the  chief 
draught  is  at  the  mouth.  If  the  chief  en- 
trance of  the  air  were  at  the  trunk,  before 
it  could  be  mixed  with  the  sap  in  the  root, 
it  must  descend;  and  so  move  notonly  con- 
trary to  its  own  nature,  but  in  a  contrary 
course  to  the  sap  :  whereas,  by  its  recep- 
tion at  the  root,  and  its  transition  from 
thence,  it  has  a  more  natural  and  easy 
motion  of  ascent.  The  same  fact  is  far- 
ther deduced  from  the  fineness  and  smali- 
jicss  of  the  diametral  apertures  in  the 
trunk,  in  comparison  of  those  in  the  root, 
which  nature  has  plainly  designed  for  the 
separation  of  the  air  from  the  sap,  after 
they  are  bothtogetnerreceivedinto  them. 

Air-vessels  are  found  in  the  leaves  of 
all  plants,  and  are  even  discoverable  in 
many  without  the  help  of  glasses ;  for, 
upon  breaking  the  stalk  or  chief  fibres  of 
a  leaf,  the  likeness  of  a  fine  woolly  sub- 
stance, or  rather  of  curious  small  cob- 
webs, may  be  seen  to  hang  at  both  the 
broken  ends.  This  is  taken  notice  ef,  not 
only  in  some  few  plants,  as  in  scabious, 


where  it  is  most  visible  ;  but  may  also  be 
seen  more  or  less  in  most  others,  if  the 
leaves  be  very  tenderly  broken.  This 
wool  is  really  a  skein  of  air-vessels,  or 
rather  of  the  fibres  of  the  air-vessels, 
loosed  from  their  spiral  position,  and  so 
drawn  out  in  length. 

A1RA,  hair-grass,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Triandria  Digynia  class  and  order, 
and  of  the  natural  order  of  Grasses. 
There  are  twenty-five  species,  some  of 
which  have  awns,  and  others  have  none. 
The  A.  aquatica,  water  hair-grass,  gene- 
rally grows  in  the  margin  of  pools  and 
watery  places,  running  into  the  water  to 
a  considerable  distance,  and  is  known  by 
the  purple  or  bluish  colour  of  the  panni- 
cles,  and  sweet  taste  of  the  flowers.  It  is 
a  perennial,  and  flowers  in  May  and  June. 
To  this  grass  has  been  attributed  the 
sweetness  of  Cottenham  cheese,  and  the 
fineness  of  Cambridge  butter.  The  A. 
caepitosa,  or  tufty-hair  grass,  grows  in 
nv>ist  meadows  and  woods,  is  perennial, 
it  flowers  in  June  and  July,  sometimes 
trailing  on  the  ground  to  the  length  of 
several  feet,  and  the  panicle  exhibiting  a 
beautiful  silky  appearance  :  cows,  goats, 
and  swine  eat  it,  but  horses  are  not  fond 
of  it.  It  is  the  roughest  and  coarsest  grass 
that  grows  in  pastures  or  meadows,  and 
is  called  by  the  common  people  hassocks, 
rough-caps,  and  bull's  faces.  To  get  rid 
of  it,  the  land  should  be  first  drained, 
and  the  tufts  of  the  noxious  weeds  pared 
off  and  burnt.  The  ashes  yield  a  good 
manure.  The  A.  flexuosa,  or  waved 
mountain  grass,  is  the  principal  grass  on 
Banstead  Downs,  and  the  Mendip  Hills. 
It  is  difficult  of  cultivation. 

AITON1A,  in  botany,  so  called  from 
M.  Aiton,  his  Majesty's  late  gardener  at 
Kew,  a  genus  of  the  Monadelphia  Octan- 
dria  class  and  order,  and  of  the  natural 
order  of  Columniferae.  There  is  but  one 
species,  viz.  A.  capensis,  found  at  the 
Cape  of  Thunberg.  It  has  a  shrubby 
stalk,  sixfeet  high, and  a  fruit  resembling' 
that  of  the  winter  cherry  With  us  it  is 
of  slow  growth,  and  seldom  exceeds 
three  feet  in  height.  At  a  sufficient  age 
it  produces  flowers  and  fruit  through  the 
greatest  part  of  the  year. 

AJUGA,  Intgk,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Didynamia  Gymnospermia  class  of 
plants:  the  flower  is  monopetalous  and  rin- 
gent ;  the  upper  lip  being  small  and  bifid; 
the  lower  one  large  and  triiid :  there  is 
no  pericarpium  :  the  seeds  are  contained 
in  the  cup  of  the  flower,  and  are  four  in 
number.  There  are  10  species.  The 
species  native  in  the  United  States  are  7 


ALA 


ALA 


in  number,  1.  A.  Cerpitosa  ;  2.  A.  flexu- 
os:» ;  3.  A.  pallens,  of  which  there  are  two 
varieties,  one  with  and  the  other  without 
•nvns  ;  4.  A.  truncata  :  5.  A.  mollis:  6. 
A.  purpurea  of  Walt  :  7.  A.  prxcox. 
There  is  an  eighth  doubtful  species,  A, 
aegytopoides  of  Walt. 

AIZOON,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Po- 
lyandria  Pentagynia  :  the  calyx  is  a  one- 
leafed  perianthium  :  no  corolla  ;  the  sta- 
jnina  have  many  capillary  filaments  ;  the 
anthers  are  simple,  the  pistillum  has  a 
five-cornered  germ,  the  seeds  are  several : 
there  are  ten  species,  all  belonging  to  the 
hot  climates. 

ALA,  in  botany,  is  used  in  different 
senses ;  sometimes  it  denotes  the  hollow 
between  the  stalk  of  a  plant  and  the 
leaves;  sometimes  it  is  applied  to  the 
two  side  petals  of  the  papilionaceous 
flowers,  the  upper  petal  being  called  the 
vexillum,  and  the  lower  one  the  carina  ; 
others  use  it  for  the  slender  membrana- 
ceous  parts  of  some  seeds,  thence  said  to 
be  alated ;  and  others,  again,  for  the 
membranaceous  expansions  found  on  the 
stems  of  plants,  thence  denominated  ala- 
ted stalks. 

ALABASTER,  a  well  known  descrip- 
tion of  stone  used  by  statuaries  and  others. 
It  is  the  sulphate  of  lime.  See  CHEMIS- 
TKY  and  MINERALOGY. 

ALJE,  in  anatomy,  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  lobes  of  the  liver,  the  nymphae  of 
the  female  pudendum,  the  two  cartilages 
which  form  the  nostril,  the  arm-pits, 
young  stems  or  branches,  &c. 

ALANGIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Decandria  Monogynia  class  and  order : 
the  characters  of  which  are,  that  it  has 
from  6  to  10  linear  petals ;  from  10  to  12 
stamina;  the  calyx  dentated  ;  the  fruit  a 
spherical  berry,  single-celled,  containing- 
from  one  to  three  seeds  :  there  is  only 
one  species,  viz.  A.  pungens. 

ALATED,  in  botany,  an  epithet  appli- 
ed to  the  seed,  stem,  or  leaf-stalk  ;  a  seed 
is  alated,  when  it  has  an  ala  or  membrane 
affixed  to  it,  which,  by  its  flying,  serves  to 
disperse  it.  The  foot  stalk  of  a  leaf  is 
alated,  when  it  spreads  out  the  sides. 
Alated  leaves  are  those  made  up  of  seve- 
ral pinnated  ones. 

ALAUD A,  lark,  in  ornithology,  a  genus 
of  birds  of  the  order  of  Passeres ;  the 
characters  of  which  are,  that  the  beak  is 
cylindrical,  subulate,  and  straight,  bend- 
ing towards  the  point,  the  mandibles  are 
of  equal  size,  and  opening  downwards  at 
their  base;  the  tongue  is  bifid;  and  the 
hinder  claw  is  straighter  and  longer  than 
the  toe.  Pennant  adds,  that  the  nostrils 


are  covered  with  feathers  or  bristles,  ana 
the  toes  divided  to  their  origin.  There 
are  33  species,  but  we  shall  notice  only 
two  of  them.  1.  A.  arvensis,  or  sky -lark, 
the  specific  characters  of  which  are,  that 
the  two  outermost  quills  of  its  tail  are 
white  lengthwise  externally,  and  the  in- 
termediate ones  are  ferruginous  on  the 
inside  :  the  length  is  about  seven  inches. 
The  males  of  this  species  are  somewhat 
browner  than  the  females  ;  they  have  a 
black  collar,  and  more  white  on  the  tail ; 
their  size  is  larger,  and  their  aspect  bold- 
er; and  they  exclusively  possess  the  fa- 
culty of  singing.  When  the  female  is  im- 
pregnated, she  forms  her  nest  between 
two  clods  of  earth,  and  lines  it  with  herbs, 
and  dry  roots,  being  no  less  attentive  to 
the  concealment  than  to  the  structure  of 
it.  It  sometimes  builds  its  nest  among 
corn  and  in  high  grass.  Each  female  lays 
four  or  hve  eggs,  which  are  greyish,  with 
brown  spots  ;  and  the  period  of  her  incu- 
bation is  about  15  days.  The  young  may 
be  taken  out  of  the  nest  when  they  are  a 
fortnight  old,  and  they  are  so  hardy,  that 
they  may  be  easily  brought  up.  The  pa- 
rentjis  very  tender  of  her  young;  and 
though  she  does  not  always  cover  them 
with  her  wings,  she  directs  their  motions, 
supplies  their  wants,  and  guards  them 
from  danger,  The  common  food  of  the 
young  sky-larks  is  worms,  caterpillars, 
ant's  eggs,  and  even  grasshoppers  ;  and 
in  maturity  they  live  chiefly  on  seeds, 
herbage,  and  all  vegetable  substances. 
Those  birds,  it  is  said,  that  are  destined 
for  singing,  should  be  caught  in  October 
or  November;  the  males  should,  as  much 
as  possible,  be  selected  ;  and  when  they 
are  untractable,  they  should  be  pinioned, 
lest  they  injure  themselves  by  their  vio- 
lence against  the  roof  of  the  cage.  As 
they  cannot  cling  by  the  toes,  it  is  need- 
less to  place  bars  across  their  cage  ;  but 
they  should  have  clean  sand  at  the  bottom 
of  it,  that  they  may  welter  in  it,  and  be 
relieved  from  the  vermin  which  torment 
them.  In  Flanders,  the  young  ones  arc 
fed  with  moistened  poppy-seeds  and  soak- 
ed crumbs  of  bread;  and,  when  thev'be- 
gin  to  sing,  with  sheep's  and  calves 
hearts,  hashed  with  hard  eggs  ;  to  which 
are  added,  wheat,  spilt-oats,  milled  lin- 
seed, and  the  seeds  of  poppy  and  hemp, 
steeped  in  milk.  Their  capacity  of  learn- 
ing to  sing  is  well  known  ;  and  so  apt  are 
some  cock  larks,  that,  after  hearing  a 
tune  whistled  with  the  pipe,  they  have 
caught  the  whole,  and  repeat  it  more 
agreeably  than  any  linnet  or  canary  bird. 
In  summer  the  lark  seeks  the  highest  anrl1 


ALAUDA. 


driest  situations ;  but  in  winter  they  de- 
scend to  the  plains,  and  assemble  in  nu- 
merous flocks.  In  the  former  season  they 
m-e  very  lean,  and  in  the  latter  very  fat,  as 
they  are  always  on  the  ground,  and  con- 
stantly feeding-.  In  mounting1  the  air,  they 
ascend  almost  perpendicularly,  by  suc- 
cessive springs,  and  hover  at  a  great 
height ;  but  in  descending  they  make  an 
oblique  sweep,  unless  they  are  pursued 
by  a  ravenous  bird,  or  attracted  by  a  mate, 
in  either  of  which  cases  they  fall  like  a 
stone.  These  small  birds,  at  the  height 
to  which  they  soar,  are  liable  to  be  waft- 
ed by  the  wind  ;  and  they  have  been  ob- 
served at  sea,  clinging  to  the  masts  and 
cordage  of  ships.  Sir  Hans  Sloane  ob- 
served some  of  them  40  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  Count  Marsigli  met  with  them 
on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  conjectured 
that  those  which  are  found  in  America 
have  been  driven  thither  by  the  wind. 
Some  have  supposed,  that  they  are  birds 
of  passage,  at  least  in  the  more  southern, 
and  milder  climates  of  Europe  ;  but  they 
are  occasionally  concealed  undeT  some 
rock  or  sheltered  cave.  The  lark  is  found 
in  all  the  inhabited  parts  of  both  conti- 
nents, as  far  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
this  bird,  and  the  wood  lark,  are  the  only 
birds  which  sing  whilst  they  fly.  The  high- 
er it  soars,  the  more  it  strains  its  voice, 
and  lowers  it  till  it  quite  dies  away  in  de- 
scending. When  it  ascends  beyond  our 
sight,  its  music  is  distinctly  heard;  and  its 
song,  which  is  full  of  swells  and  falls,  and 
thus  delightful  for  its  variety,  commences 
before  the  earliest  dawn.  In  a  state  of 
freedom,  the  lark  begins  its  song  early 
in  the  spring,  which  is  its  season  of  love 
and  pairing,  and  continues  to  warble 
during  the  whole  of  the  summer.  The 
honourable  Dairies  Harrington  reckons 
this  among  the  best  of  the  singing  larks; 
and  as  it  copies  the  warble  of  every 
other  bird,  he  terms  it  a  mocking-bird. 
These  birds,  which  are  esteemed  a  deli- 
cacy for  the  table,  though  Linnaeus  thinks 
the  food  improper  for  gravelly  complaints, 
are  taken  with  us  in  the  greatest  num- 
bers, in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dunstable. 
The  season  begins  about  the  14th  of 
September,  and  ends  the  25th  of  Febru- 
ary ;  and  during  this  time  about  4000 
dozen  are  caught,  for  supplying  the  Lon- 
don markets.  Those  caught  in  the  day 
are  taken  in  clap-nets,  till  the  14th  of 
November.  But  when  the  weather  be- 
comes gloomy,  and  also  in  the  night,  the 
larker  makes  use  of  a  trammel-net,  27 
or  28  feet  long,  and  five  broad,  which  is 
put  on  two  poles  18  feet  long1,  and  carried 


by  men  under  each  arm,  who  pass  over- 
the  fields,  and  quarter  the  grounds,  as  a 
setting  dog.  When  they  see  or  feel  a 
lark  strike  the  net,  they  drop  it  down, 
and  thus  the  birds  are  taken.  The  dark- 
est nights  are  the  most  proper  for  their 
sport ;  and  the  net  will  not  only  take 
larks,  but  all  other  birds  that  roost  on  the 
ground;  among  which  are  wood-cocks, 
snipes,  partridges,!  quails,  field-fares,  and 
several  others.  In  the  depth  of  winter, 
people  sometimes  take  great  numbers  of 
larks  by  nooses  of  horse-hair.  The  me- 
thod is"  this  :  take  100  or  200  yards  of 
packthread  ;  fasten  at  every  six  inches  a 
noose  made  of  double  horse-hair;  at  every 
20  yards  the  line  is  to  be  pegged  down  to 
the  ground,  and  so  left  ready  to  take 
them.  The  time  to  use  this  is  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  and  the 
larks  are  to  be  allured  to  it  by  some 
white  oats,  scattered  among  the  nooses. 
They  will  soon  fly  to  them,  and,  in 
eating,  will  be  hung  by  the  nooses.  They 
must  be  taken  away  as  soon  as  three  or 
four  are  hung,  otherwise  the  rest  will  be 
frightened;  but  though  the  others  are 
scared  away  just  where  the  sportsman 
comes,  some  will  be  feeding  at  the  other 
end  of  the  line,  and  the  sport  maybe  thus 
continued  for  a  long  time.  As  the  sky- 
lark is  a  kind  of  mocking-bird,  and  apt  to 
catch  the  note  of  any  other  which  hangs 
near  it,  even  after  its  own  note  is  fixed, 
the  bird-fanciers  often  place  it  next  to 
one  which  has  not  been  long  caught,  in 
order  to  keep  the  caged  sky-lark  honest. 
Plate  II.  Aves,  fig.  1. 

2.  A.  arborea,  wood-lark  of  English 
writers,  is  specifically  characterised  by  a 
white  annular  belt,  encircling  its  head. 
This  bird  is  smaller  than  the  sky-lark, 
and  of  a  shorter  thicker  form  ;  the  co- 
lours of  the  plumage  are  paler ;  the  first 
feather  of  the  wing  is  shorter  than  the 
second ;  the  hind  claw  is  very  long,  and 
somewhat  bent;  it  perches  on  trees;  it 
haunts  the  uncultivated  tracts  near  copses, 
without  penetrating  the  woods  ;  whence 
its  name  ;  its  song  resembles  more  the 
warble  of  the  nightingale,  or  the  whist- 
ling of  the  black-bird,  than  that  of  the 
sky-lark,  its  note  being  less  sonorous 
and  less  varied,  though  not  less  sweet ; 
and  it  is  heard  not  only  in  the  day,  but  in 
the  night,  both  when  it  flies  and  when  it 
sits  on  a  bough.  This  bird  builds  on  the 
ground,  and  forms  its  nest  on  the  out- 
side with  moss,  and  on  the  inside  with 
dried  bents,  lined  with  a  few  hairs,  and 
conceals  it  with  a  turf;  and  the  situation 
it  selects  is  ground  where  the  grass  is 


ALA 


ALB 


rank,  or  become  brown.  It  lays  four  or 
five  eggs,  which  are  dusky  and  blotched 
with  deep  brown ;  its  fecundity  is  inferior 
to  that  of  the  sky -lark,  and  its  numbers 
are  not  so  great:  it  breeds  earlier,  since 
its  young  are  sometimes  flown  in  the 
middle  of  March,  and  therefore  they  pair 
in  February,  at  which  time,  and  not  be- 
fore, they  part  with  their  last  year's 
brood  ;  whereas  the  common  lark  does 
not  hatch  before  the  month  of  May.  This 
is  a  very  tender  and  delicate  bird ;  so  that 
it  is  impossible  to  rear  the  young  taken 
out  of  the  nest :  but  this  is  the  case  only 
in  England  and  such  cold  climates,  for 
in  Italy  they  are  removed  from  the  nest, 
and  reared  at  first  like  the  nightingale, 
and  afterwards  fed  upon  panic  and  millet. 
The  wood-lark  feeds  on  beetles,  caterpil- 
lars, and  seeds  :  its  tongue  is  forked  ;  its 
stomach  muscular  and  fleshy  ;  and  it  has 
no  craw,  but  a  moderate  dilatation  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  oesophagus,  and  its  coeca 
are  very  small.  It  lives  ten  or  twelve 
years.  The  males  are  distinguished  from 
the  females  by  their  larger  size ;  the 
crown  of  the  head  is  also  of  a  darker  co- 
lour, and  the  hind  nail  longer;  its  breast 
is  more  spotted,  and  its  great  wing-quills 
edged  with  olive,  which  in  the  female  is 
grey.  The  wood-lark  mounts  high,  war- 
bling its  notes,  and  hovering  in  the  air ; 
it  flies  in  flocks  during  the  winter  colds  ; 
it  is  found' in  Sweden  and  Italy,  and  is 
probably  dispersed  through  the  interve- 
ning countries,  and  consequently  over 
the  greatest  part  of  Europe.  It  is  also 
found  in  Siberia,  as  far  as  Kamtschatka, 
and  likewise  in  the  island  of  Madeira. 
The  best  time  for  taking  this  bird  for  the 
cage  is  July,  or  the  preceding  or  follow- 
ing month.  Those  that  are  put  into  the 
cage  at  this  time  sing  presently ;  but 
their  song-time  is  not  lasting,  for  they 
soon  fall  to  moulting,  in  which  state  many 
die;  but  if  they  get  over  it,  they  com- 
monly prove  very  healthful  afterwards, 
become  very  tame  and  familiar,  and  sing 
sweetly.  Those  which  are  taken  in  the 
latter  end  of  September  are  generally  ve- 
ry strong  and  sprightly  ;  but  they  do  not 
•ing  till  after  Christmas.  Those  taken  in 
January  and  February  finally  prove  the 
best  of  all ;  they  generally  begin  singing 
in  two  or  three  days,  or  at  the  utmost  in 
a  week  after  they  are  taken.  The  cock- 
bird  of  this  kind  is  known  from  the  hen 
by  the  loudness  and  length  of  his  call, 
by  his  tallnessas  he  walks  about  the  cage, 
and  by  his  doubling  his  notes  in  the  even- 
ing, as  if  he  were  going1  with  his  mate 
TOL.  I, 


to  roost.  A  better  rule  than  all  others, 
however,  is  his  singing  strong ;  for 
the  hen  wood-lark  sings  but  very 
weakly.  Both  the  cock  and  hen  of  this 
kind  are  tender,  and  subject  to  many 
disorders ;  the  principal  of  these  are, 
cramps;  giddiness  of  the  head,  and  breed- 
ing lice.  Cleanliness  is  the  best  cure  for 
the  first  and  the  last  of  these  complaints; 
but  we  know  of  no  cure  for  the  oth-,a*.  A 
good  strong  bird  will  last  very  well  for 
five  or  six  years,  and  frequently  improve 
during  the  whole  of  this  time.  The  lark 
is  not  only  a  very  agreeable  bird  for  the 
cage,  but  it  will  also  live  upon  almost  any 
food,  so  that  it  have  once  a  week  a  fresh 
tuft  of  three-leaved  grass  put  into  the 
cage  with  it.  The  wood-lark  is  one  of 
the  sweetest  of  our  singing-birds,  and  is 
indeed  very  little  inferior  to  the  nightin- 
gale, when  in  good  health ;  but  we  are 
not  to  judge  by  such  as  are  made  feeble 
by  improper  food,  or  want  of  cleanliness" 
in  their  cages. 

ALBINOS,  in  zoology,  a  denomination 
given  to  the  white  negroes  of  Africa,  who 
have  light  hair,  blue  eyes,  and  a  white 
body,  resembling  that  of  the  Europeans, 
when  viewed  at  a  distance  ;  but  upon  a 
nearer  approach,  the  whiteness  is  pale 
and  livid,  like  that  of  leprous  persons,  or 
of  a  dead  body.  Their  eyes  are  so  weak 
that  they  can  hardly  see  any  object  in  the 
day,  or  bear  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  yet, 
when  the  moon  shines,  they  see  as  well, 
and  run  through  the  deepest  shades  of 
their  forest  with  as  much  ease  and  ac- 
tivity as  other  men  do  in  the  brightest 
day -light.  Their  complexion  is  delicate ; 
they  are  less  robust  and  vigorous  than 
other  men  ;  they  generally  sleep  in  the 
day,  and  go  abroad  in  the  night.  The 
negroes  regard  them  as  monsters,  and  will 
not  allow  them  to  propagate  their  kind. 
In  Africa  this  variety  of  the  human  spe- 
cies very  frequently  occurs.  Wafer  in- 
forms us  that  there  are  white  Indians  of 
the  same  general  character  among  the 
yellow  or  copper-coloured  Indians  of  the 
isthmus  of  Darien.  It  has  been  a  subject 
of  inquiry,  whether  these  men  form  a  pe- 
culiar and  distinct  race,  and  a  permanent 
variety  of  the  human  species,  or  are 
merely  individuals  who  have  accidentally 
degenerated  from  their  original  stock. 
Buffo n  inclines  to  the  latter  opinion,  and 
he  alleges  in  proof  of  it,  that  in  the  isth- 
mus of  America  a  husband  and  wife, 
both  of  a  copper  colour,  produced  one 
of  these  white  children  ;  so  that  the  singu- 
lar colour  and  constitution  of  these  white 

M 


ALB 


ALC 


Indians  must  be  a  species  of  disease 
which  they  derive  from  their  parents; 
and  the  production  of  whites  by  negro 
parents,  which  sometimes  happens,  con- 
firms the  same  theory.  According  to 
this  author,  white  appears  to  be  the  prin- 
mitive  colour  of  nature,  which  may  be 
varied  by  climate,  food,  and  manners,  to 
yellow,  brown,  and  black;  and  which,  in 
certain  circumstances,  returns,  but  so 
much  altered,  that  it  has  no  resemblance 
to  the  original  whiteness,  because  it  has 
been  adulterated  by  the  causes  that  are 
assigned.  Nature,  he  says,  in  her  most 
perfect  exertions,  made  men  white  ;  and 
the  same  nature,  after  suffering  every 
possible  change,  still  renders  them  white: 
but  the  natural  or  specific  whiteness  is 
very  different  from  the  individual  or  acci- 
dental. Of  this  we  have  examples  in 
vegetables,  as  well  as  in  men  and  other 
animals.  A  white  rose  is  very  different, 
even  in  the  quality  of  whiteness,  from  a 
red  rose,  which  has  been  rendered  white 
by  the  autumnal  frosts.  He  deduces  a 
farther  proof  that  these  white  men  are 
merely  degenerated  individuals,  from  the 
comparative  weakness  of  their  constitu- 
tion and  from  the  extreme  feebleness  of 
their  eyes.  This  last  fact,  he  says,  will 
appear  to  be  less  singular,  when  it  is 
considered  that  in  Europe  very  fair  men 
have  generally  weak  eyes  ;  and  he  has  re- 
marked that  their  organs  of  hearing  are 
often  dull :  and  it  has  been  alleged  by 
others,  that  dogs  of  a  perfectly  white  co- 
lour are  deaf.  This  is  a  subject  which 
demands  farther  investigation.  Buffon's 
Natural  History. 

AUBUCA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  order : 
corolla  six-petalled  ;  the  inner  ones  con- 
nivent;  outer  ones  spreading ;  style  tri- 
angular :  this  genus  is  distinguished  in- 
to those  species,  three  of  whose  stamina 
are  fertile ;  and  into  others,  in  which  all 
the  stamina  are  fertile  :  of  the  former 
there  are  six  species ;  of  the  latter  eight. 
They  are  all  found  at  the  Cape. 

ALBUMEN,  in  chemistry,  a  term  to 
denote  the  white  of  egg,  and  all  glary, 
tasteless  substances,  which,  like  it,  have 
the  property  of  coagulating  into  a  white, 
opaque,  tough,  solid  substance,  when 
heated  a  little  under  the  boiling  point. 
This  substance  forms  a  constituent  of 
many  of  the  fluids  of  animal  bodies,  and 
when  coagulated,  it  constitutes  also  an 
important  part  of  their  solids.  Substan- 
ces analogous  to  it  have  been  noticed  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  essential 
characters  of  albumen  are  the  following  : 


1.  In  its  natural  state  it  is  soluble  in  wa- 
ter, and  forms  a  glary,  limpid  liquid,  ha- 
ving very  little  taste :  in  this  state  it  may 
be  employed  as  a  paste  and  a  varnish. 

2.  The  solution  is  coagulated  by  acids,  in 
the  same  way  as  milk  is  acted  upon  ;  and 
also  by  heat  of  the  temperature  of  170°, 
and  by  alcohol.    3.  Dissolved  in  water, 
it  is  precipitated  by  the  infusion  of  tan ; 
and  also  in  the  form  of  white  powder  by 
the  salts  of  most  of  the  white  metals,  as 
silver,  mercury,  lead  and  tin.    4.  When 
burnt  it  emits  ammonia,  and  when  treated 
with  nitric  acid,  yields  azotic  gas.     The 
juice  of  the  papaw  tree  yields  albumen  ; 
so  also  does  the  juice  of  the  fruit  of  the 
hibiscus  esculentis  :  that  obtained  from 
the  latter  has  been  used  in  the  "West  In- 
dies as  a  substitute  for  white  of  eggs  in 
clarifying  sugar. 

ALBURNUM,  denotes  the  white,  soft 
substance  that  lies  between  the  inner  bark 
and  the  wood  of  trees,  composed  of  lay- 
ers of  the  former,  which  have  not  at- 
tained the  solidity  of  the  latter.  Plants, 
after  they  have  germinated,  do  not  re- 
main stationary,  but  are  continually  in 
creasing  in  size.  A  tree,  for  instance, 
every  season  adds  considerably  to  its 
bulk.  The  roots  send  forth  new  shoots, 
and  the  old  ones  become  longer  and 
thicker.  The  same  increment  takes  place 
in  the  branches  and  the  trunk.  A  new 
layer  of  wood,  or  rather  of  alburnum,  is 
added  annually  to  the  tree  in  every  part, 
just  under  the  bark  ;  and  the  former  lay- 
er  of  alburnum  assumes  the  appearance 
of  perfect  wood.  The  alburnum  is  found 
in  largest  quantities  in  trees  that  are  vi- 
gorous ;  though  in  such  as  languish  and 
are  sickly  there  is  a  great  number  of 
beds.  In  an  oak  six  inches  in  diameter 
the  alburnum  is  said  to  be  nearly  equal  in. 
bulk  to  the  wood. 

ALCA,  auk,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
the  order  of  Anseres,  in  the  Linnaean  sys- 
tem, the  characters  of  which  are,  that  the 
bill  is  without  teeth,  short,  compressed, 
convex,  frequently  furrowed  transversely; 
the  inferior  mandible  is  gibbous  before  the 
base ;  the  nostrils  are  behind  the  bill ; 
and  the  feet  have  generally  three  toes. 
This  genus  comprehends  12  species,  of 
which  we  shall  notice  the  following  :'7A. 
torda,  with  four  furrows  on  the  bill,  and  a 
wrhite  line  on  each  side,  running  from  the 
bill  to  the  eyes.  This  is  the  alka  of  Clu- 
sius  andBrisson  ;  the  pinguin  of  Buffon  ; 
and  the  razor-bill,  auk,  or  murre,  of  Pen- 
nant, Ray,  Willoughby,  Albinus,  Edwards, 
and  Latham.  This  species  weighs  about 
22£  ounces ;  its  length  is  about  18  inches . 


ALCA. 


*nd  breadth  27.  These  birds,  in  compa- 
ny with  the  guillemot,  appear  in  our  seas 
in  the  beginning  of  February,  but  do  not 
settle  in  their  breeding-places  till  they 
begin  to  lay,  about  the  beginning  of  May. 


quill-feathers  to  the  first  joint,  being  only 
4£  inches  :  and  these  birds  are  therefor* 
observed  by  seamen  never  to  wander  be- 
yond soundings,  and  by  the  sight  of  them 
they  are  able  to  ascertain  the  nearness  of 


When  they  take  possession  of  the  ledges     the  land.     They  can  scarcely  even  walk, 
of  the  highest  rocks  that  hang  over  the     and  of  course  continue  on  the  water,  ex- 


sea,  they  sit  close  together,  and  in  rows 
one  above  another,  and  form  a  ver}'  gro- 
tesque appearance.  They  lay  only  one 
egg  at  a  time,  which  is  of  a  large  size,  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  bird,  being  three 
Inches  long,  either  white  or  of  a  pale  sea- 
green,  irregularly  spotted  with  black: 
if  this  egg  be  destroyed,  both  the  auk  and 
the  guillemot  will  lay  another,  and  if  this 
be  taken  a  third;  as  they  make  no  nest, 
they  deposit  the  egg  on  the  bare  rock, 
poising  it  in  such  a  manner  as  no  human 
art  can  effect,  and  fixing  it  by  means  of 
the  viscous  moisture  that  bedews  its  sur- 
face on  its  exclusion;  and  though  such 
multitudes  of  eggs  are  contiguous  to  each 
other,  each  bird  distinguishes  its  own. 
These  eggs  serve  as  food  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  coasts  which  the  birds  fre- 
quent ;  and  are  procured  with  great  ha- 
zard by  persons  let  down  with  ropes,  held 
by  their  companions,  and  who,  for  want  of 
stable  footing,  are'sometimes  precipitated 
down  the  rocks,  and  perish  together. 
They  ?re  found  in  the  northern  parts  of 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  They  come 
to  breed  on  the  Ferroe  islands,  along  the 
west  of  England,  and  on  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  where  they  add  to  the  multitude 
of  sea-fowl  that  inhabit  the  great  rocks 
called  the  Needles.  Their  winter  resi- 
dence is  not  positively  ascertained  ;  as 
they  cannot  remain  on  the  sea  in  that  sea- 
son, and  never  appear  on  shore,  nor  retire 
to  southern  climates.  Edwards  supposes 
that  they  pass  the  winter  in  the  caverns 
of  rocks,  which  open  under  water,  but 
rise  internally  as  much  above  the  level  of 
the  flood  as  to  admit  a  recess,  and  here, 
as  he  apprehends,  they  remain  torpid,  and 
live  upon  their  abundant  fat.  The  pace 
of  this  bird  is  heavy  and  sluggish ;  and  its 
ordinary  posture  is  that  of  swimming  or 
floating  on  the  water,  or  lying  stretched 
on  the  rocks,  or  on  the  ice. 

A.,  impennis,  A.  major  of  Brisson,  pen- 
guin of  Ray,  Martin,  Edwards,  &c.  and 
great  auk  of  Pennant  and  Latham,  has 
its  bill  compressed  and  furrowed  on  both 
sides,  and  has  an  oval  spot  on  each  side 
before  the  eyes.  Its  length  to  the  end  of 
its  toes  is  three  feet ;  the  bill  to  the  cor- 
ner of  the  mouth  is  4i  inches  :  the  wings 
are  so  small  as  to  be  useless  for  flight, 
their  length,  from  the  tip  of  the  longest 


cept  in  the  time  of  breeding.  According 
to  Mr.  Martin,  they  breed  on  the  isle  of 
St.  Kilda,  appearing  there  in  the  begin- 
ning of  May,  and  retiring  in  the  middle 
of  June.  They  lay  one  egg,  six  inches 
long,  of  a  white  colour  :  and  if  the  egg 
be  taken  away,  no  other  is  laid  in  the 
same  season.  Mr.  Macaulay,  in  his  his- 
tory of  St.  Kilda,  observes  that  this  bird 
does  not  visit  that  island  annually,  but 
sometimes  keeps  away  for  several  years 
together,  and  that  it  lays  its  eggs  close 
to  the  sea-mark,  and  is  incapable,  by  the 
shortness  of  its  wings,  of  mounting  high- 
er. Birds  of  this  species  are  said  not  to 
be  numerous  ;  they  seldom  appear  on  the 
coasts  of  Norway.  They  are  met  with 
near  Newfoundland  and  Iceland.  They 
do  not  resort  annually  to  the  Ferroe  Isl- 
ands, and  they  rarely  descend  more  to  the 
south  in  the  European  seas.  They  feed 
on  the  cyclopterus  and  such  fish,  and  on 
the  rose  root  and  other  plants.  The  skins 
are  used  by  the  Esquimaux  for  garments. 
These  birds  live  in  flocks  at  sea,  and  ne- 
ver approach  the  land,  except  in  very  se- 
vere cold ;  and  in  this  case  they  are  so 
numerous,  that  they  cover  the  water  like 
a  thick  dark  fog.  The  Greenlanders 
drive  them  on  the  coast,  and  catch  them 
with  the  hand,  as  they  can  neither  run 
nor  fly.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Ball  river 
they  afford  subsistence  to  the  inhabitants 
in  the  months  of  February  and  March, 
and  their  down  serves  to  line  winter  gar- 
ments. Plate  II.  Aves,  fig.  2. 

A.  psittacula,  or  perroquet  auk  of  Pen- 
nant and  Latham,  is  found  in  the  sea  that 
lies  between  the  northern  parts  of  Asia 
and  America,  sometimes  by  day  in  flocks 
swimming  on  the  water,  though  not  very 
far  from  land,  unless  driven  out  by  storms, 
and  in  the  night  harbouring  in  the  crevi- 
ces of  rocks.  About  the  middle  of  June 
they  lay  upon  the  rocks,  or  sand,  a  single 
egg  about  the  size  of  that  of  a  hen,  and 
of  a  dirty  white  or  yellowish  colour,  spot- 
ted with  brown,  which  is  esteemed  good. 
These  birds,  like  others  of  the  same  class, 
are  stupid,  and  are  mostly  taken  by  the 
natives,  who  place  themselves  in  the 
evening  among  the  rocks,  dressed  in  gar- 
ments of  fir,  with  large  open  sleeves, 
into  which  the  birds  fly  for  shelter,  as  the 
night  comes  on,  and  thus  they  become 


ALC 


ALC 


an  easy  prey.  They  sometimes  at  sea 
mistake  a  ship  for  a  roosting  place,  and 
thus  warn  navigators  of  their  being-  near 
the  land,  at  the  access  of  night,  or  on  the 
approach  of  storms. 

A.  cirrhata,  tufted  auk  of  Pennant  and 
Latham,  is  entirely  black,  nearly  18  inches 
long-,  swimming  about  for  whole  days  in 
the  sea,  where  it  dives  well,  and  occasion- 
ally flies  swiftly,  but  never  departing-  far 
from  the  rocks  and  islands,  and  feeding  on 
shrimps,  crabs,  and  other  shell-fish,  which 
it  forces  from  the  rocks  with  its  strong 
bill ;  in  the  night  it  comes  to  shore,  bur- 
rows about  a  yard  deep  under  ground, 
and  makes  a  nest  with  feathers  and  sea- 
weed, in  which  it  lodges  with  its  mate, 
being  monogamous.  It  lays  one  egg  in 
May  or  June,  which  is  fit  to  be  eaten  and 
used  for  food,  but  the  flesh  of  the  bird  is 
hard  and  insipid.  This  species  inhabits 
the  shores  of  Kamtschutka,  the  Kurile 
islands,  and  those  that  lie  between 
Kamtschatka  and  America. 

A.  arctica,  or  puffin,  found  on  the 
coasts  of  England  ;  and  particularly  in 
Prestholm  isle,  where  they  are  seen  in 
flocks  almost  innumerable.  They  come 
in  the  beginning  of  April,  and  depart  in 
August.  Fig.  3. 

ALCEA,  hollyhock,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Monadelphia  Polyandria  class  of 
plants,  the  calyx  of  which  is  a  double  pe- 
rianthium ;  the  exterior  one,  which  is 
permanent,  consists  of  a  single  patent 
leaf,  divided  into  six  segments  ;  the  inte- 
rior is  also  permanent,  and  consists  of  a 
single  leaf  divided  into  five  segments  ; 
the  corolla  consists  of  five  very  large 
patent  and  emarginated  petals,  growing 
together  at  the  base  :  the  fruit  is  compos- 
ed of  numerous  capsules,  each  contain- 
ing a  single  compressed  kidney-shaped 
seed.  There  are  five  species.  The  hol- 
lyhock grows  wild  in  the  country  of  Nice. 
The  colour  of  the  flowers  is  accidental, 
and  the  double  flowers  are  only  varieties 
proceeding  from  culture.  These  varie- 
ties are  not  constant ;  but  the  greatest 
number  of  plants,  produced  from  seeds 
carefully  saved  from  the  most  double 
flowers,  will  arise  nearly  the  same  with 
the  plants  from  which  they  are  taken, 
provided  they  are  kept  separate  from  sin- 
gle or  bad  coloured  flowers.  The  A.  ro- 
sea  grows  naturally  in  China  ;  a  dwarf 
sort,  with  beautiful  double  variegated 
flowers,  has  been  some  years  in  great 
esteem,  under  the  name  of  the  Chinese 
hollyhock.  Hollyhocks  are  propagated 
from  seeds,  sown  half  an  inch  deep  in  a 
bed  of  light  earth,  about  the  middle  of 


April.  When  the  plants  have  put  out  six 
or  eight  leaves,  they  are  to  be  transplant- 
ed into  nursery  beds,  and  in  October 
they  are  to  be  removed  to  the  situation 
where  they  are  to  remain. 

ALC  EDO,  kingsfisher,  in  ornithology,  a 
genus  of  the  order  of  Pic<e.  The  charac- 
ters are,  that  the  bill  is  three-sided,  thick, 
straight,  long  and  pointed ;  the  tongue 
is  fleshy,  very  short,  flat,  and  sharp,  and 
the  feet  are  for  the  most  part  gressory. 
There  are  41  species.  These  birds  are 
dispersed  over  the  whole  globe,  inhabit- 
ing chiefly  the  water,  and  living  upon 
fish,  which  they  catch  with  surprising 
alertnenss,  and  swallow  whole,  rejecting 
afterwards  the  undigested  parts ;  though 
their  wings  are  short  they  fly  swiftly  ; 
their  prevailing  colour  is  sky-blue  ;  their 
nostrils  are  small,  and  generally  covered. 
A.  ispida,  ispida  of  Gesner  and  Ray,  Eu- 
ropean kingsfisher  of  Pennant,  and  com- 
mon kingsfisher  of  Latham,  is  the  only  one 
we  shall  notice :  it  is  short-tailed,  sky- 
blue  above,  fulvous  below,  and  its  straps 
are  rufous.  This  bird  is  7  inches  long 
and  11  broad,  of  a  clumsy  shape,  the  head 
and  bill  being  very  large,  and  the  legs 
disproportionately  small.  The  kingsfish- 
er frequents  the  banks  of  rivers,  and 
feeds  on  fish.  It  takes  its  prey  somewhat 
in  the  manner  of  the  osprey,  balancing 
itself  at  a  certain  distance  over  the  water 
for  some  time,  and  then  darting  below 
the  surface,  brings  the  prey  up  in  its  feet. 
When  it  remains  suspended  in  the  air,  in 
a  bright  day,  the  plumage  exhibits  a  most 
beautiful  variety  of  the  most  dazzling  and 
brilliant  colours.  It  makes  its  nest  in 
holes  in  the  sides  of  the  cliffs,  which  it 
scoops  to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  and 
lays  from  three  to  nine  eggs,  of  a  very 
beautiful  semi-transparent  white.  The 
nest  is  very  foetid,  on  account  of  the  re- 
fuse offish  with  which  the  young  are  fed. 
It  begins  to  hatch  its  young  early  in  the 
season,  and  excludes  the  first  brood  in 
the  beginning  of  April.  Whilst  the  fe- 
male is  thus  employed,  the  male  is  unre- 
mitting in  his  attention,  supplying  his 
mate  with  fish  in  such  abundance,  that 
she  is  found  at  this  season  plump  and  fat. 
He  ceases  to  twitter  at  this  time,  and  en- 
ters the  nest  as  quietly  and  privately  as 
possible.  The  young  are  hatched  in  about 
20  days  ;  but  differ  both  in  size  and  beau- 
ty. Some  have  even  doubted,  whether 
the  kingsfisher  of  the  moderns  and  the 
alcyon  of  the  ancients  are  the  same  bird. 
But  the  description  of  Aristotle  sufficient- 
ly identifies  them.  The  alcyon,  says  that 
philosopher,  is  not  much  larger  than  a 


ALC 


ALC 


sparrow ;  its  plumage  is  painted  with 
blue  and  green,  and  lightly  tinged  with 
purple;  these  colours  ar.e  not  distinct, 
but  melted  together,  and  shining  vari- 
ously over  the  whole  body,  the  wings, 
and  the  neck ;  its  bill  is  yellowish,  long, 
and  slender.  The  habits  of  these  birds 
also  resemble  one  another.  The  alcyon 
was  solitary  and  pensive  ;  and  the  kings  - 
fisher  is  almost  always  seen  alone,  and 
the  pairing  season  is  of  short  duration. 
The  former  was  not  only  an  inhabitant  of 
the  sea-shore,  but  haunted  the  banks  of 
rivers  :  and  the  latter  has  also  been  found 
to  seek  shell-fish  and  large  worms,  that 
abound  on  the  shore  of  the  sea,  and  in 
rivulets  that  flow  into  it.  The  alcyon 
was  seldom  seen,  and  rapid  in  its  flight ; 
it  wheeled  swiftly  round  ships,  and  in- 
stantly retired  into  its  little  grot  on  the 
shore.  The  same  character  belongs  also 
to  the  kingsfisher.  The  alcyon  and  the 
kingsfisher  have  the  same  mode  of  taking 
their  prey,  by  diving  vertically  upon  it. 
The  kingsfisher  is  the  most  beautiful  bird 
in  our  climates,  as  to  the  richness  and 
luxuriance  of  the  colours  of  its  plumage. 
It  has,  says  Buffon,  all  the  shades  of  the 
rainbown,  the  brilliancy  of  enamel,  and 
the  glossy  softness  of  silk ;  and  Gesner 
compares  the  glowing  yellow  red,  which 
colours  the  breast,  to  the  red  glare  of  a 
burning  coal ;  and  yet  the  kingsfisher  has 
strayed  from  those  climates,  where  its  re- 
splendent and  glowing  colours  would  ap- 
pear to  the  greatest  advantage.  There 
is  a  species  that  is  common  in  all  the 
islands  of  the  South  Sea;  and  Forster, 
in  his  observations  on  Captain  Cook's  se- 
cond voyage,  has  remarked,  that  its  plu- 
mage is  much  more  brilliant  between  the 
tropics  than  in  the  regions  situated  be- 
yond the  temperate  zone,  in  New  Zea- 
land. In  the  language  of  the  Society 
Islands,  the  kingsfisher  is  called  Erooro, 
and  at  Otaheite  it  is  accounted  sacred, 
and  not  allowed  to  be  taken  or  killed. 
Kingsfishers  were*  found,  not  only  at  Ota- 
heite, but  in1  Huaheine  and  Ulietea,  and 
in  the  islands  that  are  scattered  over  the 
South  Sea,  though  they  are  more  than 
1500  leagues  distant  from  any  continent. 
These  kingsfishers  are  of  a  dull  green, 
with  a  collar  of  the  same  about  their 
neck.  The  islanders  entertain  a  super- 
stitious veneration  for  them.  The  chief 
at  Ulietea  intreated  Capt.  Cook's  com- 
panions, in  a  very  serious  tone,  to  spare 
the  kingsfishers  and  herons  of  his  island, 
giving  permission  to  kill  all  the  other 
birds.  There  are  20  species  in  Africa 
and  Asia,  and  eight  more  that  are  known 


in  the  warm  parts  of  America.  The  Eu- 
ropean kingsfisher  is  scattered  through 
Asia  and  Africa :  many  of  those  sent 
from  China  and  Egypt  are  found  to  be 
the  same  with  ours,  and  Belon  has  met 
with  them  in  Greece  and  in  Thrace.  This 
bird,  though  it  derives  its  origin  from  the 
hottest  climates,  bears  the  vigour  of  our 
seasons.  It  is  seen  in  the  winter  along 
the  brooks,  diving  under  the  ice,  and 
emerging  with  its  prey.  The  Germans 
have  called  it  eissvogel,  or  ice-bird  ;  and 
it  has  been  found  even  among  the  Tar- 
tars and  Siberians.  The  Tartars  and  Os- 
tiacs  use  the  feathers  of  these  birds  for 
many  superstitious  purposes.  The  for- 
mer use  ihem  as  love  amulets;  pretend- 
ing that  those  which  float  on  water  will 
induce  a  woman  who  is  touched  with  them 
to  fall  in  love  with  the  person  who  thus 
applies  it.  The  Ostiacs  take  the  skin, 
the  bill  and  the  claws  of  this  bird,  and 
enclose  them  in  a  purse  :  and  whilst  they 
preserve  this  amulet,  they  think  the}  have 
no  ill  to  fear.  Credulity  has  admitted  and 
reported  many  other  similar  tales  con- 
cerning the  extraordinary  powers  and 
virtues  of  this  bird;  but  it  is  needless  to 
recite  them.  Its  flesh  has  the  odour  of 
musk,  and  is  unpalatable.  Plate  II.  Aves, 
%  4. 

ALCHEMY,  that  branch  of  chemistry, 
which  had  for  its  principal  object  the 
transmutation  of  all  the  metals  into  gold  : 
the  panacea,  or  universal  remedy  for  all 
diseases;  and  the  alkahest,  or  universal 
menstruum.  Those  who  pursued  these 
delusive  projects  gradually  assumed  the 
form  of  a  sect,  under  the  name  of  Alche- 
mists, a  term  made  up  of  the  word  che- 
mist, and  the  Arabian  article  al  as  a  pre- 
fix. The  alchemists  laid  it  down  as  a  first 
principle,  that  all  metals  are  composed  of 
the  same  ingredients,  or  that  the  sub- 
stances at  least  which  compose  gold  ex- 
ist in  all  metals,  and  are  capable  of  being 
obtained  from  them.  The  great  object  of 
their  researches  was,  to  convert  the  baser 
metals  into  gold.  The  substance  which 
produced  this  property  they  called  lapis 
philosophowm.)  "the  philosopher's  stone;" 
and  many  of  them  boasted  that  they  were 
in  possession  of  that  grand  instrument. 
The  alchemists  were  established  in  the 
west  of  Europe  as  early  as  the  ninth  cen- 
tury ;  but  between  the  eleventh  and  fif- 
teenth, alchemy  was  in  itsmost  flourishing 
state.  The  principal  alchemists  were,  Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  Roger  Bacon,  Arnoldua 
de  Villa  Nova,  Raymond  Lully,  and  the 
two  Isaacs  of  Holland. 

ALCH1M1LLA,    or    ALCHBMIIXI,    la, 


ALC 


ALC 


dies'  mantle,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Te- 
trandria  Monogynia  class  of  plants,  the 
calyx  of  which  is  a  single-leafed  perian- 
thium;  there  is  no  corolla,  nor  any  pericar- 
pium ;  the  cup  finally  becomes  a  capsule, 
containing  a  single  elliptical  and  com- 
pressed seed.  There  are  four  species,  A. 
vulgaris,  common  ladies'  mantle,  or  bean- 
foot,  is  frequent  in  meadows  and  pastures 
in  England.  It  is  perennial,  and  flowers 
in  June  and  July.  Horses,  sheep,  and 
goats,  eat  it.  The  great  richness  of  the 
milk  in  the  celebrated  dairies  of  the  Alps 
is  attributed  to  the  plenty  of  this  plant, 
and  that  of  the  rib-wort  plantain.  The 
plant  is  astringent,  and  in  Gothland  and 
other  places  a  tincture  of  its  leaves  is 
given  in  spasmodic  and  convulsive  cases. 
A.  alpina,cinquefoil,  or  alpine  ladies'  man- 
tle, grows  naturally  in  the  North  of  Eng- 
land, North  Wales,  and  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland.  It  is  a  native  of  the northern 
parts  of  Europe,  and  is  admitted  into  the 
gardens  on  account  of  its  elegance.  The 
A.  pentaphyllea  grows  naturally  on  the 
Alps,  and  is  found  in  the  botanical  gardens 
in  this  country :  it  may  be  propagated  by 
parting  the  roots  in  autumn.  They  should 
have  a  moist  soil,  and  a  shady  situation. 

ALCHORNEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Monadelphia  Octandria  class  and  or- 
der, of  which  there  is  but  a  single  species. 
Male,  calyx  three,  five-leaved  ;  corolla 
none  :  female,  calyx  five-toothed ;  corolla 
none ;  styles  two-parted. 

ALCOHOL,  a  term  applied  by  chemists 
to  the  purely  spirituous  part  of  liquors 
that  have  undergone  the  vinous  fermen- 
tation. It  is  in  all  cases  the  product  of  the 
saccharine  principle,  and  is  formed  by  the 
successive  processes  of  vinous  fermenta- 
tion and  distillation.  Various  kinds  of 
ardent  spirits  are  known  in  commerce,  as 
brandy,  rum,  &c. ;  but  they  differ  in  co- 
lour, taste,  smell,  &c.  The  spirituous 
part,  however,  is  the  same  in  each,  and 
may  be  procured  in  its  purest  state  by  a 
second  distillation,  which  is  termed  recti- 
fication/ See  DISTILLATION,  FERMENTA- 
TION, and  RECTIFICATION.  Alcohol  is 
procured  most  largely  in  this  country 
from  a  fermented  grain-liquor ;  but  in 
France  and  other  wine  countries,  the  spi- 
rit is  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  wine, 
hence  the  term  spirit  of  wine.  See  BRAN. 
DY.  Alcohol  is  a  colourless,  transparent 
liquor,  appearing  to  the  eye  like  pure  wa- 
ter. It  possesses  a  peculiar  penetrating 
smell,  distinct  from  the  proper  odour  of 
the  distilled  spirit  from  which  it  is  pro- 
cured. To  the  taste  it  is  excessively  hot 
and  burning ;  but  without  any  peculiar 


flavour.  From  its  lightness,  the  bubbles 
which  are  formed  by  shaking  subside  al- 
most instantaneously,  which  is  one  me- 
thod of  judging  of  its  purity.  Alcohol 
may  be  volatalized  by  the  heat  of  the  hand. 
It  is  converted  into  vapour  at  the  tempe- 
rature of  55°  of  Fahrenheit,  and  it  boils 
at  165°.  It  has  never  been  frozen  by  any 
degree  of  cold,  natural  or  artificial,  and 
on  this  account  it  has  been  much  used  in 
the  construction  of  thermometers.  Alco- 
hol mixes  with  water  in  all  proportions, 
and  during  the  mixture  heat  is  extricated, 
which  is  sensible  to  the  hand.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  a  mutual  penetration 
of  the  parts,  so  that  the  bulk  of  the  two 
liquors  when  mixed  is  less  than  when  se- 
parate; consequently  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  mixture  is  greater  than  the  mean 
specific  gravity  of  the  two  liquors  taken 
apart.  Alcohol  is  supposed  to  consist  of 
Carbon  ....  28.53 
Hydrogen  ....  7.87 
Water 63.6 

100.00 

Its  uses  are  many  and  important :  it  is 
employed  as  a  solvent  for  those  resinous 
gums  which  form  the  basis  of  numerous 
varnishes :  it  is  employed  also  as  the  basis 
of  artificial  cordials  and  liquors,  to  which 
a  flavour  and  additional  taste  are  given 
by  particular  admixtures :  It  serves  as  a 
solvent  for  the  more  active  parts  of  vege- 
tables, under  the  form  of  tinctures.  The 
antiseptic  power  of  alcohol  renders  it  par- 
ticularly valuable  in  preserving  particular 
parts  of  the  body  as  anatomical  prepara- 
tions. The  steady  and  uniform  heat  which 
it  gives  during  the  combustion  makes  it 
a  valuable  material  for  burning  in  lamps. 

ALCORAN,  or  ALKORAN,  the  name  of 
a  book  held  equally  sacred  among  the 
Mahometans  as  the  bible  is  among  Chris- 
tians. 

The  word  alcoran  properly  signifies 
reading;  a  title  given  it  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, just  as  we  call  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  Scriptures. 

That  Mahomet  was  the  author  of  the 
Alcoran  is  allowed  both  by  Christians  and 
the  Mahometans  themselves;  only  the 
latter  are  fully  persuaded,  that  it  was  re- 
vealed to  him  by  the  ministry  of  the  an- 
gel Gabriel ;  whereas  the  former,  with 
more  reason,  think  it  all  his  own  invention, 
assisted  by  one  Sergius,  a  Christian  monk. 
The  Alcoran  is  held  not  only  of  divine 
original,  but  eternal  and  uncreated,  re- 
maining, as  some  express  it,  in  the  very 
essence  of  God.  The  first  transcript  has 
been  from  everlasting  by  God's  throne. 


ALCORAN. 


written  on  a  table  of  vast  bigness,  in  which 
are  also  recorded  the  divine  decrees,  past 
and  future.  A  copy  from  this  table,  in 
one  volume,  on  paper,  was  sent  down  to 
the  lowest  heaven,  in  the  month  of  Ra- 
madan, on  the  night  of  power.  From 
whence  it  was  delivered  out  to  Mahomet 
by  parcels,  some  at  Mecca,  and  some  at 
Medina.  Though  he  had  the,  consolation 
of  seeing  the  whole  once  a  year,  and  in 
the  last  part  of  his  life  twice.  Ten  new 
chapters  were  delivered  entire,  the  great- 
er part  only  in  separate  periods,  which 
were  written  down  from  time  to  time  by 
the  prophet's  amanuensis,  in  this  or  that 
part  of  this  or  the  other  chapter,  as  he  di- 
rected. The  first  parcel  that  was  revealed 
was  the  five  first  verses  of  the  ninety-sixth 
chapter,  which  the  prophet  received  in  a 
cave  of  Mount  Harah,  near  Mecca. 

The  general  aim  of  the  Alcoran  was,  to 
unite  the  professors  of  the  three  different 
religions  then  followed  in  Arabia,  Idola- 
ters, Jews,  and  Christians,  in  the  know- 
ledge and  worship  of  one  God,  under  the 
sanction  of  certain  laws,  and  the  outward 
signs  of  ceremonies,  partly  of  ancient,  and 
partly  of  novel  institution,  enforced  by  the 
consideration  of  re  wards  and  punishments, 
both  temporal  and  eternal,  and  to  bring 
all  to  the  obedience  of  Mahomet,  as  the 
prophet  and  ambassador  of  God,  who  was 
to  establish  the  true  religion  on  earth, 
and  be  acknowledged  chief  pontiff  in 
spiritual  matters.  The  chief  point  there- 
fore inculcated  in  the  Alcoran  is  the  unity 
of  God,  to  restore  which,  the  prophet  con- 
fessed, was  the  chief  end  of  his  mission. 
The  rest  is  taken  up  in  prescribing  neces- 
sary laws  and  directions,  frequent  admoni- 
tions to  moral  and  divine  virtues,  the  wor- 
ship and  reverence  of  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing, and  resignation  to  his  will. 

As  to  the  book  itself,  as  it  now  stands, 
it  is  divided  into  114  Suras,  or  chapters, 
which  are  again  divided  into  smaller  por- 
tions or  verses.  But  besides  these  divi- 
sions, Mahometan  writers  farther  divide 
it  into  60  equal  portions,  called hiz,  or  ha- 
zah  ;  each  of  which  they  subdivide  into 
four  parts. 

After  the  title  at  the  head  of  each  chap- 
ter, except  the  ninth,  is  prefixed  the  for- 
mula,  "In  the  name  of  the  most  merciful 
God,"  called  by  the  Mahometans  Bismal- 
lah,  wherewith  they  constantly  begin  all 
their  books  and  writings,  as  the  distin- 
guishing mark  of  their  religion. 

Twenty-nine  of  the  chapters  of  the  Al- 
coran have  this  further  peculiarity,  that 
there  are  certain  letters  of  the  alphabet 
prefixed  to  them.  In  some  a  single  letter, 


in  others  two  or  more.  These  letters  are 
supposed,  by  the  true  believers,  to  con- 
ceal divers  profound  mysteries,  the  under- 
standing whereof  has  been  communica- 
ted to  no  man,  their  prophet  excepted. 
Yet  some  have  pretended  to  find  their 
meaning,  by  supposing  the  letters  to  stand 
for  so  many  words,  expressing  the  names, 
attributes,  and  works  of  God ;  others  ex- 
plain these  letters  from  the  organ  made 
use  of  in  their  pronunciation;  others 
from  their  value  in  numbers. 

There  are  seven  principal  editions  of 
the  Koran,  two  at  Medina,  one  at  Mecca, 
one  at  Cufa,  one  at  Bassora,  one  in  Syria, 
and  the  common  or  vulgate  edition.  The 
first  contains  6000  verses  ;  the  second  and 
fifth,  6214;  the  third,  6219 ;  the  fourth, 
6236 ;  the  sixth,  6226 ;  and  the  last,  6225 ; 
but  the  number  of  words  and  letters  is 
the  same  in  all,  viz.  77,639  words,  and 
323,015  letters. 

The  Alcoran  is  allowed  to  be  written 
with  the  utmost  elegance  and  purity  of 
language,  in  the  dialect  of  the  Koreishites, 
the  most  noble  and  polite  of  all  the  Ara- 
bians, but  with  some  mixture  of  other 
dialects.  It  is  the  standard  of  the  Arabic 
tongue,  and  as  the  orthodox  believed,  and 
are  taught  by  the  book  itself,  inimitable 
by  any  human  pen ;  and  therefore  insist- 
ed on  as  a  permanant  miracle,  greater 
than  that  of  raising  the  dead,  and  alone 
sufficient  to  convince  the  world  of  its  di- 
vine original ;  and  to  this  miracle  did  Ma- 
homet himself  chiefly  appeal,  for  the  con- 
firmation of  his  mission,  publicly  chal- 
lenging the  most  eloquent  schoolmen  in 
Arabia  to  produce  a  single  chapter  com- 
parable to  it.  A  late  ingenious  and  can- 
did writer,  who  is  a  very  good  judge,  al- 
lows the  style  of  the  Alcoran  to  be  gene- 
rally beautiful  and  fluent,  especially  where 
it  imitates  the  prophetic  manner  and 
scripture  phrase  ;  concise,  and  often  ob- 
scure ;  adorned  with  bold  figures,  after 
the  eastern  taste  ;  enlivened  with  florid 
and  sententious  expressions ;  and,  in  many 
places,  especially  where  the  majesty  and 
attributes  of  God  are  described,  sublime 
and  magnificent. 

To  the  pomp  and  harmony  of  expres- 
sion some  ascribe  all  the  force  and  effect 
of  the  Alcoran  ;  which  they  consider  as 
a  sort  of  music,  equally  fitted  to  ravish 
and  amaze  with  other  species  of  that  art. 
In  this  Mahomet  succeeded  so  well,  and 
so  strangely  captivated  the  minds  of  his 
audience,  that  several  of  his  opponents 
thought  it  the  effect  of  witchcraft  and 
enchantment,  as  he  himself  complains. 

So  numerous  are  the  commentaries  on 


ALD 


ALE 


the  Alcoran,  that  a  catalogue  of  their 
bare  titles  would  make  a  volume  ;  we 
have  a  very  elegant  translation  of  it  into 
English,  by  Mr.  Sale  ;  who  has  added  a 
preliminary  discourse,  with  other  occa- 
sional notes,  which  the  curious  may  con- 
sult on  this  head. 

Among  Mahometans  this  book  is  held 
in  the  greatest  reverence  and  esteem. 
The  Mussulmen  dare  not  touch  it  without 
being  first  washed,  or  legally  purified ; 
to  prevent  which,  an  inscription  is  put  on 
the  cover  or  label :  "  Let  none  touch  it 
but  they  who  are  clean."  It  is  read  with 
great  care  and  respect.  They  swear  by 
it,  take  omens  from  it  on  all  weighty  oc- 
casi^ns,  carry  it  with  them  to  war,  write 
sentences  of  it  on  their  banners,  adorn  it 
with  gold  and  precious  stones,  and  do  not 
suffer  it  to  be  in  the  possession  of  any  who 
hold  a  different  religion. 

ALCYON,  in  natural  history,  a  name 
given  to  the  kings-fisher.  See  AICEDO. 

ALCYONIUM,  in  natural  history,  a  ge- 
nus of  Zoophytes,  the  characters  of  which 
are,  that  the  animal  grows  in  the  form  of  a 
plant ;  the  stem  or  root  is  fixed,  fleshy, 
gelatinous,  spongy,  or  coriaceous,  with  a 
cellular  epidermis,  penetrated  with  stel- 
lated pores,  and  shooting  out  tentaculated 
oviparous  hydrx.  There  are  28  species. 
From  some  experiments  made  by  Mr. 
Hatchett,  and  related  by  him  in  the  Phil. 
Trans,  on  several  of  the  species  of  alcy- 
onium,  he  was  led  to  conclude,  that  they 
were  all  composed  of  a  soft,  flexible, 
membranaceous  substance,  slightly  har- 
dened by  carbonate,  mixed  with  a  small 
portion  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

ALDFBARAN,  in  astronomy,  a  star  of 
the  first  magnitude,  called  in  English  the 
Bull's  eye,  as  making  the  eye  of  the  con- 
stellation Taurus. 

ALDER-^ree,  the  English  name  of  a  ge- 
nus of  trees,  called  by  botanists  alnus. 
See  ALNUS. 

ALDERMAN,  in  the  British  policy,  a 
magistrate  subordinate  to  the  mayor  of  a 
city  or  town  corporate. 

The  number  of  these  magistrates  is 
not  limited,  but  is  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  magnitude  of  the  place.  In  Lon- 
don there  are  twenty- six;  each  having 
one  of  the  wards  of  the  city  committed  to 
his  care.  Their  office  is  for  life  ;  so  that 
when  one  of  them  dies,  or  resigns,  award- 
mote  is  called,  who  return  two  persons, 
one  of  whom  the  lord  mayor  and  alder- 
men choose,  to  supply  the  vacancy. 

ALDROVANDA.  in  botany,  ager.nsof 
the  PenUimlriu  Pentaginia  class  and  or- 
der, of  which  there  is  only  one  species, 


viz.  the  A.  vesiculosa,  found  in  marsh- 
es in  Italy  and  India,  with  bladhers  like 
utricuhiria,  but  in  bunches. 

ALE-co7w?er,  an  ofticer  in  London,  who 
inspects  the  measures  of  public  houses. 
They  are  four  in  number,  and  chosen  by 
the  common-hall  of  the  city. 

ALE-Aowses,  no  licence  to  be  granted  to 
any  person,  unless  he  produce  a  certifi- 
cate of  bis  good  character,  under  the 
hands  of  the  clergyman,  churchwardens, 
&c.  Penalties  for"  selling  without  a  li- 
cence, unless  at  fairs,  40s.  for  the  first 
offence,  51.  for  the  second ;  no  person  can 
sell  wine  to  be  drank  at  his  own  house, 
who  has  not  an  ale  licence. 

ALV-silver,  a  tax  paid  yearly  to  the  lord 
mayor  of  London,  by  all  who  sell  ale 
within  the  city. 

ALECTRA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Didynamia  Angjospermia  class  and  order, 
of  which  the^e  is  a  single  species  only. 
riz.  A.  capensis,  a  native  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  ;  found  in  grassy  places  near 
rivers  ;  flowering  in  November  and  De- 
cember. 

ALEMBERT  (JOHN  LE  ROJTD  D')  an 
eminent  French  mathematician  and  phi- 
losopher, and  one  of  the  brightest  orna- 
ments of  the  18th  century.  He  was  per- 
petual secretary  to  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  a  member  of  most  of 
the  philosophical  academies  and  societies 
of  Europe 

D'AJembert  was  born  at  Paris,  the  16th 
of  November,  1717,  and  derived  the 
name  of  John  !e  Rond,  from  that  of  the 
church,  near  which,  after  his  birth,  he 
was  exposed  as  a  foundling.  But  his  fa- 
ther, Destouches  Canon,  informed  of  this 
circumstance,  listening  to  the  voice  of 
nature  and  duty,  took  measures  for  the 
proper  education  of  his  child,  and  for  his 
future  subsistence  in  a  stale  of  ease  and 
independence.  His  mother,  it  is  said, 
was  a  lady  of  rank,  the  celebrated  Ma- 
demoiselle Tencin,  sister  to  cardinal  Ten- 
cin,  archbishop  of  Lyons. 

He  received  his  first  education  among 
the  J;tnsenists,  in  the  College  of  the  Four 
Nations,  where  he  gave  early  signs  of  ge- 
nius and  capacity.  In  the  first  year  of  his 
philosophical  studies,  he  composed  a 
Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  St.  Panl  to 
the  Romans.  The  Jansenists  considered 
this  production  as  an  omen,  that  portend- 
ed to  the  party  of  Port-Royal  u  restora- 
tion to  some  part  of  their  former  splen- 
dour, and  hoped  to  find  one  day,  in 
D'Alembert.  a  second  Pascal.  To  reader 
the  resemblance  more  complete,  they  en- 
gaged their  pupil  in  the  study  of  the  ma- 


ALEMBERT. 


fliematics ;  but  they  soon  perceived  that 
his  growing  attachment  to  this  science 
was  likely  to  disappoint  the  hopes  they 
had  formed  with  respect  to  his  future  des- 
tination .  they  therefore  endeavoured  to 
divert  him  from  the  pursuit ;  but  their 
endeavours  were  fruitless. 

On  his  quitting-  the  college,  finding 
himself  alone,  and  unconnected  in  the 
world,  he  sought  an  asylum  in  the  house 
of  his  nurse,  who  was  the  wife  of  a  gla- 
zier. He  hoped  that  his  fortune,  though 
not  ample,  would  enlarge  the  subsistence, 
and  better  the  condition  of  her  family, 
which  was  the  only  one  that  he  could 
consider  as  his  own.  It  was  here,  there- 
fore, that  he  fixed  his  residence,  resolving 
to  apply  himself  entirely  to  the  study  of 
geometry.  And  here  he  lived,  during  the 
space  of  30  years,  with  the  greatest  sim- 
plicity, discovering  the  augmentation  of 
his  means  only  by  increasing  displays  of 
his  beneficence,  concealing  his  growing 
reputation  and  celebrity  from  these  ho- 
nest people,  and  mak'ng  their  plain  and 
uncouth  manners  the  subject  of  good- 
natured  pleasantry  and  philosophical  ob- 
servation. His  good  nurse  perceived  his 
ardent  activity ;  heard  him  mentioned  as 
the  writer  of  many  books  ;  and  beheld 
him  with  a  kind  of  compassion  :  "  You 
will  never,"  said  she  to  him  one  day, 
"be  any  thing  but  a  philosopher — and 
what  is  a  philosopher? — a  fool,  who  toils 
and  plagues  himself  all  his  life,  that  peo- 
ple may  talk  of  him  when  he  is  dead." 

As  D'  Alembert's  fortune  did  not  far 
exceed  the  demands  of  necessity,  his 
friends  advised  him  to  think  of  some  pro- 
fession that  might  enable  him  to  increase 
"it.  He  accordingly  turned  his  views  to 
the  law,  and  took  his  degrees  in  that  fa- 
culty, which  he  soon  after  abandoned, 
and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  me- 
dicine. Geometry,  however,  was  always 
drawing  him  back  to  his  former  pursuits  : 
so  that,  after  many  ineffectual  struggles 
to  resist  its  attractions,  he  renounced  all 
views  of  a  lucrative  profession,  and  gave 
himself  up  entirely  to  mathematics  and 
poverty.  In  the  year  1741,  he  was  ad- 
mitted a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences ;  for  which  distinguished  literary 
promotion,  at  so  early  an  age  (24,)  he 
had  prepared  the  way,  by  correcting  the 
errors  of  the  "Analyse  Demontree"  of 
Reyneau,  which  was  highly  esteemed  in 
France  in  the  line  of  analytics.  He  after- 
wards set  himself  to  examine,  with  atten- 
tion and  assiduity,  what  must  be  the  mo- 
tion and  path  of  a  body,  which  passes 
from  one  fluid  into  another  denser  fluid, 

VOL.  I. 


in  a  direction  oblique  to  the  surface  be- 
tween the  two  fluids.  Two  years  after 
his  election  to  a  place  in  the  academy, he 
published  his  "Treatise  on  Dynam  cs." 
The  new  principle  developed  in  this 
treatise  consisted  in  establishing  an  equal- 
ity, at  each  instant,  between  the  changes 
that  the  motion  of  a  body  has  undergone, 
and  the  forces  orpowers  which  have  been 
employed  to  produce  them;  or,  to  ex- 
press the  same  thing  otherwise,  in  sepa- 
rating into  two  parts  the  action  of  the 
moving  powers,  and  considering  the  one 
as  producing  alone  the  motion  of  the  bo- 
dy in  the  second  instant,  and  the  other 
as  employed  to  destroy  that  which  it  had 
in  the  first. 

So  early  as  the  year  1744,  D'Alembert 
had  applied  this  principle  to  the  theory  of 
the  equilibrium,  and  the  motion  of  fluids ; 
and  all  the  problems  before  resolved  in 
physics  became  in  some  measure  its  corol- 
laries. The  discovery  of  this  new  prin- 
ciple was  followed  by  that  of  a  new  calcu- 
lus, the  first  essays  of  which  were  pub- 
lished in  a  "  Discourse  on  the  General 
Theory  of  the  Winds:"  to  this  the  prize- 
medal  was  adjudged  by  the  Academy  of 
Berlin,  in  the  year  1746,  which  proved  a 
new  and  brilliant  addition  to  the  fame  of 
D'Alembert.  This  new  calculus  of  "  Par- 
tial Differences"  he  applied,  the  year  fol- 
lowing, to  the  problem  of  vibrating 
chords,  the  resolution  of  which,  as  well 
as  the  theory  of  the  oscillations  of  the  air, 
and  the  propagation  of  sound,  had  been 
but  imperfectly  given  by  the  mathemati- 
cians who  preceded  him  ;  and  these  were 
his  masters  or  his  rivals.  In  the  year 
1749,  he  furnished  a  method  of  apply- 
ing his  principle  to  the  motion  of  any 
body  of  a  given  figure.  He  also  re- 
solved the  problem  of  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes  :  determining*  its  quantity, 
and  explaining  the  phenomenon  of  the 
nutation  of  the  terrestrial  axis  discovered. 
by  Dr.  Bradley. 

In  1752,  D'Alembert  published  a  trea- 
tise on  the  "  Resistance  of  Fluids,"  to 
which  he  gave  the  modest  title  of  an 
"  Essay;"  though  it  contains  a  multitude 
of  original  ideas  and  new  obvervations. 
About  the  same  time  he  published,  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  "Re- 
searches concerning  the  Integral  Calcu- 
lus," which  is  greatly  indebted  to  him  for 
the  rapid  progress  it  has  made  in  the  pre- 
sent century. 

While  the  studies  of  D'Alembert  were 
confi nedto  mere  mathematics,  he  waslittle 
known  or  celebrated  in  his  native  country. 
His  connections  were  limited  to  a  small 

N 


ALEMBERT. 


society  of  select  friends.  But  his  cheer- 
ful conversation,  his  smart  and  lively  sal- 
lies, a  happy  method  at  telling  a  story,  a 
singular  mixture  of  malice  of  speech  with 
goodness  of  heart,  and  of  delicacy  of  wit 
with  simplicity  of  manners,  renderinghim 
a  pleasing  and  interesting  companion,  his 
company  began  to  be  much  sought  after 
in  the  fashionable  circles.  His  reputation 
at  length  made  its  way  to  the  throne,  and 
rendered  him  the  object  of  royal  attention 
and  beneficence.  The  consequence  was, 
a  pension  from  government,  which  he 
owed  to  the  friendship  of  count  D'Argen- 
son. 

But  the  tranquillity  of  D'Alembert  was 
abated  when  his  fame  grew  more  exten- 
sive, and  when  it  was  known,  beyond  the 
circle  of  his  friends,  that  a  fine  and  en- 
lightened taste  for  literature  and  philoso- 
phy accompanied  his  mathematical  geni- 
us. Our  author's  eulogist  ascribes  to  envy, 
detraction,  &c.  all  the  opposition  and  cen- 
sure that  D'Alembert  met  with  on  account 
of  the  famous  Encyclopedie,  or  Dictionary 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,  in  conjunction  with 
Diderot.  None  surely  will  refuse  the 
well  deserved  tribute  of  applause  to  the 
eminent  displays  of  genius,  judgment,  and 
true  literary  taste,  with  which  D'Alem- 
bert has  enriched  that  great  work.  Among 
others,  the  Preliminary  Discourse  he  has 
prefixed  to  it,  concerning  the  rise,  pro- 
gress, connections,  and  affinities,  of  all 
the  branches  of  human  knowledge,  is 
perhaps  one  of  the  most  capital  produc- 
tions the  philosophy  of  the  age  can  boast 
of. 

Some  time  after  this,  D'Alembert  pub- 
lished his  "  Philosophical,  Historical,  and 
Philological  Miscellanies."  These  were 
followed  by  the  "  Memoirs  of  Christiana, 
Queen  of  Sweden;"  in  which  D'Alembert 
shewed  that  he  was  acquainted  with  the 
natural  rights  of  mankind,  and  was  bold 
enough  to  assert  them.  His  "  Essay  on 
the  Intercourse  of  Men  of  Letters  with 
Persons  high  in  Rank  and  Office"  wound- 
ed the  former  to  the  quick,  as  it  exposed 
to  the  eyes  of  the  public  the  ignominy  of 
those  servile  chains,  which  they  feared  to 
shake  off,  or  were  proud  to  wear.  A  lady 
of  the  court,  hearing  one  day  the  author 
accused  of  having  exaggerated  the  des- 
potism of  the  great,  and  the  submission 
they  require,  answered  slyly,  "  If  he  had 
consulted  me,  I  would  have  told  him  still 
more  of  the  matter." 

D'Alembert  gave  elegant  speciments  of 
his  literary  abilities  in  his  translations 
of  some  select  pieces  of  Tacitus.  But 
these  occupations  did  not  divert  him  from 


his  mathematical  studies  ;  for  about  tfrff 
same  time  he  enriched  the  Encyclopedia 
with  a  multitude  of  excellent  articles  in  that 
line,  and  composed  his  "Researches  on 
several  Important  Points  of  the  System  of 
the  World,"  in  which  he  carried  to  a  high- 
er degree  of  perfection  the  solution  of  the 
problem  concerning  the  perturbations  of 
the  planets,  that  had  several  years  before 
been  presented  to  the  Academy.  In  1759 
he  published  his  "  Elements  of  Philoso- 
phy ;"  a  work  much  extolled,  as  remark- 
able for  its  precision  and  perspicuity. 
The  resentment  that  was  kindled  (and  the 
disputes  that  followed  it)  by  the  article 
GENEVA,  inserted  in  the  Encyclopedie, 
are  well  known.  D'Alembert  did  not 
leave  this  field  of  controversy  with  flying 
colours.  Voltaire  was  an  auxiliary  in  the 
contest;  but  as  he  had  no  reputation  to 
lose,  in  point  of  candour  and  decency, 
and  as  he  weakened  the  blows  of  his 
enemies  by  throwing  both  them  and  the 
spectators  into  fits  of  laughter,  the  issue 
of  the  war  gave  him  little  uneasiness.  It 
fell  more  heavily  on  D'Alembert ;  and  ex- 
posed him,  even  at  home,  to  much  con- 
tradiction and  opposition.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  the  late  King  of  Prussia  of- 
fered him  a)i  honourable  asylum  at  his 
court,  and  the  office  of  president  of  his 
academy  :  and  the  king  was  not  offended 
at  D'Alembert's  refusal  of  these  distinc- 
tions, but  cultivated  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  him  during  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Fie  had  refused,  some  time  before  this 
a  proposal  made  by  the  Empress  of  Rus- 
sia, to  entrust  him  with  the  education  of 
the  Grand  Duke; — a  proposal  accompa- 
nied with  all  the  flattering  offers  that 
could  tempt  a  man,  ambitious  of  titles,  or 
desirous  of  makingan  ample  fortune ;  but 
the  objectsof  his  ambition  were  tranquilli- 
ty and  study.  In  the  year  1765,  he  publish- 
ed his  "  Dissertation  on  the  Destruction 
of  the  Jesuits."  This  piece  drew  upon 
him  a  swarm  of  adversaries,  who  only 
confirmed  the  merit  and  credit  of  his 
work  by  their  manner  of  attacking  it. 

Beside  the  works  already  mentioned, 
he  published  nine  volumes  of  memoirs 
and  treatises,  under  the  title  of"  Opus- 
cules?" in  which  he  has  resolved  a  mul- 
tude  of  problems  relating  to  astronomy, 
mathematics,  and  natural  philosophy  ;  of 
which  his  panegyrist,  Condorcet,  gives  a 
particular  account,  more  especially  of 
those  which  exhibit  new  subjects,  or  new 
methods  of  investigation.  He  published 
also  "  Elements  of  Mu^ic;"  and  render- 
ed, at  length,  the  system  of  Rameau  in- 
telligible; but  he  did  riot  think  the  mathe- 


ALE 


ALE 


uiatical  theory  of  the  sonorous  body  suffi- 
cient to  account  for  the  rules  of  that  art. 
In  the  year  1772  he  was  chosen  Secretary 
to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
formed,  soon  after  this  preferment,  the 
design  of  writing1  the  lives  of  ail  the  de- 
ceased academicians,  from  1700  to  1772  ; 
and  in  the  space  of  three  years  he  exe- 
cuted this  design  by  composing  seventy 
eulogies. 

The  correspondence  which  D'Alembert 
held  with  eminent  literary  characters,  and 
his  constant  intercourse  with  learned  men 
of  all  nations,  together  with  his  great  in- 
fluence in  the  academy,  concurred  to  give 
him  a  distinguished  importance  above 
most  of  his  countrymen.  By  some,  who 
were  jealous  of  his  reputation,  he  was 
denominated  the  Mazarin  of  literature  ; 
but  there  seems  ROW  no  doubt,  but  that 
his  influence  was  obtained  by  his  great 
talents  and  learning,  rather  than  by  art- 
ful management  and  supple  address.  He 
was  a  decided  and  open  enemy  to  super- 
stition and  priestcraft.  Without  enquir- 
ing into  the  merits  of  Christianity,  he  con- 
cluded, that  the  religion  taught  in  France 
was  that  which  believers  in  general  re- 
garded as  the  true  doctrine,  and  which 
he  rejected  as  a  fable  unworthy  the  atten- 
tion of  the  philosopher.  There  is  no  rea- 
son to  think  that  he  ever  studied  the 
foundations  on  which  natural  and  revealed 
religion  were  built ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
he  adopted  a  system  of  deified  nature, 
which  bereaves  the  world  of  a  designing 
cause  and  presiding  intelligence.  He  was 
zealous  even  in  propagating  the  opinions 
which  he  adopted,  and  might  be  regarded 
as  an  apostle  of  atheism.  The  eccentri- 
city of  his  opinions  did  not  destroy  the 
moral  virtues  of  his  heart.  A  love  of 
truth  and  a  zeal  for  the  progress  of  real 
science  and  liberty,  formed  the  basis  of 
his  character :  strict  probity,  a  noble  dis- 
interestedness and  an  habitual  desire  of 
being  useful,  were  its  distinguishing  fea- 
tures. To  the  young  who  possessed  ta- 
lents and  genius,  he  was  a  patron  and  in- 
sti-uctor :  to  the  poor  and  oppressed  he  be- 
came a  firm  and  generous  friend :  to  those 
who  had  shown  him  kindness,  he  never 
ceased  to  be  grateful ;  a  sure  evidence  of 
a  great  mind.  To  two  ministers  who  had 
befriended  him  in  their  prosperity,  he  de- 
dicated works  when  they  were  in  disgrace 
with  the  court.  An  instance  of  a  kind,  a 
grateful  disposition,  was  displayed  by 
D'Alembert  in  early  life.  His  mother, 
who  had  infamously  disowned  and  aban- 
doned him,  hearing  of  the  greatness  of 
his  talents,  and  of  the  promise  which  he 


gave  of  future  celebrity,  obtained  an  in- 
terview, and  laid  claim  to  the  character 
of  a  parent. — "  What  do  I  hear,"  said  the 
indignant  youth,  "  you  are  the  mother-in- 
law,  the  glazier's  wife  is  my  true  mother:*' 
for  her  indeed  he  never  ceased  to  testify 
the  affection  and  gratitude  of  a  child: 
and  under  her  roof  he  resided,  as  we  have 
seen,  many  years,  till  an  alarming  illness 
made  it  necessary  for  him  to  remove  to  a 
more  airy  lodging.  D'Alembert  main 
tained  his  high  rank  and  reputation  among 
mathematicians  and  philosophers  till  his 
death,  in  October  1783.  His  loss  was 
deplored  by  survivors  of  every  country  ; 
but  his  particular  friends  and  associates 
exhibited  on  the  occasion,  every  mark  of 
grief  which  real  and  unaffected  sorrow 
can  alone  supply  for  undissembled  worth. 

ALEMBIC,  in  chemistry,  a  vessel  usu- 
ally made  of  glass  or  copper,  formerly 
used  for  distillation.  The  bottom,  in 
which  the  substance  to  be  distilled  is  put, 
is  called  the  cucurbit ,-  the  upper  part  is 
called  the  head,  the  beak  of  which  is  fit- 
ted into  the  neck  of  the  receiver.  Re- 
torts and  the  common  worm-still  are  now 
more  generally  employed.  See  CHEM- 
ISTRY, DISTILLATION,  &c. 

ALETR1S,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  order, 
of  the  natural  order  of  Lilije  or  Liliaceae, 
of  which  there  are  pine  species;  A.fari- 
nosa,  or  American  aletris,  used  by  the  na- 
tives in  coughs,  and  in  the  pleurisy.  Some 
of  the  species  are  natives  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  others  arc  found  natural  in 
Ceylon  and  Guinea.  The  A.  zelanica,  or 
Ceylon  aloe,  is  common  in  gardens  where 
exotic  plants  are  preserved.  A.  guianen- 
sis,  or  Guinea  aloe,  when  in  flower,  sel- 
dom continues  in  beauty  more  than  two  or 
three  days,  and  never  produces  seeds  in 
England'.  The  Ceylon,  Guinea,  and 
sweet-scented  species,  are  too  tender  to 
live  through  the  winter  in  England,  unless 
in  a  warm  stove;  and  they  will  not  pro- 
duce flowers  if  the  plants  are  not  plunged 
into  a  tan-bed.  The  creeping  roots  of  the 
Ceylon  and  Guinea  sorts  send  up  many 
heads,  which  should  be  cut  off  in  June, 
and  after  having  been  laid  in  the  stove  a 
fortnight,  that  the  wounded  part  may 
heal,  they  should  be  planted  in  small 
pots  of  light  sandy  earth,  plunged  into  a 
moderate  not  bed,  and  treated  like  other 
tender  succulent  plants,  and  be  never  set 
abroad  in  summer. 

ALEURITES,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Moncecia  Monadelphia  class  and  order, 
of  the  natural  order  of  Tricoccx.  The 
flowers  are  male  and  femule  ;  the  calyx 


ALG 


AL& 


of  the  male  is  a  periajithium  ;  the  corol- 
las five  petals ;  the  nectary  has  five-cor- 
nered scales ;  the  stamens  are  numerous 
filaments;  the  anthers  roundish.  The  fe- 
male flowers  are  few,  the  calyx,  corolla, 
and  nectarium,  as  in  the  male,  but  larger. 
There  are  two  seeds  with  a  double  bark. 
Only  one  species,  a  tree  in  the  islands  of 
the  South  Seas. 

ALEXANDRIAN  Copy  of  the  JVeiv 
Testament,  preserved  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, is  referred  to  as  an  object  of  curi- 
osity, as  well  as  of  considerable  import- 
ance to  persons  who  study  the  scrip- 
tures critically.  It  consists  of  four  large 
quarto,  or  rather  folio  volumes,  contain- 
ing the  whole  bible  in  Greek,  including 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  the 
Apochrypha,  and  some  smaller  pieces,  but 
not  quite  complete.  It  was  placed  in  the 
British  Museum  in  1758 ;  and  had  been  a 
present  to  Charles  I.  from  Cyrillus  Luca- 
ris,  a  native  of  Crete,  and  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  by  sir  Thomas  Rowe,  am- 
bassador from  England  to  the  Grand 
Seignior  in  the  year  1628.  Cyrillus 
brought  it  with  him  from  Alexandria, 
where  it  was  probably  written.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  written  by  Thecla,  a  noble 
Egyptian  lady,  about  thirteen  hundred 
years  ago.  In  the  New  Testament  there 
is  wanting  the  beginning,  as  far  as  Matt. 
xxv.  6;  likewise  from  John  vi.  50,  to  viii. 
52  ;  and  from  2  Cor.  iv.  19,  to  xii.  7.  It 
has  neither  accents  nor  marks  of  aspira- 
tion, it  is  written  with  capital,  or,  as  they 
are  called,  ?/TJ cm/letters  and  there  are  no 
intervals  between  the  words,  but  the  sense 
of  a  passage  is  sometimes  terminated  by 
a  point,  and  sometimes  by  a  vacant  space. 
Dr.  Woride  published  this  valuable  work 
in  1786,  with  types  cast  for  the  purpose, 
line  for  line,  precisely  like  the  original 
MS.  :  the  copy  has  been  examined  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  it  is  found  to  be  so 
perfect  a  resemblance  of  the  original,  that 
it  may  supply  its  place.  The  authentici- 
ty, antiquity,  &c.  of  this  MS.  is  briefly, 
but  ably  discussed  in  Rees's  New  Cyclo- 
pedia, Vol.  I,  p.  ii. 

ALG^E,  in  botany,  an  order  or  division 
of  the  Cryptogamia  class  of  plants.  It  is 
one  of  the  seven  families  or  natural  tribes 
into  which  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  dis- 
tributed, in  the  Philosophia  Botanica  of 
Linnaeus ;  the  57th  order  of  his  fragments 
of  a  natural  method. 

The  plants  belonging  to  this  order  are 
described  as  having-  their  root,  leaf,  and 
stern  entire,  or  all  one.  The  whole  of 
the  sea-weeds,  and  various  other  aquatic 
plants,  are  comprehended  under  tins  di- 


vision. From  their  admitting  of  little  dis- 
tinction of  root,  leaf,  or  stem,  and  the 
parts  of  their  flowers,  being  equally  inca- 
pable of  description,  the  genera  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  situation  of  what  is  sup- 
posed to  be  flowers  or  seeds,  or  by 
the  resemblance  which  the  whole  plant 
bears  to  some  other  substance.  The 
parts  of  fructification  are  either  found  in 
saucers  and  tubercles,  as  in  lichens ;  in  hol- 
low bladders,  as  in  the  fuci ;  or  dispersed 
through  the  whole  substance  of  the  plants, 
as  in  the  ulvx.  The  substance  of  the  plants 
has  much  variety  ;  it  is  flesh-like,  or  lea- 
ther-like, rnembranaceous  or  fibrous,  jel- 
ly-like or  horn-like,  or  it  has  the  resem- 
blance of  a  calcareous  earthy  matter. 

Lamarck  distributes  the  algae  into  three 
sections:  the  first  comprehends  all  those 
plants,  whose  fructification  is  not  appa- 
rent, or  seems  doubtful.  These  common- 
ly live  in  water,  or  upon  moist  bodies,  and 
are  membranous,  gelatinous,  or  filamen- 
tous. To  this  section  he  refers  the  byssi, 
conferva,  ulva,  tremella,  and  varec.  The 
plants  of  the  second  section  are  distin- 
guished by  their  apparent  fructification, 
though  it  be  little  known,  and  they  are 
formed  of  parts  which  have  no  particu- 
lar and  sensible  opening  or  explosion,  at 
any  determined  period  ;  their  substance 
is  ordinarily  crustaceous  or  coriaceous. 
They  include  the  tassella,  ceratosperma, 
and  lichen.  The  third  section  compre- 
hends plants  which  have  their  fructifica- 
tion very  apparent,  and  distinguished  by 
constituent  parts,  which  open  at  a  certain 
period  of  maturity,  for  the  escape  of  the 
fecundating  dust  or  seeds.  These  plants 
are  more  herbaceous,  as  to  both  their 
substance  and  their  colour,  than  those  of 
the  other  two  sections,  and  are  more  near- 
ly related  to  the  mosses,  from  which  they 
do  not  essentially  differ.  Their  flowers 
are  often  contained  in  articulated  and  ve- 
ry elastic  filaments.  To  this  section  are 
referred  the  riccia,  blasia,  anthoceros, 
targiona,  hepatica,  and  junger-manna.  In 
the  Linnaean  system  the  algae  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  viz.  the  terrestres  and 
aquaticae.  The  former  include  the  an- 
thoceros, blacia,  riccia,  lichen,  and  bys- 
sus ;  and  the  latter,  are  the  ulva  fucus, 
and  conferva.  The  fructification  of  the 
algae,  and  particularly  of  those  called 
aquaticae,  is  denomicated  by  a  judicious 
botanist,  the  opprobrium  botanicorum. 

ALGAROTH.    See  ANATOMT. 

ALGEBRA,  a  general  method  of  re- 
solving mathematical  problems  !w  means 
of  equations ;  or,  it  is  a  method  of  com- 
putation by  symbols,  which  have  been 


ALGEBRA. 


invented  for  expressing  the  quantities 
that  are  the  objects  of  this  science,  and 
also  their  mutual  relation  and  depen- 
dence. These  quantities  might  proba- 
bly, in  the  infancy  of  the  science,  be  de- 
noted by  their  names  at  full  length; 
these,  being  found  inconvenient,  were 
succeeded  by  abbreviations,  or  by  their 
mere  initials;  and,  at  length,  certain  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  were  adopted  as  ge- 
neral representations  of  all  quantities; 
other  symbols  or  signs  were  introduced, 
to  prevent  circumlocution,  and  to  facili- 
tate the  comparison  of  various  Quantities 
with  one  another  ;  and,  in  consequence  of 
the  use  of  letters  or  species,  and  other 
general  symbols,  or  indeterminate  quan- 
tities, algebra  obtained  the  appellation  of 
specious,  literal,  and  universal  arithmetic. 
The  origin  of  Algebra,  like  that  of  other 
sciences  of  ancient  date  and  gradual  pro- 
gress, is  not  easily  ascertained.  The 
most  ancient  treatise  on  that  part  of  ana- 
lytics, which  is  properly  called  algebra, 
now  extant,  is  that  of  Diophantus,  a 
Greek  author  of  Alexandria,  who  flou- 
rished about  the  year  of  our  Lord  350, 
and  who  wrote  13  books,  though  only 
six  of  them  are  preserved,  which  were 
printed,  together  with  a  single  imperfect 
book  on  multangular  numbers,  in  a  Latin 
translation  by  Xylander,  in  1575,  and 
afterwards  in  Greek  and  Latin,  with  a 
comment,  in  1621  and  1670,  by  Gaspar 
Bachet,  and  M.  Fermat,  Tolosje,  fol. 
These  books  do  not  contain  a  treatise  on 
the  elementary  parts  of  algebra,  but 
.merely  collections  of  some  difficult  ques- 
tions relating  to  square  and  cube  num- 
bers, and  other  curious  properties  of 
numbers,  with  their  solutions.  Algebra, 
however,  seems  not  to  have  been  wholly 
unknown  to  the  ancient  mathematicians, 
long  before  the  age  of  Diophantus.  We 
observe  the  traces  and  effects  of  it  in 
many  places,  though  it  seems  as  if  they 
had  intentionally  concealed  it.  Something 
of  it  appears  in  Euclid,  or  at  least  in 
Theon  upon  Euclid,  who  observes  that 
Plato  had  begun  to  teach  it.  And  there 
are  other  instances  of  it  in  Pappus,  and 
more  in  Archimedes  and  Appollonius. 
But.  it  should  be  observed,  that  the  ana- 
lysis used  by  these  authors  is  rather  ge- 
ometrical than  algebraical ;  this  appears 
from  the  examples  that  occur  in  their 
works ;  and,  therefore,  Diophantus  is  the 
first  and  only  author  among  the  Greeks 
who  has  treated  professedly  of  algebra. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  science  was  deri- 
ved, not  from  Diophantus,  but  from  the 
rs  or  Arabians;  but  whether  the 


- 


Greeks  or  Arabians  were  the  inventors  of 
it  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  it  is  much  more 
ancient  than  Diophantus,  because  his 
treatise  seems  to  refer  to  works  similar 
and  prior  to  his  own. 

Algebra  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  arithme- 
tic, which  takes  the  quantity  sought, 
whether  it  be  a  number,  or  a  line,  or  any 
other  quantity,  as  if  it  were  granted ; 
and  by  means  of  one  or  more  quantities 
given,  proceeds  by  a  train  of  deductions, 
till  the  quantity  at  first  only  supposed  to 
be  known,  or  at  least  some  power  of  it,  is 
found  to  be  equal  to  some  quantity  or 
quantities  which  are  known,  and  conse- 
quently itself  is  known. 

Algebra  is  of  two  kinds,  numeral  and 
literal. 

ALGEBRA,  numeral  or  vulgar,  is  that 
which  is  chiefly  concerned  in  the  resolu- 
tion of  arithmetical  questions.  In  this,  the 
quantity  sought  is  represented  by  some 
letter  or  character;  but  all  the  given 
quantities  are  expressed  by  numbers. 
Such  is  the  algebra  of  the  more  ancient 
authors,  as  Diophantus,  Paciolus,  Stifeli- 
us,  &c.  This  is  thought  by  some  to  have 
been  an  introduction  to  the  art  of  keep- 
ing merchants'  accounts  by  double  en- 
try. 

ALGEBRA,  specious  or  literal,  or  the  new 
algebra,  is  that  in  which  all  the  quanti- 
ties, known  and  unknown,  are  express- 
ed or  represented  by  their  species,  or 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  There  are  in- 
stances of  this  method  from  Cardan,  and 
others  about  his  time ;  but  it  was  more 
generally  introduced  and  used  by  Vieta. 
Dr.  Wallis  apprehends  that  the  name  of 
specious  arithmetic,  applied  to  algebra,  is 
given  to  it  with  a  reference  to  the  sense  in 
which  the  Civilians  use  the  wrord  species. 
Thus,  they  use  the  names  Titus,  Sempro- 
nius,  Cair.s,  and  the  like,  to  represent  in- 
definitely any  person  in  such  circumstan- 
ces ;  and  cases  so  propounded,  they  call 
species.  Vieta,  accustomed  to  the  lan- 
guage of  the  civil  law,  gave,  as  Wallis 
supposes,  the  name  of  species  to  the  let- 
ters, A,  B,  C,  &c.  which  he  used  to  re- 
present indefinitely  any  number  or  quan- 
tity so  circumstanced,  as  the  occasion 
required.  This  mode  of  expression  frees 
the  memory  and  imagination  from  that 
stress  or  effort,  which  is  required  to  keep 
several  matters,  necessary  for  the  disco- 
very of  the  truth  investigated,  present  to 
the  mind;  for  which  reason  this  art  may 
be  properly  denominated  metaphysical 
geometry.  Specious  algebra  is  not,  like 
the  numeral,  confined  to  certain  kinds  of 


ALGEBRA, 


problems  ;  but  serves  universally  for  the 
Investigation  or  invention  of  theorems,  as 
well  as  the  solution  and  demonstration  of 
all  kinds  of  problems,  both  arithmetical 
and  geometrical.  The  letters  used  in 
algebra  do  each  of  them,  separately,  re- 
present either  lines  or  numbers,  as  the 
problem  is  either  arithmetical  or  geome- 
trical ;  and,  together,  they  represent 
planes,  solids,  and  powers,  more  or  less 
high,  as  the  letters  are  in  a  greater  or  less 
number.  For  instance,  if  there  be  two 
letters,  a  b,  they  represent  a  rectangle, 
whose  two  sides  are  expressed,  one  by 
the  letter  a,  and  the  other  by  b  ,•  so  that 
by  their  mutual  multiplication  they  pro- 
duce the  plane  a  b.  Where  the  same  let- 
ter is  repeated  twice,  as  a  a,  they  denote 
a  square.  Three  letters,  a,  b,  c,  represent 
a  solid,  or  a  rectangular  parallelepiped, 
whose  three  dimensions  are  expressed  by 
the  three  letters  a  b  c ,-  the  length  by  a, 
the  breadth  by  b,  and  the  depth  by  c  ,•  so 
that  by  their  'mutual  multiplication  they 
produce  the  solid  a  b  c,  As  the  multipli- 
cation of  dimensions  is  expressed  by  the 
multiplication  of  letters,  and  as  the  num- 
ber of  these  may  be  so  great  as  to  become 
incommodious,  the  method  is  only  to 
write  down  the  root,  and  on  the  right 
hand  to  write  the  index  of  the  power, 
that  is,  the  number  of  letters  of  whicli 
the  quantity  to  be  expressed  consists  ;  as 
a1,  ft3,  a*,  8cc.  the  last  of  whicli  signifies 
as  much  as  a  multiplied  four  times  into 
itself;  and  so  of  the  rest.  But  as  it  is 
necessary,  before  any  progress  can  be 
made  in  the  science  of  algebra,  to  under- 
stand the  method  of  notation,  we  shall 
here  give  a  general  view  of  it.  In  alge- 
bra, as  we  have  already  stated,  every 
quantity,  whether  it  be  known  or  given, 
or  unknown  or  required,  is  usually  repre- 
sented by  some  letter  of  the  alphabet : 
and  the  given  quantities  are  commonly 
denoted  by  the  initial  letters,  a,  b,  c,  d, 
S-.c.  and  the  unknown  ones  by  the  final 
letters,  it,  iv,  x,  y,  z.  These  quantities 
are  connected  together  by  certain  signs 
or  symbols,  which  serve  to  shew  their 
mutual  relation,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
simplify  the  science,  and  to  reduce  its 
operations  into  a  less  compass.  Accord- 
ingly the  sign  -|-,  plus,  or  more,  signi- 
fies that  the  quantity  to  which  it  is  prefix- 
ed is  to  be  added,  and  it  is  called  a  posi- 
tive or  affirmative  quantity.  Thus,  a+6, 
expresses  the  sum  of  the  two  quantities 
ft  and  b,  so  that  if  a  were  5,  and  b  3, 
n-H>  would  be  5-J-3,  or  8.  If  a  quantity 
have  no  sign,  -}-,  plus,  is  understood,  and 
the  quantity  is  affirmative  or  positive. 


The  sign  — ,  minus,  or  less,  denotes  that 
the  quantity  which  it  precedes  is  to  be 
subtracted,  and  it  is    called  a  negative 
quantity.     Thus  a  —  b  expresses  the  dif- 
ference of  a  and  b  ,•  so  that  a  being  5,  and 
b  3,  a  —  by  or  5- — 3,  would  be  equal  to  2, 
If  more  quantities  than  two  were  con- 
nected by  these  signs,  the  sum  of  those 
with  the  sign  —  must  be  substracted  from 
the  sum  of  those  with  the  sign  -}-.    Thus 
a  +  b  —  c  —  d  represents  the  quantity 
which  would  remain,  when  c  and  d  are 
taken  from  a  and  b.     So  that  if  a  were  7, 
b  6,  c  5  and  d  3,  a  +  b  —  c  —  d,  or  7  +  6 
—  5  —  3,  or  13  —  8,  would  be  equal  to  5. 
If  two  quantities  are  connected  by  the 
sign  02 ,  as  a  02  6>  this  mode  of  expres- 
sion represents  the  difference  of  a  and  6, 
when  it  is  not  known  which  of  them  is 
the  greatest.     The  sign  X  signifies  that 
the  quantities  between  whicli  it  stands 
are  to  be  multiplied  together,  or  it  repre- 
sents their  product.     Thus,   a  X  b   ex- 
presses the  product  of  a  and  b;  a  X  b  X  c 
denotes  the  product  of  a,  6,  and  c  ;  (a-j-£>) 
X  c  denotes  the  product  of  the  compound 
quantity  a  -f-  b  by  the  simple  quantity  c  ; 
and  (a  •+-  b  +  c)  X  (a  —  b  +  c)  X  O+6 
represents  the  product  of  the  three  com- 
pound quantities,  multiplied  continually 
into  one  another;  so  that  if  a  were  5,  b 
4,  and  c  3,  then  would  (a  +  b  +  c)   X 
(a  —  b  +  c)  X  (a  +  c)  be  12  X  4  X  8,  or 
384.  The  parenthesis  used  in  the  forego- 
ing expressions  indicate  that  the  whole 
compound  quantities  are  affected  by  the 
sign,  and  not  simply  the  single  terms  be- 
tween which  it  is  placed-  Quantities  that 
are  joined  together  without  any  interme- 
diate sign  form  a  product ;  thus  a  b  is  the 
same  with  a  X  b,  and  a  b  c  the  same  with 
a  X  b  X  c.     When   a  quantity  is  multi- 
plied into  itself,  or  raised  to  any  power, 
the  usual  mode  of  expression  is  to  draw  a 
line  over  the  quantity,  and  to  place  the 
number  denoting  the  power  at  the  end  of 
it,  which  number  is  called  the  index  or 
exponent.     Thus,  (a  -f-  by  denotes  the 
same  as  (a  -\-  b)   X  (a -\-  b}  or  second 
power  or  square,  of  a  -{-  b  considered  as 
one  quantity  ;  and  (a  -}-  6)3  denotes  the 
same  as  (a  -f  b}  X  O  +  b)  X  (a  -f  £), 
or  the  third  power,  or  cube  of  a  -f-  b.     In 
expressing  the  powers  of  quantities  re- 
presented by  single  letters,  the  line  over 
the  top  is  usually  omitted  ;  thus,  a*  is  the 
same  as  a  a  cr  a  X  a,  and  />S  the  same  as 
b  b  b  or  b  X  b   X  b,  and  a1  b>,  the  same 
us  a  a   XbbboraXaXbXbX   b. 
The  full  point .  and  the  word  into,  are 
sometimes  used  instead  of  X  as  the  sign 
of  multiplication.    Thus,  (a+6)  .  (a-f-r?). 


ALGEBRA. 


and  a  +  b  into  a  +  c,  signify  the  same 
thing  as  (a  -f  6)  X  (a  +  c),  or  the  pro- 
duct of  a  -f-  6  by  a  +  c.  The  sign  -r- 
is  the  sign  of  division,  as  it  denotes  that 
the  quantity  preceding  it  is  to  be  divided 
by  the  succeeding  quantity.  Thus,  c  -f-  b 
signifies  that  c  is  to  be  divided  by  b  ,»  and 
(a  +  £)  -r-  (a  +  c),  that  a  -f-  b  is  to  be 
divided  by  a  -f-  c.  The  mark  )  is  some- 
times used  as  a  note  of  division  ;  thus 
a  -{-  b)  a  b  denotes  that  a  b  is  to  be  divid- 
ed by  a  -f-  b.  But  the  division  of  alge- 
braic quantities  is  most  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  placing  the  divisor  under  the 
dividend,  with  a  line  between  them,  like 

a  vulgar  fraction.  Thus,  —  represents  the 
quantity  arising  by  dividing  c  by  b,  or 
the  ^quotient,  and  —  -  represents  the 

quotient  of  a-f-6  divided  by  a-\-c.  Quan- 
tities thus  expressed  are  called  algebraic 
fractions. 

The  sign  ^/  expresses  the  square  root 
of  any  quantity  to  which  it  is  prefixed  ; 
thus  v/  25  signifies  the  square  root  of  25, 
or  5,  because  5  x  5  is  25  ;  and  v/  (a  6) 
denotes  the  square  root  of  a  b  ,•  and 

/  (  -  -  —  J  denotes  the  square  root  of 

—  —  —  ,  or  of  the  quantity  arising  from 

the   division  of  a  b  -f  b  c  by   d;    but 

v/  (a  b  H-  b  c)       .  .  .    , 

-  -  -  ,  winch  has  the  separating 

line  drawn  under  v/,  signifies  that  the 
square  root  of  a  b  -\-  b  c  is  to  be  first  ta- 
ken, and  afterwards  divided  by  d  ,•  so 
that  if  a  were  2,  b  6,  c  4,  and  d  9, 

v/  (a  b  +  be)          ...     v/36      6 

•^—  '  -  -  -  -,  would  be  •z-fi—  or-;     but 


v/4,  which  is  2.  The  sign  ^/  with  a 
figure  over  it  is  used  to  express  the  cubic 
or  biquadratic  root,  &c.  of  any  quantity  ; 
thus  ^/  64  represents  the  cube  root  of 
64,  or  4,  because  4  X  4  x  4  is  64  ;  and  •$/ 
(a  b  -f-  c  d}  the  cube  root  of  a  b  -{-  c  d.  In 
like  mannerl^/  16  denotes  the  biquadratic 
root  of  16,  or  2,  because  2x2x2x2  is  16, 
and  v/  (a  b-\-c  d)  denotes  the  biquadra- 
tic root  of  a  b  +  c  d;  and  so  of  others. 
Quantities  thus  expressed  are  called  ra- 
dical quantities,  or  surds  ;  of  which  those, 
consisting  of  one  term  only,  as  ^/  a  and 
^/  (a  b)  are  called  simple  surds;  and 
those  consisting  of  several  terms  or  num- 
bers, as  v/  (a1—  6>)  and  $f  (a1—  b+b  c) 


are  denominated  compound  surd&. 
ther  commodious  method  of  expressing 
radical  quantities  is  that  which  denotes 
the  root  by  a  vulgar  fraction,  placed  at 
the  end  of  a  line  drawn  over  the  quantity 
given.  In  this  notation,  the  square  root 
is  expressed  by  £,  the  cube  root  by  -i, 
the  biquadratic  root  by  £,  &c.  Thus  a  $ 
expresses  the  same  quantity  with  ^/  ay 
i.  e.  the  square  root  of  a,  and  (c^-f-a  b)  * 
the  same  as  *§f  (aj  +  «  6),  i.  e.  the  cube 

root  of  c^-fa  b;  and~^  f  denotes  the 
cube  root  of  the  square  of  a,  or  the 
square  of  the  cube  root  of  a;  and  (a-J-z)^. 
the  seventh  power  of  the  biquadratic  root 
of  a  +  x;  and  so  of  others;  (a1)  \  is  a, 
asj-y  is  a,  &c.  Quantities  that  have  no  ra- 
dical sign  (vO  or  index  annexed  to  them, 
are  called  rational  quantities.  The  sign 
=,  called  the  sign  of  equality,  signifies 
that  the  quantities  between  which  it  oc- 
curs are  equal.  Thus  2  +  3  =5,  shews 
that  2  plus  3  is  equal  to  5  ;  and  x  =  a  —  b 
shews  that  x  is  equal  to  the  difference  of 
a  and  b.  The  mark  :  :  signifies  that  the 
quantities  between  which  it  stands  are 
proportional.  As  a  :  b  :  :  c  :  d  denotes  that 
a  is  in  the  same  proportion  to  b  as  c  is  to 
d,-  or  that  if  a  be  twice,  thrice,  or  four 
times,  8cc.  as  great  as  6,  c  will  be  twice, 
thrice,  or  four  times,  8cc.  as  great  as  d. 
When  any  quantity  is  to  be  taken  more  than 
once,  the  number  which  shows  how  many 
times  it  is  to  be  taken  must  be  prefixed; 
thus  5  a  denotes  that  the  quantity  a  is  to 
be  taken  5  times,  and  3  b  c  represents 
three  times  b  c,  and  7  v/  (a'X^3)  denotes 
that  <S  (a1  -f-  6')  is  to  be  taken  7  times, 
&c.  The  numbers  thus  prefixed  are  call- 
ed co-efficients  ;  and  if  a  quantity  have 
no  co-efficient,  unit  is  understood,  and  it 
is  to  be  taken  only  once.  Similar  or  like 
quantities  are  those  that  are  expressed; 
by  the  same  letters  under  the  same  pow- 
ers, or  which  differ  only  in  their  co-effi- 
cients ;  thus,  3  6  c,  5  b  c,  and  8  b  c,  are  like 
quantities,  and  so  are  the  radicals 


But  un- 


like  quantities  are  those  which  are  ex- 
pressed by  different  letters,  or  by  the 
same  letters  with  different  powers,  as  2  a 
b,  5  a  62,  and  3  a1  b.  When  a  quantity  is 
expressed  by  a  single  letter,  or  by  several 
single  letters  multiplied  together,  without 
any  intervening  sign,  as  a  or,  2  a  b,  it  is 
called  a  simple  quantity.  But  the  quan- 
tity which  consists  of  two  or  more  such 
simple  quantities,  connected  by  the  signs 
-|-  or  —  ,  is  called  a  compound  quantity  : 
thus,  a  —  2a6-r-5a&cis  a  compound 


ALGEBRA. 


quantity  ;  and  the  simple  quantities,  a.  2 
a  b,  5  ab  c,  are  called  its  terms  or  mem- 
bers.  If  a  compound  quantity  consist  of 
two  terms,  it  is  called  a  binomial  ;  of 
three  terms,  a  trinomial  ;  of  four  terms, 
a  quadiinomial  ;  and  of  many  terms,  a 
multinomial.  If  one  of  the  terms  of  a 
binomial  be  negative,  the  quantity  is  call- 
ed a  residual  quantity.  The  reciprocal  of 
any  quantity  is  that  quantity  inverted,  or 

unity  divided  by  it;  thus  £  is  the  reci- 

procal of  -  and  -  is  the  reciprocal   of 

a.  The  letters  by  which  any  simple 
quantity  is  expressed  may  be  ranged 
at  pleasure,  and  yet  retain  the  same 
signii.  cation  ;  thus  <i  b  and  b  a  are  the 
same  quantity,  the  product  of  a  and  b 
being  the  same  with  that  or'  6  and  a.  The 
several  terms  of  which  any  compound 
quantity  consists  may  be  disposed  in  Any 
order  at  pleasure,  provided  they  retain 
their  proper  signs.  Thus  a  —  2  a  b  -J- 
5  a1  b  may  be  written  a-\-  5  a1  b  —  2  a  6, 
or  —  2  a  b-\-a-\-5  a*  b,  for  all  these  repre- 
sent the  same  thing,  or  the  quantity  which 
remains,  when  from  the  sum  of  a  and  5 
a-  b,  the  quantity  2  a  b  is  deducted. 

AXIOMS.  1.  If  equal  quantities  be  add- 
ed to  equal  quantities,  the  sums  will  be 
equal. 

2.  If  equal  quantities  be  taken  from 
equal  quantities,  the  remainders  will  be 
equal. 

3.  If  equal  quantities  be  multiplied  by 
the  same,  or  equal  quantities,  the  pro- 
ducts will  be  equal. 

4.  If  equal  quantities  be  divided  by  the 
same,  or  equal  quantities,  the  quotients 
will  be  equal. 

5.  If  the  same  quantity  be  added  to  und 
subtracted  from  another,  the  value  of'the 
latter  will  not  be  altered. 

6.  If  a  quantity  be  both  multiplied  and 
divided  by  another,  its  value  will  not  be 
altered. 

ADDITION    OF    ALGEBHAICAL    Q.UA3T- 
TITIES. 

The  addition  of  algebraical  quantities  is 
performed  by  connecting  those  that  are  un- 
like with  their  proper  signs,  and  collecting 
those  that  are  similar  into  one  sum. 

Add  together  the  following  unlike 
quantities  : 

Ex.  1.  ax 

—  bu 


Ex.  2.     —  < 

-4-3  z— x 


Ans.  a  x  —  b  u  +  3  z  —  2y 


Ans.  — Q+6-fSc— x— 4  y+3  z 

It  is  immaterial  in  what  order  the  quan- 
tities are  set  down,  if  we  take  care  to 
prefix  to  each  its  proper  sign. 

When  any  terms  are  similar,  they  may 
be  incorporated,  and  the  general  expres- 
sion for  the  sum  shortened. 

1.  When  similar  quantities  have   the 
same  sign,  their  sum  is  found  by  taking 
the   sum  of  the  co-efficients    with  that 
sign,  and  annexing  the  common  letters. 

Ex.  3.         4  a  —  5  b 
2  a  — 66 
9  «  —  3  6 
Ans.  15  a— 146 

Ex.  4.  4  aj  c  — 10  6  d  e 

6a-c—    9  6  d  c 

11  a-  c —    3  b  d  e 

Ans.  21  a*  c ^226  de 

The  reason  is  evident ;  4  a  to  be  add- 
ed, together  with  2  a  and  9  a  to  be  add- 
ed, makes  15  a  to  be  added  ;  and  5  b  to 
be  subtracted,  together  with  6  b  and  3  a 
to  be  subtracted,  is  14  b  to  be  subtract- 
ed. 

2.  If  similar  quantities    have    different 
signs,  their  sum  is  found  by  taking  the 
difference   of  the  co-efficients  with  the 
sign   of  the  greater,  and  annexing  the 
common  letters  as  before. 

Ex.  5.       7  a+3  b 

—  5  a— 9  b 
Ans.      2  a— 66 

Ex.  6.       6  a+4  6-f  9  c 

—  9a+36-fl6c 

-j-  12  a— 7  6—20  c 

Ans.         9  a     *   +  5  c 

In  the  first  part  of  the  operation  we 
have  7  times  a  to  add,  and  5  times  a  to 
take  away;  therefore,  upon  the  whole, 
we  have  2  a  to  add.  In  the  latter  part, 
we  have  3  times  b  to  add,  and  9  times  b 
to  take  away;  *.  e.  we  have  upon  the 
whole,  6  times  b  to  take  away:  and  thus 
the  sum  of  all  the  quantities  is  2  a  —  66. 

If  several  similar  quantities  are  to  be 
added  together,  some  with  positive  and 
some  with  negative  signs,  take  the  differ- 
ence between,  the  sum  of  the  positive 


ALGEBRA. 

and  the  sum  of  the  negative  co-efficients,     Ex.  6.  From  4  a — 3  6-f-6  c — 11 
prefix  the  sign  of  the  greater  sum,  and  take  10  x+    a — 15 — 2  »/ 

annex  the  common  letters. 


Ans.      3  a—  3  6-f6  c—  10  x-f2  y-j-4 


—  25 


Ex.  7.  From  a  a:3  — 

take  />  .r?  —  g  x*--r  x 


Ans.  a  —  p  .  x?  —  b  —  q  .  x*+I  — 


Ex.7.    3 

—  4  a*  —  9  b  c  — IQe*  +  21  x  —  90 
Ans.^^6  a1  -f     b  c  —  9e*  +  16  x  —  71 

Ex.  8     4  a  c  -  15  bd  +  e  ar      -  fl  *  In  Aisjxample  the  co-efficients  are 

llac-f    76*    —  \9ex-\-4,  ax  united ;  a  —  p  .  373  is  equal  to  bx*  —  gx>\ 

—41  «'    •+-    6b  d—    7  de  —  2  ax  —b—  g  .  x1  is  equal  to  b  x*  —  q  x*  ;  and 

A.  I5a^4la^— 9*d+7t>*  — I8ex— 7de—  ax  i -— r  .  0:1=0:  —  r  a:. 


Ex.  9.    px^  —  qx*—rx 
axi  —  b  x*  —  x 


Ans.  />-f-a  .  o:3 —  g-j-6  .  x1  — r+1.  x 

In  this  example,  the  co-efficients  ofo: 
and  its  powers  are  united  ;  p+a.  xi=p 
,r3  -}-  a  x> ;  also  —  g-\-b  .  x*  =  —  q  x1  — b 
x1,  because  the  negative  sign  affects  the 
whole  quantity  under  the  vinculum  ;  and 

—  r  —  1  .  x  —  r  x  —  x. 

SUBTRACTION. 

Subtraction,  or  the  taking  away  of  one 
quantity  from  another,  is  performed  by  chang- 
ing the  sign  of  the  quantity  to  be  subtracted, 
and  then  adding  it  to  the  other,  by  the  rules 
laid  doion  in  the  last  article. 

Ex.  1.  From  2  b  x  take  c  y,  and  the  dif- 
ference is  properly  represented  by  2  b  x 

—  c  y  /  because  the  —  prefixed  to  c  y 
shews  that  it  is  to  be  subtracted  from  the 
other ;  and  2  b  x  —  c  y  is  the  sum  of  2  b  x 
and  —  c  y. 

Ex.  2.  Again,  from  2  bx  take  —  c  y,  and 
the  difference  is  2  b  x-\-c  y  ,•  because  2  b  x 
=2  b  x~\-c  y  —  c  y,  take  away  —  c  y  from 
these  equal  quantities,  and  the  differences 
will  be  equal;  i.  e.  the  difference  between 
2  b  x  and  —  cy  is  2  b  x  +  c  y,  the  quantity 
^hich  arises  from  adding  -f-  c  y  to  2  b  x. 


Ex. 


3.  From  a  •+•  b 

take  a  —  b 

Ans.  *  4-  2  b 


Ex.  4.  From  6  a  —  12  b 
take  —  5  a  —  10  b 
Ans.  11  p-ITTA 

Ex.  5.  From      5  a*-f-4  a  b  —  &  x  y 

{take     11  aH-6  a  b  —  4  x  y 
Ans.  —  6  a*— 2  a  b  —  2  x  ?/ 
VOL.  I.    " 


MULTIPLICATION. 

The  multiplication  of  simple  algebrai- 
cal quantities  must  be  represented  ac- 
cording to  the  notation  already  pointed 
out. 

Thus,  a  X  b,  or  a  b,  represents  the  pro- 
duct a  multiplied  by  b ;  a  be,  the  product 
of  the  three  quantities,  a,  b,  and  c. 

It  is  also  indifferent  in  what  order  tlvey 
are  placed,  a  X  b  and  b  X  «  being  equal. 

To  determine  the  sign  of  the  product, 
observe  the  following  rule. 


If  the  multiplier  and  multiplicand  have  the 
same  sign,  the  product  is  positive  ;  if  they 
have  different  signs,  it  is  negative. 

1.  +  aX  -\-  b  •=  ab  ;  because  in  this 
case  a  is  to  be  taken  positively  b  times  ; 
therefore  the  product  a  b  must  be  posi- 
tive. 

2.  —  ax-M=  —  ob;  because  —  a 
is  to  be  taken  b  times  ;  that  is,  we  must 
take  —  ab. 

3.  -f-aX  —  b  =  —  ab  :  for  a  quantity  is 
said  to  be  multiplied  by  a  negative  num- 
ber —  b,  if  it  be  subtracted  b  times  ;  and 
a  subtracted  b  times  is  —  ab. 

4.  —  «X  —  b=x*\-ab.    Here  —  a  is  to 
be  subtracted  b  times  ;  that  is,  —  a  b  is  to 
be  subtracted  ;  but  subtracting  —  a  b  is 
the  same  as  adding  +  ab  ;  therefore  we 
have  to  add  +  ab. 

The  2d  and  4^  cases  may  be  thus  prov- 
ed; a  —  a=o,  multiply  both  sides  by  b, 
and  ab  together  with  —  aX  b  must  be  equal 
to  bx°>  or  nothing;  therefore,  —  a  mul- 
tiplied by  b  must  give  —  ab,  a  quantity 
which  when  added  to  ab  makes  the  sum 
nothing. 

Again,  a  —  a=o  /  multiply  both  sides 
by  —  b,  then  —  a  b  together  with  —  ax 
—  b  must  be  =o,-  therefore  —  a  X  —  b 


If  the  quantities  to  be  multiplied  have 
co-efficients,  these  must  be  multiplied  to- 
O 


ALSEBRA. 


gether,  as  in  common  arithmetic;  the 
sign  and  the  literal  product  being  deter- 
mined by  the  preceding  rules. 

Thus,'3«x56=  15ab;  because  3xc>X 
x5X«x£=15a£,-  4  a:X—  11  y 
a-y  ;  —  91)  X  —  5c=  +456c  /  — 
m=  —  24  m  d. 

The  powers  of  the  same  quantity  are 
multiplied  together  by  adding  the  indices; 
thus  a^X^3  =rt5  :  for  aa  X  <«*tt  =  acmaa. 
in  the  same  manner,  a">  X  a"  =««+»; 
ancl  _  3  a-  x^xS*  x  y»==  —  15^3  ^  y». 

If  the  multiplier  or  multiplicand  con- 
sist of  several  terms,  each  term  of  the  lat- 
ter must  be  multiplied  by  every  term  of 
the  former,  and  the  sum  ot  all  the  pro- 
ducts taken,  for  the  whole  product  of  the 
two  quantities. 


Ex.  1.   Mult, 

by  c+d 


r  Ans.  a  c-4-6  c+x  c+<*  d+b  d+x  d 

Here  a  •+-£  -f  x  is  to  be  added  to  itself 
c-\-d  times,  i.  e.  c  times  and  d  times. 

Ex.  2.  Mult,  a  4-  b  —  x 

by  c  —  d  ___ 
Ans.  a 


c—x  c—a  d  —  b  d-\-x  d 


Here  n-j-6  is  to  be  taken  c  —  d  times, 
that  is,  c  times  wanting  d  times;  or  c  times 
positively  and  d  times  negatively. 

Ex.  3.  Mult,  a+b 


Ans.    q3+2  a  b+b* 

Ex.  4.  Mult.  or+# 
by  a:—  y 


—x  y  —  y~ 

Ans.  x1        *  —  a1 

Ex.  5.  Mult.     3  a2_  5  b  d 
by  —  5  a*-f  4  b  d 
—  15  aM-25  a1  b  d 


Ans.  —  15  flH-37  a*  6  d  —  20  A*  rf* 


Ex.  6.  Mult,  a^  2  a 
by  a1  —  2  a 


Ex.  r.  Mult.  1  —  x+x*  — 
by  1 


—  x*  4.  3-3  — 


Ans. 


Ex.  8.  Mult,  .r1  —  p  x  -j-  q 
by  x   +  a 


-}-  a  x1  —  ap  x-\-a  q  __ 
Ans.  jrt—p  —  ax*-\-q—ap.x+att 

Here  the  co-efficients  of  x»  and  x  are 
collected  ;   —  p  —  a  .  x1  =  —  p 
and  q  —  a  p  .  07=5  a-  —  a  />  x. 


a  a>: 


Ans.     a*    *     — 


To  divide  one  quantity  by  another,  is  to  de- 
termine how  often  the  latter  is  contained  in  tJic 
former,  or  ivhat  quantity  multiplied  by  tht 
latter  tvitt  produce  the  former. 

Thus,  to  divide  a  b  by  a  is  to  determine 
how  often  a  must  be  taken  to  make  np 
a  b,-  that  is,  what  quantity  multiplied  by  a 
will  give  a  b ,-  which  we  know  is  b.  From 
this  consideration  are  derived  all  the  rules 
for  the  division  of  algebraical  quantities. 

If  the  divisor  and  dividend  be  affected 
with  like  signs,  the  sign  of  the  quotient  is 
-f  :  but  if  their  signs  be  unlike,  the  sign 
of  the  quotient  is  — . 

If — a  b  be  divided  by — a,  the  quo- 
tient is  +  b  ;  because  —  a  X  -f-  b  gives 
—  a  b  ,•  and  a  similar  proof  may  be  given 
in  the  other  cases. 

In  the  division  of  simple  quantities,  if 
the  co-efficient  and  literal  product  of  the 
divisor  be  found  in  the  dividend,  the  other 
part  of  the  dividend,  with  the  sign  deter- 
mined by  the  last  rule,  is  the  quotient. 

Thus,— f-  =c;  because  a  b  multipli 
a  b 

ed  by  c  gives  a  b  c. 
If  we  first  divide  by  a,  and  then  by 

b,  the  result  will  be  the  same;  for =  £ 

c,  and  —  =c,  as  before. 

a 

Hence,  any  power  of  a  quantity  is  divi- 
ded by  any  other  power  of  the  same  quan- 
tity, by  subtracting  the  index  of  the  divi- 
sor from  the  index  of  the  dividend. 

a$  <j5         1  am 

*     6f3  fj3         @3  a^ 

If  only  a  part  of  the  product  which 
forms  the  divisor  be  contained  in  the  divi- 


ALGEBRA. 


tlend,  the  quantities  contained  both  in  the 
divisor  and  dividend  must  be  expunged. 
Thus,  15  a3  b1  c  divided  by  —  3  aa  b  x, 
15  q3  &*  c       —  5  a  be. 

°r—  Sa^tT3    ~~# 

First,  divide  by  —  3  a1  6,  and  the  quo- 
tient is  —  5  a  b  c  ,-  this  quantity  is  still  to 
be  divided  by  yt  and  as  y  is  not  contained 
in  it,  the  division  can  only  be  represented 

in  the  usual  way  ;  that  is,  --  is    the 

quotient. 

If  the  dividend  consists  of  several 
terms,  and  the  divisor  be  a  simple  quan- 
tity, every  term  of  the  dividend  must  be 
divided  by  it. 

a3  xl  —  5  a  b  x3  4-  6  a  x* 
Thus,  ---  •  --  =r  a"'  — 
ax1 

5  b  ar-f  6  *J. 

When  the  divisor  also  consists  of  seve- 
ral terms,  arrange  both  the  divisor  and 
dividend  according  to  the  powers  of  some 
one  letter  contained  in  them  ;  then  find 
how  often  the  first  term  of  the  divisor  is 
contained  in  the  firstterm  of  the  dividend, 
and  write  down  this  quantity  for  the  first 
term  in  the  quotient  ;  multiply  the  whole 
divisor  by  it,  subtract  the  product  from 
the  dividend,  and  bring  down  to  the  re- 
mainder as  many  other  terms  of  the  divi- 
dend as  the  case  may  require,  and  repeat 
the  operation  till  all  the  terms  are  brought 
down. 

Ex.  1.  If  a2  —  2  a  b+b*  be  divided  by 
^  —  b,  the  operation  will  be  as  follows  : 
a  _  £)az  _  2  a  b+b*(a  —  b 


Ex.  2.  a+b*)a  c-f-a  d+bc+b  a(c+d 
a  c-\-b  c 

'a'd+bd 
a  d+b  d 


Ex.  3. 


Remainder 


1—  jc 


Ex.   4.      -lr/3  — 


Ex.  5. 


x — ax>— 


pa-\-qxl — ax1 
a — p.r2-\-qx 
a — p.x* — u4 — pa.x 

-^—pa+q-x—r 


r+a>- 


Remainder  a3 — pa%-\-qa — r 


a 
ab+b* 


THE    THAXSFOIUrATION    OF    FRACTIONS 
'  TO    OTHERS    OF    F.a^AL    VALUE. 


The  reason  of  this,  and  the  foregoing 
rule,  is,  that  as  the  whole  dividend  is  made 
up  of  all  its  parts,  the  divisor  is  contained 
in  the  whole,  as  often  as  it  is  contained  in 
all  the  parts.  In  the  preceding  operation 
we  inquire,  first,  how  often  a  is  contained 
in  a1,  which  gives  a  for  the  first  term  of 
the  quotient,  then  multiplying  the  whole 
divisor  by  it,  we  have  a1  —  a  b  to  be  sub- 
tracted from  the  dividend,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  —  a  i-j-fi1,  with  which  we  are 
to  proceed  as  before. 

The  whole  quantity  a1  —  2  a  b+b1  is  in 
reality  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  pro- 
cess, each  of  which  is  divided  by  a  —  b  ; 
therefore  the  true  quotient  is  obtained. 


If  the  signs  of  all  the  terms  both  in  the 
numerator  and  denominator  of  a  fraction 
be  changed,  its  value  will  not  be  altered. 
For 

—  a  b  -\-ab        ,  ab 

=  -4-  b  =  — ;  and.  —  =  —  b  =* 

—  a  -f-  a  — « 

—  a  b. 

a 

If  the  numerator  and  denominator  of  a 
fraction  be  both  multiplied,  or  both  divi- 
ded, by  the  same  quantity,  its  value  is 
not  altered.  For 


ac a        _. 

' 


a  .1  y  z        y 
a  b  c  z      b  c 


be      b 

Hence,  a  fraction  is  reduced  to  its  low- 
est terms,  by  dividing  both  the  numera- 


ALGEBRA, 


tor  and    denominator   by  the    greatest    a- — #*)a3 —  a-  x  —  ax3-}-x*(a  —  z 
quantity  thst  measures  them  both.  a> a  -r1 


The  greatest  common  measure  of  tioo 
quantities  is  found  by  arranging  them  ac- 
cording to  the  powers  of  some  letter,  and 
then  di-j'ding  the  greater  t>y  the  less,  and 
the  preceding  divisor  ahvays  by  the  last  re- 
mainder, till  the  remainder  is  nothing  ,•  the 
last  divisor  is  the  greatest  common  measure 
required. 

Let  a  and  b  be  the  two  b}  a  (p 
quantities,    and    let   b    be     — 
contained  in  a, p  times,\vith     fc)  b  (q 
a  remainder  c;  again,  let  c       — 
be  contained  in  #,  q  times,         d)  c  (  ?• 
with  a  remainder  d,  and  so  — 

on,  till  nothing  remains;  let  0 

d  be  the  last  divisor,  and  it 
will  be  the  greatest  com- 
mon measure  of  a  and  b. 

TheUruth  of  this  rule  depends  upon 
these  two  principles : 

1.  If  one  quantity  measure  another,  it 
will  also  measure  any  multiple  of  that 
quantity.      Let  x  measure  y  by  the  units 
in  n,  then  will  it  measure  c  y  by  the  units 
in  n  c. 

2.  If  a  quantity  measure  two  others,  it 
will    measure  their  sum   or   difference. 
Let  a  be  contained  in  x,  m  times,  and  in 
yt  n  times  ;  then  m  a  =  x  and  n  a  =  y  ; 
therefore  x±y=m  a±n  «=ra±;i .  a ;  i.  e. 
a  is  contained  in  x±#,  m±n  times,  or  it 
measures  x±:y  by  the  units  of  m±n. 

Now  it  appears  from  what  has  been 
said,  that  a  —  p  b  =  c,  and  b  —  q  c  =  d,- 
even  quantity  therefore,  which  measures 
a  and  b_  measures/*  b,  and  a  — p  6,  or  c ,- 
hence  also  it  measures  q  c,  and  b — q  c, 
or  df  that  is,  every  common  measure  of 
a  and  b  measures  d. 


Ex.  To  find  the  greatest  common  mea- 
sure of  a4  —  a;*  and  a3  —  a1  x  —  a  a^-f-x?, 

a*  —  x* 
and    to    reduce  ---  to 


—  az  x-J-.r3 


its  lowest  terms. 


a3  —  a1  a:  —  ax1-{-x3 


«'x  —  a- 


leaving  out  2  x*,  which  is  found  in  each 
term  of  the  remainder,  the  next  divisor 


a1  — x-  is  therefore  the  greatest  common 
measure  of  the  two  quantities,  and  if :  hey 
be  respectively  divided  by  it,  the  frac- 
tion is  reduced  to  -  ,  its  lowest 

«  —  x 
terms. 

The  quantity  2  x1,  found  in  every  term 

of  one  of  the  divisors,  2  a1  x- 2  x*,  but 

not  in  every  term  of  the  dividend,  «3 — a1 
x  —  a  x1  -f  ^;,  must  be  left  out ;  other- 
wise the  quotient  will  be  fractional, 
which  is  contrary  to  the  supposition  made 
in  the  proof  of  the  rule;  and  by  omitting 
this  part,  2  x%  no  common  measure  of  the 
divisor  and  dividend  is  left  out;  because, 
by  the  supposition,  no  part  of  2  x*  is 
found  in  all  the  terms  of  the  dividend. 

To  find  the  greatest  common  measure 
of  three  quantities,  a  b  c;  take  d  the  great- 
est common  measure  of  a  and  6,  and  the 
greatest  measure  of  d  and  c  is  the  great- 
est common  measure  required.  In  the 
same  manner,  the  greatest  common  mea- 
sure of  four  or  more  quantities  may  be 
found. 

If  one  number  be  divided  by  another, 
and  the  preceding  divisor  by  the  remain- 
der, according  to  what  has  been  said,  the 
remainder  will  at  length  be  less  than  any 
quantity  that  can  be  assigned. 

Fractions  are  changed  to  others  of  equal 
value  -with  a  common  denominator,  by  multi- 
plying each  numerator  by  every  denominator 
except  its  own,  for  the  new  numerator ,-  and 
all  the  denominators  togetJierfor  the  common 
denominator. 

Let— -,-be   the  proposed  fractions; 

adf  cbf  edb 

iT^~f>  7T777'  7"T7>    are    tractions    of 


s  a1—  x1. 


the  same  value  with  the  former,  having 
the    common    denominator  b  d  f.     For 

a  df_q      c  bf c  edb e 

TdJ~b'    b~Tf~  d'*       Tdf~~f 
numerator  and  denominator  of  each  frac- 
tion having  been  multiplied  by  the  same 
quantity,  viz.  the  product  of  the  denomi- 
nators of  all  the  other  fractions. 

When  the  denominators  of  the  propo- 
sed fractions  are  not  prime  to  each  other, 
find  their  greatest  common  measure ; 
multiply  both  the  numerator  and  deno- 


ALGEBRA. 


minator  of  each  fraction  by  the  denomi- 
nators of  all  the  rest,  divided  respective- 
ly by  their  greatest  common  measure  ; 
and  "the  fractions  will  be  reduced  to  a 
common  denominator,  in  lower  terms 
than  they  would  have  been  by  proceed- 
ing according  to  the  former  rule. 


Thus.  --.  -  --, 

m  x  my  m  z 

mon  denominator  are 


reduced  to  a  com- 

a  V  z         b  x  z 
—  -  —  ;  - 
m  x  i/  z      m  x  y  z  ; 


bd 

c  d     a  ')      c  d     a  b — c  d 

Ex.3,   a ;-= — 7 r-= ; • 

b         b         b  b 


Ex. 


a  c — a  d — b  c  •  b  d 


a  c — a  d 

~b  c—b  d~ 


b  c+bd 
'bc—bd 


b  c—b  d 

The  sign  of  b  d  is  negative,  because 
every  part  of  the  latter  fraction  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  former. 


ON    THE    ADDITION    AND    SUBTRACTION    OF 
FRACTIONS. 

If  the  fractions  to  be  added  have  a  com- 
mon denominator,  their  sum  is  found  by  add- 
ing the  numerators  together,  and  retaining 
the  common  denominator.  Thus, 

a     c     «-f-c 


Tf  the  fractions  have  not  a  common  de- 
nominator, they  must  be  transformed  to 
others  of  the  same  value,  which  have  a 
common  denominator,  and  then  the  addi- 
tion may  take  place  as  before. 


ad     bc 


ad+bc 
''     bd     ' 


Ex-3-^n- 

_  a  —  6-fo-H 


\  —  b     a^—b1     a*— I 


Here 

a  is  considered  as  a  fraction  whose  deno- 
minator is  unity. 

If  tivo  fractions  have  a  common  denomi- 
nator, their  difference  is  found  by  taking  the 
difference  of  the  numerators,  and  retaining 
the  common  denominator.  Thus, 


c a — c 

~b         b~' 


I 


If  they  have  not  a  common  denomina- 
tor, they  must  be  transformed  to  others 
of  the  same  value  which  have  a  common 
denominator,  and  then  the  subtraction 
may  take  place  as  above. 


ON    THE    MULTIPL1C  ATION    AND   DIVISION 
OF    FRACTIONS. 

To  multiply  a  fraction  by  any  quantity, 
multiply  the  numerator  by  that  quantity,  and 
retain  the  denominator. 

Thus,  -  x  c  =  -T-.  For  if  the  quantity 

to  be  divided  be  c  times  as  great  as  be- 
fore, and  the  divisor  the  same,  the  quo- 
tient must  be  c  times  as  great. 

The  product  of  two  fractions  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  numerators  together  for  a  new 
numerator,  and  the  denominators  for  a  new 
denominator. 

Let  -  and  -  be  the  two  fractions ;  then 
b         d 


a  c 
'"bd' 


For  if -7=  oc  and  —  =  y,  by 


multiplying  the  equal  quantities—  and  x, 

by  b,  a=6  x ,-  in  the  same  manner,  c—dy,- 
therefore  a  c  =  b  d  x  y,-  dividing  these 
equal  quantities,  a  c  and  b  d  x  y,  by  b  d, 


To  divide  a  fraction  by  any  quantity, 
multiply  the  denominator  by  that  quantity, 
and  retain  the  numerator. 

The  fraction?  divided  by  c,  is—.  Be- 
b  be 

a      a  c        ,        ..  .    a 

cause— =7— ,  and  a  cth  part  of  this  js — ; 

b     b  c  be 

the  quantity  to  be  divided  being  a  c1^ 
part  of  what  it  was  before,  and  the  divi- 
sor the  same. 

The  result  is  the  same,  whether  the  de- 
nominator is  multiplied  by  the  quantity, 
or  the  numerator  divided  by  it. 

Let  the  fraction  be  -r-t;  if  the  denomi- 
bd 


ALGEBRA, 


nator  be  multiplied  by  c,  it  becomes  ?-^ 

bdc 

or  ~ ;  the  quantity  which  arises  from  the 
division  of  the  numerator  by  c. 

To  divide  one  fraction  by  another,  invert 
the  numerator  and  denominator  of  the  divi- 
zor, and  proceed  as  in  multiplication. 

Let- and -be  the  two  fractions,  then 

6        a 
a      c       a     d      a  d 


For  if—  =  x,  and  -7 
b  a 


-y,  then  a  =  b  ^> 


and  c 


d  y;  also,  ad  —  b  d  x,  and  b  c  = 

,.       a  d     bdx     x     a     c 
bdy;  therefore  —  =r-r  =-=»r-f-- 
b  c     b  dy     y     b     d 
The  rule  for  multiplying  the  powers  of 
the  same  quantity  will  hold,  when  one  or 
both  of  the  indices  are  negative. 

Thus,  am  X  a—  n=  am—  n  ;  for  a*»  X  a  —  n 

1       am 
=  fl™  X  —  =  —  =  a7"-*1  ;    in  the  same 

manner,  #3  x  x~5  =  _____  x-2. 
x>      x> 

—  a~  rni'n  ;  because 


Again,  a—  m  X 


a—  ™  X  a—n  =  —  -  x  — 


If  7/1=  n,  am  X  a,—™  =  am—m  —  ao.  also, 
am  X  a~m  =  —  =  1  ;  therefore  a°=l  ; 

according  to  the  notation  adopted. 

The  rule  for  dividing  any  power  of  a 
quantity  by  any  other  power  of  the  same 
quantity  holds,  whether  those  powers  are 
positive  or  negative. 

Thus,  a^  -~a~n  =  am-s  --  =  a»»  x  a71 

a« 
—am+n. 

1         1        a« 

—7"  -~-  a—  »  =  --  ;  --  =  —  = 

a»*     a«      am 
^jTn+n. 

Hence  it  appears,that  a  quantity  may  be 
transferred  from  the  numerator  of  a  frac- 
tion to  the  denominator,  and  the  contrary, 
by  changing  the  sign  of  its  index.  Thus, 
^m  x  an  _  am  am  um  Xa~  n 

~bp  bp  a—  «'  ant  a»  dp  Tp 

OJf    IirVOIXTIOJST    AND    EVOLUTION. 


.  If  a  quantity  be  continu- 
ally multiplied  by  itself,  it  is  said  to  be 
involved  or  raised  ;  and  the  power  to 
which  it  is  raised  is  expressed  by  the 
number  of  times  the  quantity  has  been 
employed  in  the  multiplication. 


Thus,  aXa,  or  a-,  is  called  the  second 
power  of  a,-  aX«X«,  or  a?,  the  third 
power,  aXa—  .(?0>  or  an»  *ne  wth  power. 

If  the  quantity  to  be  involved  be  nega- 
tive, the  signs  of  the  even  powers  will  be 
positive,  and  the  signs  of  the  odd  power 
negative. 

For  —  aX—  ar=a*;—  aX—  aX 
—  a  =  —  a?,  &c. 

A  simple  quantity  is  raised  to  any  pow- 
er, by  multiplying  the  index  of  every  fac- 
tor in  the  quantity  by  the  exponent  of  the 
power,  and  prefixing  the  proper  sign  de- 
termined by  the  last  article. 

Thus,  am  raised  to  the  ?z,th  power  is  a"*". 
Because  a7"  X  «m  X  a7*.  ...to  n  factors,  by 
the  rule  of  multiplication,  is  amn  ;  also, 
^a~b}n=a  bXa  bXa  6x&c.  to  n  factors,  or 
a  X  a  +  «....  to  n  factors  X  b  X  b  X  A...  .to 
n  factors  =  a^xbn  ;  and  a1  63  c  raised  to 
the  fifth  power  is  al°  bl<>  c*.  Also,  —  am 
raised  to  the  wth  power  is  ±  a7""  ;  where 
the  positive  or  negative  sign  is  to  be  pre- 
fixed, according  as  n  is  an  even  or  odd 
number. 

If  the  quantity  to  be  involved  be  a  frac- 
tion, both  the  numerator  and  denomina- 
tor must  be  raised  to  the  proposed  power. 
If  the  quantity  proposed  be  a  compound 
one,  the  involution  may  either  be  repre- 
sented by  the  proper  index,  or  it  may  ac- 
tually take  place. 

Let  a-H  be  the  quantity  to  be  raised 
to  any  power. 
a+b 
a+b 


or  aJ-f-2  a  b-\-b~  the  sq.  or  2d  power 
a+b  __ 
c3-|-2  a1  b  -fa  61 

-j-    a*  6+2  ab*-\-fr 
"0+6*3  or  o3+3  a-  6+3  a  6H-63  the  3d  pr. 


-f    a36-j-3a 


a  63 

a  63-ffl* 


a+6H  oraH-3a3  6+6a*6-+4  a  63+6* 
the  fourth  power. 

If  6  be  negative,  or  the  quantity  to  be 
involved  be  a — 6,  wherever  an  odd  pow- 
er of  6  enters,  the  sign  of  the  term  must 
be  negative. 

Hence,  a  — 6)*  =  a*  —  4  a3  6+6  a*  6: 
_  4  a  63+6  . 


EVOLUTION,  or  the  extraction  of  roots, 
is  the  method  of  determining  a  quantity, 
which,  raised  to  a  proposed  power,  will 
produce  a  given  quantity. 


ALGEBRA. 


Since  the  n^  power  of  am  is  a™",  the 
31th  root  of  am  n  must  be  am  ;  i.  e.  to  ex- 
tract any  root  of  a  single  quantity,  we 
must  divide  the  index  of  that  quantity  by 
the  index  of  the  root  required. 

When  the  index  of  the  quantity  is  not 
exactly  divisible  by  the  number  which 
expresses  the  root  to  be  extracted,  that 
root  must  be  represented  according  to 
the  notation  already  pointed  out. 

Thus  the  square,  cube,  fourth,  n*  root 
offl^-f  xz,  are  respectively  represented  by 

(a>  +  *\H,  (a1  4-  **)*»  («*  +  *l)fc 
(a1  -f"  xl)n;  the  same  roots  of-;  -  ;,  or 
(aH-x1)—  1,arerepresentedby(ai-f.r1)  —  i 
«**  *  «s*I~ 


If  the  root  to  be  extracted  be  express- 
ed by  an  odd  number,  the  sign  of  the  root 
will  be  the  same  with  the  sign  of  the  pro- 
posed  quantity. 

If  the  root  to  be  extracted  be  express- 
ed by  an  even  number,  and  the  quantity 
proposed  be  positive,  the  root  may  be 
either  positive  or  negative.  Because 
either  a  positive  or  negative  quantity, 
raised  to  such  a  power,  is  positive. 

If  the  root  proposed  to  be  extracted  be 
expressed  by  an  even  number,  and  the 
sign  of  the  proposed  quantity  be  negative, 
the  root  cannot  be  extracted  ;  because  no 
quantity,  raised  to  an  even  power,  can 
produce  a  negative  result.  Such  roots  are 
called  impossible. 

Any  root  of  a  product  may  be  found  by 
taking  that  root  of  each  factor,  and  mul- 
tiplying the  roots,  so  taken,  together. 

Thus,  (a  6)"ri=a»X  6"~;  because  each 
of  these  quantities,  raised  to  the  nd»  pow- 
er, is  a  b. 


Ca_f2  a  b-}- b*  (a-f  b 

a* 

a  b+b* 
2  a  b+b* 


Since  the  square  root  of  a*-f  2  a  b-\-bz 
is  a-f  £,  whatever  be  the  values  of  a  and 
b,  we  may  obtain  a  general  rule  for  the 
extraction  of  the  square  root,  by  observ- 
ing in  what  manner  a  and  b  may  be  deriv- 
ed from  a1 +2  a  b+b\ 

Having  arranged  the  terms  according 
to  the  dimensions  of  one  letter,  a,  the 
square  root  of  the  first  term  a1  is  a,  the 
first  factor  in  the  root;  subtract  its  square 
from  the  whole  quantity,  and  bring  down 
the  remainder  2  a  6-f  b1 ;  divide  2  a  6  by 
2  «,  and  the  result  is  b,  the  other  factor  in 
the  root ;  then  multiply  the  sum  of  twice 
the  first  factor  and  the  second  (2<i-f  6), 
by  the  second  (6),  and  subtract  this  pro- 
duct J(2  a  £-f  61)  from  the  remainder. 
If  there  be  no  more  terms,  consider  a-\-b 
as  a  new  value  of  a  ;  and  the  square,  that 
is  az-f  2  a  b-\-fr,  having,  by  the  first  part 
of  the  process,  been  subtracted  from  the 
proposed  quantity,  divide  the  remainder 
by  the  double  of  this  new  value  of  a,  for 
a  new  factor  in  the  root ;  and  for  a  new 
subtrahend,  multiply  this  factor  by  twice 
the  sum  of  the  former  factors  increased 
by  this  factor.  The  process  must  be  re- 
peated till  the  root,  or  the  necessary  ap- 
proximation to  the  root,  is  obtained. 

Ex.  1.  To  extract  the  square  root  of 
«2-f2  ab+b*+ 2  a  c-f  2  b  c+ca. 
a>-f  2  a  6+*l-f  2  a  c-f  2  b  c-f  c1  (a 


2 


a  b+b* 
2  a  b+b* 


In 


i        JL       - 
,  then  a"  X  a«=a« ;  and  in  the 


2  a  c-f  2  b  c+c- 
2  a  c-f  2  b  c-f  c> 


a2 — a  x  -f 


same  manner  ax  <?=  a  .  Ex'  \To  e^aetthe  square  root  of  a>. 

Any  root  of  a  fraction  may  be  found  by     «  ^"^"^ 
tpkingthatrootboth  of  the  numerator  and 

denominator.  Thus,  the  cube  root  of  ^  is 

2  /,x  i 

^I,ora|x^— |;  and  f  J 

*|  \*> 

=?; 


«3/     *• 

4(a-S 


«,  ?i 

or  a 


To  extract  the  square  root  of  a  compound        Ex.  3.  To  extract  the  square  root  of  ] 
quantity,  4-0-. 


ALGEBRA. 


X' 

4 

~+x—^) 

~~T 

' 

071 

3            4 
.    O7 

4 

8~l"64 

07?       074 

8—  64  &C'         . 

It  appears  from  the  second  example, 

x1 
that  a  trinomial  a1  —  a  x  +  —  ,in  which 

four  times  the  product  of  the  first  and 
last  terms  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the 
middle  term,  and  a  complete  square,  or 

X2 

aZ  x  ~4~  X4=a*o-2. 

The  method  of  extracting  the   cube 
rqot  is  discovered  in  the  same  manner. 


a3+3  a- 


(a+b 


3  a1  b+ 3  a  fts+ fr 
3  a2  6.4.3  a  b--\-bi 


3  a*) 


The  cube  root  of  a3+3  a1  6+3 
is  a+6;  and  to  obtain  rt+6  from  this 
compound  quantity,  arrange  the  terms  as 
before,  and  the  cube  root  of  the  first  term, 
fl?,  is  a,  the  first  factor  in  the  root :  sub- 
tract its  cube  from  the  whole  quantity,  and 
divide  the  first  term  of  the  remainder  by  3 
a2,  the  result  is  b,  the  second  factor  in  the 
root:  then  subtract  3  a2  6+3  a  62+63 
from  the  remainder,  and  the  whole  cube 
of  a-\-b  has  been  subtracted.  If  any 
quantity  be  left,  proceed  with  a+b  as  a 
new  a,  and  divide  the  last  remainder  by 
3  .  a+6) 2  for  a  third  factor  in  the  root ; 
and  thus  any  number  of  factors  may  be 
obtained. 

OX    SIMPLE    EQUATIONS. 

If  one  quantity  be  equal  to  another,  or 
to  nothing,  and  this  equality  be  expressed 
algebraically,  it  constitutes  an  equation. 
Thus,  x  —  a  =b  —  x  is  an  equation,  of 
which  x  —  a  forms  one  side,  and  b  —  x 
the  other. 

When  an  equation  is  cleared  of  frac- 
tions and  surds,  if  it  contain  the  first  pow- 
er only  of  an  unknown  quantity,  it  is  call- 
ed a  simple  equation,  or  an  equation  of  one 


dimension  :  if  the  square  of  the  unknown 
quantity  be  in  any  term,  it  is  called  a 
quadratic,  or  an  equation  of  two  dimen- 
sions ;  and  in  general,  if  the  index  of  the 
highest  power  of  the  unknown  quantity 
be  n,  it  is  called  an  equation  of  n  dimen- 


In  any  equation  quantities  may  be  trans- 
posed from  one  side  to  the  other,  if  their 
Mg-718  be  changed,  and  the  tioo  sides  toill  still 
be  equal. 

Let  x +  10=15,  then  by  subtracting  10 
from  each  side,  x  +  10  —  10  =  15  —  10 
or  x  =  15  — -  10. 

Let  x — 4=6,  by  adding  4  to  each  side, 
x  —  4  +  4=6  +  4,  or  o-=6+3. 

If  x  —  a  +  b=y  ;  adding  a — b  to  each 
side,  x  —  a  +  6  +  a  —  b  =  y  -\-  a  —  b  ; 
or  a:  =  y  +  a  —  b. 

Hence,  if  the  signs  of  all  the  terms  on 
each  side  be  changed,  the  two  sides  will 
still  be  equal. 

Let  x  —  «=6  —  2  x  ;  by  transposition, 
07= — x-\-a  ;  or  a  —  07=2  x — b. 


If  every  term,  on  each  side,  be  multiplied 
by  the  same  quantity,  the  results  -will  be  equal. 

An  equation  may  be  cleared  of  frac- 
tions, by  multiplying  every  term,  succes- 
sively, by  the  denominators  of  those  frac- 
tions, excepting  those  terms  in  which  the 
denominators  are  found. 
5  x 

Let  3  07  +  -7-=  34;  multiplying  by  4, 

12o-+5o;  =  136,  or  17  07  =  136. 

If  each  side  of  an  equation  be  divided  by 
the  same  quantity,  the  results  will  be  equal. 

Let  17  x  —  136 ;  then  07  =  -^=-  =  8. 


If  each  side  of  an  equation  be  raised  t* 
the  same  power,  the  results  ivill  be  equal. 

Let  07*  =  9 ;  then  07  =  9  X  9  =  81. 
Also,  if  the  same  root  be  extracted  on 
both  sides,  the  results  will  be  equal. 

Let  x  =  81 ;    then  o^  =  9. 

To  find  the  value  of  an  unknown  quantity 
in  a  simple  equation. 

Letthe  equation  first  be  cleared  of  frac- 
tions, then  transpose  all  the  terms  which 
involve  the  unknown  quantity  to  one  side 
of  the  equation,  and  the  known  quantities 
to  the  other,  divide  both  sides  by  the  co- 
efficient, or  sum  of  the  co-efficients,  of 


ALGEBRA. 


the  unknown  quantity,  and  the  value  re- 
quired is  obtained. 

Ex.   1.  To  find  the  value  of  07  in  the 
equation  3o7—  5=23 — 07. 

by  transp.  3x+.r=23+5 
or  4o7=28 

28      _ 
by  division  07=— =o. 

Ex.  2.  Let  o7+|— |=4.r— 17.  =  1£  =3 

Mult,  by  2,  and  2  07  +  07—  ^=  8  07  —  34         hence  also,  07=10— 1/=10— 3=7. 


value  may  be  found  by  the  rules  before 
laid  down. 


T°  find  *  and 


From  the  first  equal.  07=  10—  y\  hence, 
2  07=20—2  y, 

by  subst.  20—2  y—  3  y 
20—  5 
16=5  # 


Mult,  by  3,  and  6  x+3  x—  2  xx=24  a:—  102 
by  transp.  6  x+3  x—2  x  —  24  x=  —  102 
or—  17  x  =  —102. 
17o-=102 

102      . 


Ex.  3.i 
a 


x 

07+6  a=c  a  x 
x  —  c  a  x—  —  b  d 
or  c  a  x  —  07=  b  a 

i.  e.  c  a  —  1.  07=6  a 
b  a 


Ex.  4. 


x  -3. 


^ 

55—  07—  4=11  a:—  33. 
55—  4-f-  33  =  11  x-{-x 
84=12  x 


2  07+3  07—5= 

6  07+9  07—15=72  —  4  07+8 
6  07+9  07+4  07=72  +8+15 
19  07=95 

_95 

~19~ 

If  there  be  two  independent  simple 
equations  involving  two  unknown  quanti- 
ties, they  may  be  reduced  to  one  which 
involves  only  one  of  the  unknown  quan- 
tities, by  any  of  the  following  methods : 

1st  Method.  In  either  equation  find 
the  value  of  one  of  the  unknown  quanti- 
ties in  terms  of  the  other  and  known 
quantities,  and  for  it  substitute  this  value 
in  the  other  equation,  which  will  then 
only  contain  one  unknown  quantitv,  whose 

VOL.  I. 


2d  Method.  Find  an  expression  for  one 
of  the  unknown  quantities  in  each  equa- 
tion ;  put  these  expressions  equal  to  each 
other,  and  from  the  resulting  equation  the 
other  unknown  quantity  may  be  found. 


From  the  first  equat.  07=0  —  y 

from  the  second,  b  x=d  e  —  c  y,  and 

_  de  —  cy 

~        b 

f  d  e  —  c  y 

therefore  a  —  y=  -  -  —  - 

b 

b  a  —  b  y=d  e  —  c  y 
c  y  —  b  y=zd  e  —  b  a 
c  —  b  .  y—d  e  —  b  a 
d  e  —  b  n 


Also,  x=a  —  y  ;  that  is, 
de  —  ba      ca  —  ba  —  de-\-ba 

c  —  b  c  —  b 

_  c  a  —  d  e 
''     c—b    ' 

3d  Method.  If  either  of  the  unknown 
quantities  have  the  same  co-efficient  in 
both  equations,  it  may  be  exterminated  by 
subtracting,  or  adding,  the  equations,  ac- 
cording as  the  sign  of  the  unknown  quan- 
tity, in  the  two  cases,  is  the  same  or  dif- 
ferent. 

To  find  07  and  r/. 


Let 

By  subtraction,  2  #=8,  and  y=4 

By  addition,  2  o?=22,  and  07=  11. 

If  the  co-efficients  of  the  unknown 
quantity  to  be  exterminated  be  different, 
multiply  the  terms  of  the  first  equation 
by  the  co-efficient  of  the  unknown  quan- 
tity in  the  second,  and  the  terms  of  the 
second  equation  by  the  co-efficient  of  the 
same  unknown  quantity  in  the  first  ;  then 
add,  or  subtract,  the  resulting  equations, 
as  in  the  former  case. 


ALGEBRA. 


Fx  1  Let        -*—     =13?  To  find  x 
•1'Let  ?2a>fry«8l5      and  y. 

Multiply  the  terms  of  the  first  equation 
by  2,  and  the  terms  of  the  other  by  3, 
then  6  a—  10  #=26 
6  oH-21  #=243 
By  subtraction,  —  31  y  —  —  217 

217 
and  v=—  =7; 


— 


13, 


also,  3  x  —  5  y  =  13,  or  3  x  —  35 
therefore  3  a;  =  13  +  35  =  48 

and  x  =  —  =  16 

Fx  2  T^fr    $ax+t>y=c->    To    find    x 

-r***.  t_mx—ny=d$  and  y. 
From  the  first,  m  a  x  +  «*  ^  y  =  *»  c 
from  the  other,  max  —  n  a  y  =  ad 
by  subtraction,  m  b  y  -\-  n  a  y=m  c  —  ad, 

m  c  —  a  d 

therefore,  y  =  —  r-r  --  . 
m  b-\-n  a 

Again,  n  a  x-\~n  b  y=n  c 
m  b  x  —  n  b  y=b  d 

by  addition,  n  a-\-m  b  .x  =  n  c  +  b  d, 
*P  n  c-\-b  d 

therefore  x  =  -  ;  —  -.. 
n  a-\-m  o 

If  there  be  three  independent  simple 
equations,  and  three  unknown  quantities, 
reduce  two  of  the  equations  to  one,  con- 
taining1 only  two  of  the  unknown  quanti- 
ties, by  the  preceding  rules  ;  then  reduce 
the  third  equation  and  either  of  the  form- 
er to  one,  containing  the  same  two  un- 
known quantities  ;  and  from  the  two 
equations  thus  obtained,  the  unknown 
quantities  which  they  involve  may  be 
found.  The  third  quantity  may  be  found 
by  substituting  their  values  in  any  of  the 
proposed  equations. 

C2  x+3  #+4  z=16}  To  find.r, 
Ex.  Let  ^3oH-2#—  5z=8    C    #,  and 

CSx—  6  #+3  z=9    )        z. 
From  the  21st  equa.  6  x-^-n  #-4-12  z=48 
6  x+4  #—10  z=16 
by  subtr.5#—  22z=32 
from  the  l»t  and  3rd  10  x+  15  #+20  2=80 
10  j—  12  y+6z=12 
bysubtr.   27#-f-14z=68 
and  5  #+22  -=,32 
hence  135  y  +  70  2=340 
andl35#+594z=864 
bysubtr.  524  z=  524 
z  =  1 

5  y  -f  22  z  =  32 
that  is,  5  y  -f-  22  =32 

5#  =  32  —  22  =  10 
10 


that  is,  2  x  +  6  +  4  ==  16 
2#  =  16— -6  —  4 


The  same  method  may  be  applied  to 
any  number  of  simple  equations. 

That  the  unknown  quantities  may  have 
definite  values,  there  must  be  as  many 
independent  equations  as  unknown  quan- 
tities. 

Thus,  if  a:  -}-  y  =  a,  x  •=•  a  y ;  and 
assuming  y  at  pleasure,  we  obtain  a  value 
of  x,  such  that  x-\-  y  =  a. 

These  equations  must  also  be  inde- 
pendent, that  is,  not  deducible  one  from 
another. 

Let  x  -f-  y  =  a,  and  2a:+2#  =  2a; 
the  latter  equation  being  deducible  from 
the  former,  it  involves  no  different  sup- 
position, nor  requires  any  thing  more  for 
its  truth,  than  that  x  +  y  =  a  should  be  a 
just  equation. 

PROBLEMS    WHICH    PRODUCE    SIMPLE 
EQUATIONS. 

From  certain  quantities  which  are 
known,  to  investigate  others  which  have 
a  given  relation  to  them,  is  the  business 
of  Algebra. 

When  a  question  is  proposed  to  be  re- 
solved, we  must  first  consider  fully  its- 
meaning  and  conditions.  Then  substi- 
tuting for  such  unknown  quantities  as  ap- 
pear most  convenient,  we  must  proceed 
as  if  they  were  already  determined,  and 
we  wished  to  try  whether  they  would  an- 
swer all  the  proposed  conditions  or  not, 
till  as  many  independent  equations  arise 
as  we  have  assumed  unknown  quantities, 
which  will  always  be  the  case,  if  the  ques- 
tion be  properly  limited;  and  by  the  so- 
lution of  these  equations,  the  quantities 
sought  will  be  determined. 

Prob.  1.  To  divide  aline  of  15  inches 
into  two  such  parts,  that  one  may  be  three- 
fourths  of  the  other. 

Let  4  x  =  one  part, 
then  3  x  =  the  other, 

7  x  =  15,  by  the  question, 

15 
*=   f 

60          4 
4or=— -  =  8  -,  one  part, 

45          3 
3  x=.-~-  =  6  — ,  the  other, 

Prob.  2.  If  Jl  can  perform  a  piece  of- 
work  in  8  clays,  and  n  in  10  days,  in  what 
time  will  they  finish  it  together  ? 


ALGEBRA. 


Let  x  be  the  time  required. 
In  one  day,  JI  performs  -  part  of  the 
work  ;  therefore,  in  x  days  he  performs 
|j  parts  of  it ;  and  in  the  same  time,  B 

performs  -rr  parts  of  it ;  and  calling  the 
work  1, 


10  x+8x=80 
18  or=80 

80      .  8       .4 


Prob.  3.  Ji  and  B  play  at  bowls,  and  JI 
bets  B  three  shillings  to  two  upon  every 
game;  after  a  certain  number  of  games, 
it  appears  that  Ji  has  won  three  shillings  ; 
but  had  he  ventured  to  bet  five  shillings 
to  two,  and  lost  one  game  more  out  of 
the  same  number,  he  would  have  lost 
thirty  shillings  :  how  many  games  did 
they  play  ? 

C  be  the  number  of  games 
***{     .4  won, 

y  the  number  B  won, 
then  2  x  is  what  JI  won  of  B, 
and  3  y  what  B  won  of  A. 

%x'  —  3  #=3,  by  the  ques- 

tion ; 

_     9  C  JI  would  win    on 
x      A  •   *  t  the  2d  supposition 
y  -\-  1  .  5y  li  would  win, 
5y  +  5—  2x  +  2=30,  by 
the  question  ; 

or  5  y  _  2  x=30  —  5  —  2=23, 
therefore,  5  y  —  2  x=23 

and  2  x  —  3  y=3 
by  addition,  5  #  —  3  #=26 
2  y  =  26 
yLj3 

2#=  3  +  3#=3-|-39  =  42 
a:  =  21 

x  -j-  y  =  34,  the  number  of 
games. 

OJf    QUADRATIC    EQUATIONS. 

When  the  terms  of  an  equation  involve 
the  square  of  an  unknown  quantity,  but 
the  first  power  does  not  appear,  the  value 
of  the  square  is  obtained  by  the  preced- 
ing rules  ;  and  by  extracting  the  square 
root  on  both  sides,  the  quantity  itself  is 
found. 

Ex.  1.  Let  4  x2  —  45=0;  to  find*. 
By  trans.  5  x2  .=  45 
x2=9 
therefore,  x  = 


The  signs  +  and  —  are  both  prefixed 
to  the  root,  because  the  square  root  of  a 
quantity  may  be  either  positive  or  nega- 
tive. The  sign  of  x  may  also  be  nega- 
tive ;  but  still  x  will  be  either  equal  to 
+  3  or  — 3, 

Ex.  2.  Let  a  x2=&  c  d;  to  find  a-. 


—  \ 
a    ) 


If  both  the  first  and  second  powers  of 
the  unknown  quantity  be  found  in  an 
equation  :  Arrange  the  terms  according 
to  the  dimensions  of  the  unknown  quanti- 
ty, beginning  with  the  highest,  and  trans- 
pose the  known  quantities  to  the  other 
side  ;  then,  if  the  square  of  the  unknown 
quantity  be  affected  with  a  co-effici  :  nt, 
divide  all  the  terms  by  this  co-efficient  ; 
and  if  its  sign  be  negative,  change  the 
signs  of  all  the  terms,  that  the  equation 
may  be  reduced  to  this  form,  x*  ±p  x  =0: 
±  q.  Then  add  to  both  sides  the  square 
of  half  the  co-efficient  of  the  first  power 
of  the  unknown  quantity,  by  which  means 
the  first  side  of  the  equation  is  made  a 
complete  square,  and  the  other  consists 
of  known  quantities  ;  and  by  extracting 
the  square  root  on  both  sides,  a  simple 
equation  is  obtained,  from  which  the  value 
of  the  unknown  quantity  may  be  found. 

Ex.  1.  Let  x1  +  p  x  =  q  ;  now,  we 
know  that  x2  +  p  x  +  £  is  the  square 

ofx+£,  add  therefore,  £•  to  both  sides, 
and  we  have  x1  +  p  x  -\.*L  =  q  +P1  . 

then  by  extracting  the  square  root  on 
both  sides, 


trans. 


In  the  same  manner,  if  x1  —  p 
is  found  to  be 


Ex.  2.  Let  a:1  —  12  x  -f  35=0  ;  to  find  x. 
By  transposition,  x2  —  12  x  =  —  35,  and 
adding  the  square  of  6  to  both  sides  of 
the  equation, 

x1  -  12  x  +  36  =r  36  —  35  =  1  ; 
then  extracting  the  square  root  on  both 
sides, 


ALGEBRA. 


x— 6=±1 

x  =  6±  1  =  7  or  5;  either  of  which, 
subsutuied  for  .«-  in  the  original  equation, 
answers  the  condition,  that  is,  makes  the 
whole  equal  to  nothing. 


Ex.  3.  Let  x  +  v/  (5  x  +  10  ==  8 ;  to 
find  jc. 

By  transposition,  v/  (5  .r  -f-  10)  =  8  — x 
squar.  both  sides  5  x  +  10  =  64  —  I6x 

+  *1 

xi  _  21  x  =  10  —  64  =  —  54 


-*s 

3  or  18. 


Ex.  6.  Let  y*+r  */3+       =  0, 


21 
extracting  the  sq.  root,  .r — 

21  ±15 


By  this  process  two  values  of  x  are 
found,  but  on  trial  it  appears,  that  18  does 
not  answer  the  condition  of  the  equation, 
if  we  suppose  that  ^/  (5  x  +  10)  repre- 
sents the  positive  square  root  of  5  x  + 
10.  The  reason  is,  that  5  x  +  10  is  the 
square  of  —  ^/  (5  x  +  10)  as  well  as  of 
+  v/  (5  a?  +  10)  ;  thus  by  squaring 
both  sides  of  the  equation  ^/  (5  x  +  10) 
=  8  —  x,  a  new  condition  is  introduced, 
and  a  new  value  of  the  unknown  quanti- 
ty corresponding  to  it,  which  had  no 
place  before.  Here,  18  is  the  value  which 
corresponds  to  the  supposition  that  x  — 
V/(5;r+10)=8. 

Every  equation,  where  the  unknown 
quantity  is  found  in  two  terms,  and  its  in- 
dex in  one  is  twice  as  great  as|inthe  other, 
may  be  resolved  in  the  same  manner. 


Ex.  4.    Let  2+4 


+4=21+4=25 


27 


When  there  are  more  equations  and 
unknown  quantities  than  one,  a  single 
equation,  involving  only  one  of  the  un- 
known quantities,  may  sometimes  be  ob- 
tained by  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  so- 
lution of  simple  equations  :  and  one  of 
the  unknown  quantities  being  discovered, 
the  others  may  be  obtained  by  substituting 
its  value  in  the  preceding  equations. 

Ex.7.Let     X*+J65     To  find  x  and  y. 


z^=±5  — 2=3,  or— 7 
therefore  z=9,  or  49. 


Ex.  5.    Let  y*  —  6y*  —  27  =  0. 
y4_6y»-27 

^  —  6^+9=27+9=36 
F1—  3#=±6 
y1—  3±6=9,  or  —  3 
y=±3,  or  ±^/  —  3. 


From  the  second  equation,  2  x  y=56 
&  adding  this  to  the  lst,o:1+2^+i/l=121 
sub.  it  from  the  same,  a;1  —  2.n/+i/2==9 
by  extracting  the  sq.  roots,  a+y=  ±  11 

and  x  —  y  =  ±  3 

therefore,  2  x  =  ±  14 

x=7,  or  —7 

and  y=4,  or  —  4 

PROBLEMS  PRODUCING  QUADRATIC 
EQ.UATIOXS. 

Prob.  1.  To  divide  aline  of  20  inches 
into  two  such  parts,  that  the  rectangle 
under  the  whole  and  one  part  may  be 
equal  to  the  square  of  the  other. 

Let  x  be  the  greater  part,  then  will  20 
—  x  be  the  less. 

and*1  =  (20  —  or).  20  =  400  —  20  x  by 
the  question. 
X*  +20  or=400 
#»  +20  .r+  100=400+  100=500 


x=  +  V/500  —  10,  or  —  ^/  500  —  10. 

Prob.  2.  To  find  two  numbers,  whose 
sum,  product,  and  the  sum  of  whose 
squares,  are  equal  to  each  other. 

Let  x-\-y  and  x  —  y  be  the  numbers  ; 

their  sum  is  2  x 
their  product  x1  —  r/s 
the  sum  of  their  sqs.  2  ccs=2  y2 
and  by  the  question  2  x=2  x1  +2  y"- 

or  ar=x1  +  y1 
also,  2  x=x*  —  y1 
therefore,  3  x=2  x1 


ALGEBRA. 


Since  the  square  of  every  quantity  is 
positive,  a  negative  quantity  has  no  square 
root ;  the  conclusion  therefore  shews  that 
there  are  no  such  numbers  as  the  ques- 
tion supposes.  See  BINOMIAL  THEO- 
REM; EQUATIONS,  nature  of,-  SERIES, 
SURDS,  &c.  8cc. 

ALGEBRA,  application  of  to  geometry. — 
The  first  and  principal  applications  of  al- 
gebra were  to  arithmetical  questions  and 
computations,  as  being  the  first  and  most 
useful  science  in  all  the  concerns  of  hu- 
man life.  Afterwards  algebra  was  applied 
to  geometry,  and  all  the  other  sciences 
in  their  turn.  The  application  of  algebra 
to  geometry  is  of  two  kinds;  that  which 
regards  the  plane  or  common  geometry, 
and  that  which  respects  the  higher  geo- 
metry, or  the  nature  of  curve  lines. 

The  first  of  these,  or  the  application  of 
algebra  to  common  geometry,  is  concern- 
ed in  the  algebraical  solution  of  geome- 
trical problems,  and  finding  out  theorems 
in  geometrical  figures,  by  means  of  alge- 
braical investigations  or  demonstrations. 
This  kind  of  application  has  been  made 
from  the  time  of  the  most  early  writers  on 
algebra,  as  Diophantus,  Cardan,  &c.  &c. 
down  to  the  present  times.  Some  of  the 
best  precepts  and  exercises  of  this  kind 
of  application  are  to  be  met  with  in  Sir  I. 
Newton's  "  Universal  Arithmetic,"  and  in 
Thomas  Simpson's  "  Algebra  and  Select 
Exercises."  Geometrical  problems  are 
commonly  resolved  more  directly  and  ea- 
sily by  algebra,  than  by  the  geometrical 
analysis,  especially  by  young  beginners; 
but  then  the  synthesis,  or  construction 
and  demonstration,  is  most  elegant  as  de- 
duced from  the  latter  method.  Now  it 
commonly  happens,  that  the  algebraical 
solution  succeeds  best  in  such  problems 
as  respect  the  sides  and  other  lines  in  ge- 
ometrical figures ;  and,  on  the  contrary, 
those  problems  in  which  angles  are  con- 
cerned are  best  effected  by  the  geome- 
trical analysis.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  gives 
among  many  other  remarks  on  this 


branch.  Having  any  problem  proposed, 
compare  together  the  quantities  concern- 
ed in  it;  and  making  no  difference  be- 
tween the  known  andunknown  quantities, 
consider  how  they  depend,  or  are  related 
to,  one  another ;  that  we  may  perceive 
what  quantities,  if  they  are  assumed,  will, 
by  proceeding  synthetically,  give  the  rest, 
and  that  in  the  simplest  manner.  And  in 
this  comparison,  the  geometrical  figure  is 
to  be  feigned  and  constructed  at  random, 
as  if  all  the  parts  were  actually  known  or 
given,  and  any  other  lines  drawn,  that  may 
appear  to  conduce  to  the  easier  and  sim- 
pler solution  of  the  problem.  Having 
considered  the  method  of  computation, 
and  drawn  out  the  scheme,  names  are 
then  to  be  given  to  the  quantities  enter- 
ing into  the  computation,  that  is,  to  some 
few  of  them,  both  known  andunknown, 
from  which  the  rest  may  most  naturally 
and  simply  be  derived  or  expressed,  by 
means  of  the  geometrical  properties  of 
figures,  till  an  equation  be  obtained,  by 
which  the  value  of  the  unknown  quantity 
may  be  derived  by  the  ordinary  methods 
of  reduction  of  equations,  when  only  one 
unknown  quantity  is  in  the  notation  ;  or 
till  as  many  equations  are  obtained  as 
there  are  unknown  letters  in  the  notation. 
For  example :  suppose  it  were  required 
to  inscribe  a  square  in  a  given  triangle. 
Let  ABC,  (Plate  Miscellanies,  fig.  1.)  be 
the  given  triangle:  and  feign  DEFGto  be 
the  required  square  :  also  draw  the  per- 
pendicular BP  of  the  triangle,  which  will 
be  given,  as  well  as  all  the  sides  of  it. 
Then,  considering  that  the  triangles  BAC, 
BEF  are  similar,  it  will  be  proper  to  make 
the  notation  as  follows,  viz.  making  the 
base  A.C=6,  the  perpendicular  BP=/>, 
and  the  side  of  the  square  DE  or  EF=a:. 
Hence  then  BQ=BP  —  ED=/>  —  x- 
consequently,by  the  proportionality  of  the 
parts  of  those  two  similar  triangles,  viz. 
BP  :  AC  ::  BQ  :  EF,  it  isp  :  b  ::  p— X  :  X  ; 
then,  multiply  extremes  and  means,  &c. 
there  arises  p  x=b  p — b  xt  or  b  x-{-p  x 

=l>  p,  and  x=  ,       ,  the  side  of  the  square 
b-\-p 

sought ;  that  is,  a  fourth  proportional  to 
the  base  and  perpendicular,  and  the  sum 
of  the  two,  taking  this  sum  for  the  first 
term,  or  AC-j-BP  :  BP  ::  AC  :  EF. 

The  other  branch  of  the  application  of 
algebra  to  geometry  was  introduced  by 
Descartes,  in  his  Geometry,  which  is  the 
new  or  higher  geometry,  and  respects  the 
nature  and  property  of  curve  lines.  In 
this  branch,  the  nature  of  the  curve  is  ex- 
pressed or  denoted  by  an  algebraic  equa- 
tion, which  is  thus  derived :  A  line  is 


ALG 


ALG 


conceived  to  be  drawn,  as  the  diameter 
or  some  other  principal  line  about  the 
curve  .-  and  upon  any  indefinite  points  of 
this  line  other  lines  are  erected  perpendi- 
cularly, which  are  called  ordinates,  whilst 
the  parts  of  the  first  line  cut  off  by  them 
are  called  abscisses.  Then,  calling1  any 
absciss  .r,  and  its  corresponding-  ordinate 
t/,  by  means  of  the  known  nature,  or  rela- 
tions, of  the  other  lines  in  the  curve,  an 
equation  is  derived,  involving-  x  and  y, 
with  other  given  quantities  in  it.  Hence, 
as  x  and  y  are  common  to  every  point  in 
the  primary  line,  that  equation  so  derived 
will  belong  to  every  position  or  value  of 
the  absciss  and  ordinate,  and  so  is  proper- 
ly considered  as  expressing  the  nature  of 
the  curve  in  all  points  of  it;  and  is  com- 
monly called  the  equation  of  the  curve. 

In  this  way  it  is  found,  that  any  curve 
line  has  a  peculiar  form  of  equation  be- 
longing to  it,  and  which  is  different  from 
that  of  every  other  curve,  either  as  to  the 
number  of  the  terms,  the  powers  of  the 
unknown  letters  x  and  y,  or  the  signs  or 
co-efficients  of  the  terms  of  the  equation. 
Thus,  if  the  curve  line  HK,  (fig.  2.)  be  a 
circle,  of  which  HI  is  part  of  the  diame- 
ter, and  IK  a  perpendicular  ordinate ; 
then  put  HI=x,  IK— y,  and  p  =  the 
diameter  of  the  circle,  the  equation  of  the 
circle  will  be  p  x  —  x-=y\  But  if  HK 
be  an  ellipse,  an  hyperbola,  or  parabola, 
the  equation  of  the  curve  will  be  differ- 
ent, and  for  all  the  four  curves  will  be 
respectively  as  follows :  viz. 

For  the  circle  .  .  .  p  x —    x^^y-, 
For  the  ellipse.  .  .  p  x  —  *x*aty*s 

For  the  hyperbola    p  x-j--xi=z/1, 
For  the  parabola  .  .  p  x  -  -  -  =y*  • 

where  t  is  the  transverse  axis,  and/;  its 
parameter.  And  in  like  manner  for  other 
curves. 

This  way  of  expressing  the  nature  of 
curve  lines,  by  algebraic  equations,  has 
given  occasion  to  the  greatest  improve- 
ment and  extension  of  the  geometry  of 
curve  lines;  for  thus  all  the  properties 
of  algebraic  equations,  and  their  roots, 
are  transferred  and  added  to  the  curve 
lines,  whose  abscisses  and  ordinates  have 
similar  properties.  -Indeed  the  benefit  of 
this  sort  of  application  is  mutual  and  re- 
ciprocal, the  known  properties  of  equa- 
tions being  transferred  to  the  curves  they 
represent;  and,  on  the  contrary,  the 


known  properties  of  curves  transferred 
to  their  representative  equations 

Besides  the  use  and  application  of  the 
higher  geometry,  namely,  of  curve  lines, 
to  detecting  the  nature  and  roots  of  equa- 
tions, and  to  the  finding  the  values  of 
those  roots  by  the  geometrical  construc- 
tion of  curve  lines,  even  common  geome- 
try may  be  made  subservient  to  the  pur- 
poses of  algebra.  Thus,  to  take  a  very 
plain  and  simple  instance,  if  it  were  re- 
quired to  square  the  binomial  a  -|-  b 
(fig.  3.)  by  forming  a  square,  as  in  the 
figure,  whose  side  is  equal  to  a-\-b,  or 
the  two  lines  or  parts  added  together  de- 
noted by  the  letters  a  and  b  :  and  then 
drawing  two  lines  parallel  to  the  sides, 
from  the  points  where  the  two  parts  join, 
it  will  be  immediately  evident  that  the 
whole  square  of  the  compound  quantity 
a-}-bz  is  equal  to  the  squares  of  both  the 
parts,  together  with  two  rectangles  under 
the  two  parts,  or  a'"  and  61  and  2  a  b, 
that  is,  the  square  of  a-\-b  is  equal  to 
a1-f-61-f-2  a  6,  as  derived  from  a  geome- 
trical figure  or  construction.  And  in 
this  very  manner  it  was,  that  the  Arabi- 
ans, and  the  earlier  European  writers  on 
algebra,  derived  and  demonstrated  the 
common  rule  for  resolving  compound 
quadratic  equations.  And  thus  also,  in 
a  similar  way,  it  was,  that  Tartalea  and 
Cardan  derived  and  demonstrated  all  the 
rules  for  the  resolution  of  cubic  equa- 
tions, using  cubes  and  parallelopipedons 
instead  of  squares  and  rectangles.  Many 
other  instances  might  be  given  of  the  use 
and  application  of  geometry  in  algebra. 

ALGOL,  the  name  of  a  fixed  star  of 
the  third  magnitude  in  the  constellation 
Perseus,  otherwise  called  Medusa's  Head. 
This  star  has  been  subject  to  singular  va- 
riations, appearing  at  different  times  on 
different  magnitudes,  from  the  fourth  to 
the  second,  which  is  its  usual  appear- 
ance. These  variations  have  been  noticed 
with  great  accuracy,  and  the  period  of 
their  return  is  determined  to  be  2d  20h 
48'  56".  The  cause  of  this  variation,  Mr. 
Goodricke,  who  has  attended  closely  to 
the  subject,  conjectures,  may  be  either 
owing  to  the  interposition  of  a  large  body 
revolving  round  Algol,  or  to  some  motion 
of  its  own,  in  consequence  of  which,  part 
of  its  body,  covered  with  spots  or  some 
such  like  matter,  is  periodically  turned 
towards  the  earth. 

ALGORITHM,  an  Arabic  term,  not 
unfrequentlyusedto  denote  the  practical 
rules  of  algebra,  and  sometimes  for  the 
practice  of  common  arithmetic  ;  in  which 
last  sense  it  coincides  with  logistica  nume- 


ALI 


ALK 


rails,  or  the  art  of  numbering  truly  and 
readily. 

ALIEN,  in  law,  a  person  born  in  a 
strange  country,  not  within  the  king's  al- 
legiance, in  contradistinction  from  a  deni- 
zen or  natural  subject. 

An  alien  is  incapable  of  inheriting 
lands  in  England,  till  naturalized  by  an 
act  of  parliament.  No  alien  is  entitled  to 
vote  in  the  choice  of  members  of  parlia- 
ment, has  a  right  to  enjoy  offices,  or  can 
be  returned  on  any  jury,  unless  where  an 
alien  is  party  in  a  cause ;  and  then  the  in- 
quest of  jurors  shall  be  one  half  denizens 
and  the  other  aliens. 

Every  alien  neglecting  the  king's  pro- 
clamation, directing  him  to  depart  from 
the  realm  within  a  limited  time,  shall,  on 
conviction,  for  the  first  offence,  be  impri- 
soned for  any  time  not  exceeding  one 
month,  and  not  exceeding  twelve  months 
for  the  second;  at  the  expiration  of  which, 
he  shall  depart  within  a  time  to  be  limit- 
ed :  and  if  such  alien  be  found  therein 
after  such  time  so  limited,  he  or  she  shall 
be  transported  for  life. 

ALIMENTARY  duct,  a  name  which 
some  call  the  intestines,  on  account  of 
the  food's  passing  through  them.  See 

AlTATOMY. 

ALIMONY,  alimoma,  in  law,  denotes 
the  maintenance  sued  for  by  a  wife,  in 
case  of  a  separation  from  her  husband, 
wherein  she  is  neither  chargeable  with 
elopement  nor  adultery. 

ALIQUANT  parts,  in  arithmetic,  those 
which  will  not  divide  or  measure  the 
whole  number  exactly.  Thus,  7  is  an 
aliquant  part  of  16,  for  twice  7  wants  2  of 
16,  and  three  times  7  exceeds  16  by  5. 

ALIQUOT  part,  is  such  part  of  a  num- 
ber as  will  divide  and  measure  it  exactly, 
without  any  remainder.  For  instance,  2 
is  an  aliquot  part  of  4,  3  of  9,  and  4  of  16. 

To  find  all  the  aliquot  parts  of  a  num- 
ber, divide  it  by  its  least  divisor,  and  the 
quotient  by  its  least  divisor,  until  you  get 
a  quotient  not  farther  divisible,  and  you 
will  have  all  the  prime  divisors  or  ali- 
quot parts  of  that  number.  Thus,  60, 
divided  by  2,  gives  the  quotient  30,  which 
divided  by  2  gives  15,  and  15  divided  by 
3  gives  the  indivisible  quotient  5.  Hence, 
the  prime  aliquot  parts  are  1,  2,  2,  3,  5; 
and  by  multiplying  any  two  or  three  of 
these  together,  you  will  find  the  com- 
pound aliquot  parts,  viz.  4,  6,  10,  12,  15, 
20,  30. 

Aliquot  parts  must  not  be  confounded 
with  commensurable  ones;  for  though 
the  former  be  all  commensurable,  yet 
these  are  not  always  aliquot  parts :  thus, 


4  is  commensurable  with  6,  but  is  not  aa 
aliquot  part  of  it. 

ALISMA, /5-ratf  -water  plantain,  in  bota- 
ny, a  genus  of  the  Hexandria  Polyginia 
class  of  plants,  the  calyx  of  which  is  a  pe- 
rianthium,  composed  of  three  oval,  hollow, 
permanent  leaves  ;  the  corolla  consists  of 
three  large,  roundish,  plane,  and  very  pa- 
tent petals;  the  fruit  consists  of  capsules, 
arranged  together  in  a  roundish  or  trigo- 
nal form  :  the  seeds  are  single  and  small. 
There  are  nine  species. 

ALKAHEST,  or  ALCAHEST,  among 
chemists,  denotes  a  universal  menstruum, 
capable  of  resolving  all  bodies  into  theis 
ens  primiim,  or  first  matter ;  and  that  with- 
out suffering  any  change,  or  diminution  of 
force,  by  so  doing.  See  ALCHEMY. 

ALKALI,  in  chemistry,  a  word  applied 
to  all  bodies  that  possess  the  following 
properties :  they  change  vegetable  blue 
colours,  as  that  of  an  infusion  of  violets, 
to  green  :  they  have  an  acrid  and  peculiar 
taste :  they  serve  as  intermedia  between 
oils  and  water :  they  are  capable  of  com- 
bining with  acids,  and  of  destroying  theie 
acidity:  they  corrode  woollen  cloth,  and, 
if  the  solution  be  sufficiently  strong,  re- 
duce it  to  jelly  :  and  they  are  soluble  in 
water.  The  alkalies  at  present  known 
are  three  ;  viz.  ammonia,  potash,  and  so- 
da :  the  two  last  are  called  fixed  alkalies, 
because  they  require  a  red  heat  to  vola- 
tilize them  ;  the  other  is  denominated 
volatile  alkali,  because  it  readily  assumes 
a  gaseous  form,  and  is  dissipated  by  a 
very  moderate  degree  of  heat.  Barytes, 
strontian,  lime,  and  magnesia,  have  been 
denominated  alkalies  by  Fourcroy  ;  but 
as  they  possess  the  striking  character  of 
earths  in  their  fixity,  this  innovation  does 
not  seem  entitled  to  general  adoption. 

Since  writing  the  above,  some  discove- 
ries of  great  importance,  on  the  subject 
of  alkalies,  have  been  made  known  to  the 
philosophical  world  by  Mr.  Davy,  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion. We  shall  in  this  place  give  a  sketch 
of  the  two  papers  which  he  has  just  laid 
before  the  Royal  Society,  referring  to 
some  subsequent  articles  for  further  par- 
ticulars. In  a  former  discourse,  read  be- 
fore this  learned  body,  Mr.  Davy,  in 
speaking  of  the  agencies  of  electricity, 
suggested  the  probability,  that  other  bo- 
dies not  then  enumerated  might  be  de- 
composed by  the  electric  fluid,  fn  the 
course  of  the  last  summer,  this  celebrat- 
ed philosopher  was  employed  in  making 
a  number  of  experiments  with  this  par- 
ticular view,  and  by  means  of  very  pow- 
erful galvanic  troughs,  consisting  of  a 


ALK 


ALL 


hundred  pair  of  plates,  six  inches  square, 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  pair,  four  inch- 
es  square,  he  has  succeeded  in  decompos- 
ing potash  and  soda.  A  more  brilliant 
discovery  has  not  been  made  since  those 
which  have  immortalized  the  names  of 
Priestley  and  Cavendish.  This  was  ef- 
fected by  placing  moistened  potash,  or 
soda,  on  a  plate  of  platina,  and  exposing 
it  to  the  galvanic  circle.  Oxygen  was  dis- 
engaged, and  the  alkalies  reduced  to  their 
primitive  base,  which  is  found  to  be  a  pe- 
culiar and  highly  inflammable  matter,  and 
which  assumes  the  form  and  appearance 
of  small  globules  of  mercury.  These  glo- 
g-ules  are,  however,  lighter  than  water, 
and  when  potash  is  used,  they  are  in  the 
proportion  of  6  to  10.  At  the  freezing 
point  they  are  hard  and  brittle ;  and  when 
broken  and  examined  by  a  microscope, 
they  present  a  number  of  facettes,  with 
the  appearance  of  crystallization  :  at  40° 
Fahrenheit  they  are  soft,  and  can  scarce- 
ly be  discriminated  but  by  their  gravity 
from  globules  of  mercury ;  at  60°  they 
are  fluid,  and  at  the  small  heat  of  100° 
volatile.  When  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, they  rapidly  imbibe  oxygen,  and 
reassume  the  alkaline  character.  In  dis- 
tilled naptha  they  may  be  preserved  four 
or  five  days,  but  if  ex'posed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, they  almost  instantly  become  in- 
crusted  with  a  coat  of  alkali :  the  incrus- 
tation may  be  removed,  and  the  reduced 
globule  will  remain,  either  in  naptha,  or 
otherwise  separated  from  all  contact  with 
oxygen.  See  BITUMEN. 

One  part  of  the  base  of  alkali  and  two 
of  mercury,  estimated  by  bulk,  form  an 
amalgam,  which,  when  applied  in  the  cir- 
cle of  a  galvanic  battery,  producing  an 
intense  heat  to  iron,  silver,  gold,  or  pla- 
tina, immediately  dissolved  them,  and 
converted  them  into  oxides,  in  which  pro- 
cess alkali  was  regenerated.  Glass,  as 
well  as  all  other  metallic  bodies,  was  also 
dissolved  by  the  application  of  this  sub- 
stance :  the  base  of  the  alkali  seizing  the 
oxygen  of  the  manganese  and  of  the  mi- 
nium, potash  was  regenerated.  One  of 
these  globules  placed  on  a  piece  of  ice 
dissolved  it,  and  burnt  with  a  bright 
flame,  giving  out  an  intense  heat.  Potash 
was  found  in  the  product  of  the  dissolved 
ice.  Nearly  the  same  effects  followed, 
when  a  globule  was  thrown  into  water  : 
in  both  cases  a  great  quantity  of  hydro- 
gen was  rapidly  liberated.  When  laid  on 
a  piece  of  moistened  turmeric  paper,  the 
globule  seemed  instantly  to  acquire  an  in- 
tense heat ;  but  so  rapid  was  its  move- 
ment in  quest  of  the  moisture,  that  no 


part  of  the  paper  was  burnt,  only  an  in- 
tense deep  red  stain  marked  the  course  it 
followed,  and  showed  a  reproduction  of 
alkali.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  base 
of  soda  is  as  seven  to  ten  of  water:  it  is 
fixed  in  a  temperature  of  about  150°,  and 
fluid  at  180°.  Mr.  Davy  next  tried  its 
effects  on  the  phosphates,  phosphurets, 
and  many  other  salts  of  the  first  and  se- 
cond degree  of  oxydizement,  all  of  which 
it  decomposed,  seizing  their  oxygen,  and 
reassuming  its  alkaline  qualities.  From 
many  experiments  it  appears,  that  100 
parts  of  potash  contain  15  of  oxygen,  and 
85  of  an  inflammable  base,  and  that  the 
same  quantity  of  soda  contains  20  of  oxy- 
gen, and  80  base.  This  ingenious  chemist, 
after  a  great  number  of  complex  experi- 
ments, in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Messrs. 
Pepys  and  Allen,  ascertained  that  oxygen 
is  also  an  essential  ingredient  in  ammo- 
nia; of  which  100  grains  appeared  to 
yield  20  of  oxygen.  Mr.  Davy  has  also 
found  that  oxygen  is  one  of  the  constitu- 
ent principles  of  the  earths  barytes  and 
strontites.  See  CHEMISTRY,  POTASH,  and 
SODA. 

ALLAMANDA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Pentandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der :  corolla  twisted  ;  capsule,  lens-form, 
erect,  echinate,  one-celled,  two-valved, 
many-seeded.  One  species,  viz.  catharti- 
ca,  a  climbing  plant,  found  in  Guiana,  near 
rivers.  The  infusion  of  its  leaves  is  used 
in  the  cholic. 

ALLANTOIS,  or  ALLANTOIDES,  in  com- 
parative anatomy,  a  vesicle  investing  the 
fostus  of  several  animals,  as  cows,  sheep, 
goats,  &c.  and  filled  with  a  urinous  liquor 
conveyed  thither  from  the  urachus. 

ALLEGIANCE,  is  the  lawful  duty  from 
the  subject  to  the  sovereign ;  and  is  either 
natural,  as  every  subject  born  ought  to 
pay ;  acquired,  where  a  man  is  naturaliz- 
ed ;  local,  which  a  man  ought  to  pay  who 
comes  under  the  dominion  of  the  king. 

ALLEGORY,  in  matters  of  literature, 
a  mode  or  species  of  writing,  wherein 
something  else  is  signified  than  the  words 
in  their  l:teral  meaning  express.  An  al- 
legory may  be  considered  as  a  series  or 
chain  of  metaphors,  continued  through  a 
whole  discourse  For  example,  when  the 
prophets  represent  the  Jews  under  the 
allegory  of  a  vine,  planted,  cultivated,  and 
watered,  by  the  hand  of  God,  which,  in- 
stead of  producing  good  fruit,  brings 
forth  verjuice  and  sour  grapes. 

ALLEGRO,  in  music,  an  Italian  word, 
denoting  that  the  part  is  to  be  played  in 
a  sprightly,  brisk,  lively,  and  guv  manner. 
AUegroes  move  swifter  in  triple  than  in 


ALL 


ALL 


c 

5 

t 


Common  time.  Sometimes  in  conjunction 
with  another  word,  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  compositions,  it  is  intended  to 
rouse  and  stimulate  the  more  violent  pas- 
sions. 

ALLEMANDE,  in  music,  a  slow  air  or 
melody  in  common  time,  of  four  crotchets 
in  a  bar.  A  species  of  composition,  sup- 
posed from  its  name  to  be  of  German  ori- 
gin. It  is  found  in  Handel's  harpsichord 
lessons,  and  other  works  of  about  that 
date  ;  but  as  a  sonata  movement  it  is  now 
obsolete.  The  dance  known  by  this  name 
is  still  used  in  Germany  and  .Switzerland, 
and  is  written  in  common  time  of  two 
crotchets  in  a  bar. 

ALLEN,  (THOMAS,)  a  celebrated  ma- 
thematician of  the  16th  century.  He  was 
born  at  Uttoxeter  in  Staffordshire,  in  1542; 
was  admitted  a  scholar  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1561 ;  where  he  took  his 
degree  of  master  of  arts  in  1567.  In  1570 
he  quitted  his  college  and  fellowship,  and 
retired  to  Gloucester  Hall,  where  he  stu- 
died very  closely,  and  became  famous  for 
his  knowledge  in  antiquities,  philosophy, 
and  mathematics.  He  received  an  invita- 
tion from  Henry,  earl  of  Northumberland, 
a  great  friend  and  patron  of  the  mathe- 
maticians, and  he  spent  some  time  at  the 
Karl's  house,  where  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  those  celebrated  mathematicians, 
Thomas  Harriot,  John  Dee,  Walter  War- 
ner, and  Nathaniel  Torporley.  Robert, 
Earl  of  Leicester,  too,  had  a  great  esteem 
for  Allen,  and  would  have  conferred  a 
bishopric  upon  him ;  but  his  love  for  soli- 
tude and  retirement  made  him  d  ecline  the 
offer.  His  great  skill  in  the  mathematics, 
gave  occasion  to  the  ignorant  and  vulgar 
to  look  upon  him  as  a  magician  or  conju- 
rer. Allen  was  very  curious  and  indefati- 
gable in  collecting  scattered  manuscripts 
relating  to  history,  antiquity,  astronomy, 
philosophy,  and  mathematics ;  which  col- 
lections have  been  quoted  by  several 
learned  authors,  and  mentioned  as  in  the 
Bibliotheca  Alleniana.  He  published  in 
Latin  the  second  and  third  books  of  Pto- 
lemy, "  Concerning  the  Judgment  of  the 
Stars,"  or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  of  the 
quadripartite  construction,  with  an  expo- 
sition. He  wrote  also  notes  on  many  of 
Lilly's  books,  and  some  on  John  Bale's 
work,  "De  Scriptoribus  Mag.  Brittan- 
niae."  He  died  at  Gloucester  Hall  in  1632, 
being  90  years  of  age. 

Mr.  Burton,  the  author  of  his  funeral 
oration,  calls  him  "  the  very  soul  and  sun 
)f  all  the   mathematicians   of  his   age." 
^nd  Selden  mentions  him  as  a  person  of 
he  most  extensive  learning  and  consum- 
nate  judgment,  the  brightest  ornament  of 
VOL.  T 


the  University  of  Oxford.  Also  Camdert 
says,  he  was  skilled  in  most  of  the  best 
arts  and  sciences.  A.  Wood  has  also 
transcribed  part  of  his  character  from  a 
manuscript  in  the  library  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, in  these  words  :  "  He  studied  polite 
literature  with  great  application  ;  he  was 
strictly  tenacious  of  academic  discipline, 
always  highly  esteemed  both  by  foreign- 
ers and  those  of  the  university,  and  by  all 
of  the  highest  stations  of  the  church  of 
England,  and  the  University  of  Oxford. 
He  was  a  sagacious  observer,  an  agreea- 
ble companion,"  &c. 

ALLIGATION,  in  arithmetic,  is  the 
rule  of  mixture,  which  teaches  to  com- 
pound several  species  of  ingredients  or 
commodities  together,  according  to  any 
intent  or  design  proposed  ;  and  is  either 
medial  or  alternate. 

ALLIGATION,  medial,  shews  the  rate  or 
price  of  any  mixtures,  \vhen.the  several 
quantities  of  the  mixture,  and  their  rates, 
are  known. 

Rule  :  multiply  each  quantity  given  by 
the  price  ;  and  then,  by  direct  proportion, 
says  as  the  sum  of  the  quantities  given  to 
the  sum  of  the  products  ;  so  is  any  part 
of  the  mixture  to  the  value  of  that  part. 
Example  :  a  goldsmith  melts  3  ounces  of 
gold,  at4J.  6s.  8d,  per  ounce,  with  twelve 
ounces  at  4-1.  per  ounce  ;  and  8  ounces 
at  41.  5s.  per  ounce  :  when  they  are  all 
melted  together,  one  ounce  will  be  found 
to  be  worth  4,1.  2s.  --d.  Thus, 


12 
8 


I.  s. 

4  0  o 

450 


d. 


Pruduce 


34 


23  Sum 


oz.    I. 


Then  as  23  :  95  :  :  1 


Sum  95 

iz.     I.  s.  d. 

4  2  7-jTj  Ans. 


ALLIGATION,  alternate,  teaches  to  mix 
goods  of  different  prices,  in  such  propor- 
tion, that  the  mixture  may  be  sold  for  any 
price  proposed. 

Rule  :  set  down  the  names  of  the  things 
to  be  mixed,  together  with  their  prices  ; 
then  finding  the  difference  between  each 
of  these,  and  the  proposed  price  of  the 
mixture,  place  these  differences  in  an  al- 
ternate order,  and  they  will  show  the  pro- 
portion of  the  ingredients. 

ALLIONIA,  in  botany,  so  called  in  ho- 
nour of  Charles  Allioni,  professor  of  bota- 
ny at  Turin,  a  genus  of  the  Tetrandria 
Monogynia  class  and  order,  of  the  natural 
order  of  Aggregate  ;  the  calyx  is  a  peri- 
anthium  common  to  three  flowers ;  and 
the  perianthium  proper  is  obsolete  supe- 

Q 


ALL 


ALL 


rior;  the  corolla  proper,  one-petalled, 
funnel-shaped,  and  erect;  the  stamina 
have  setaceous  filaments ;  anthers  round- 
ish ;  the  pistillum  has  a  germ  inferior,  ob- 
long, style  setaeeous,  longer  than  the  sta- 
mens, stigma  multifid  and  linear,  no  peri- 
carpium ;  seeds  solitary,  the  receptacle 
naked.  There  are  two  foreign  species, 
described  by  Willdenow,  viz.  the  A.  vio- 
lacea,  and  A.  incarnata.  The  American 
species  described  by  Pursh  are  three  in 
number,  viz.  A.  nyctaginea,  A.  albida,  and 
A.  ovata.  The  first  is  found  on  the  banks 
"of  the  river  Tenessee ;  the  second  in 
lower  Carolina;  the  third  found  by  Meri- 
wether  Lewis  on  the  plains  of  the  Mis- 
souri. 

ALLIOTH,  a  star  in  the  tail  of  the 
Greater  Bear,  much  used  tor  finding  the 
latitude  at  sea. 

ALLITERATION,  in  rhetoric,  is  a  fi- 
gure, or  decoration  in  language,  chiefly 
used  in  poetry,  and  consisting  in  the  re- 
petition of  the  same  letter  or  letters  at 
certain  intervals,  whence  the  name  is  de- 
rived. 

ALLIUM,  garlic,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der ;  the  calyx  is  a  common  sheath,  and 
many-flowered ;  the  corolla  consists  of  six 
dblong  petals  ;  the  stamina  have  six  fila- 
ments, generally  of  the  length  of  the  co- 
rolla; the  anthers  are  oblong  and  upright; 
the  pistillum  has  a  germ,  superior,  short, 
bluntly  three-cornered ;  the  pericarpium 
is  a  capsule,  short,  broad,  three-celled 
and  three-valved;  the  seeds  are  many  and 
round.  There  are  53  species,  according 
to  Willdenow,  distributed  into  several 
divisions.  The  common  garlic  ha$  a  large 
round  white  bulbous  root  of  an  irregular 
form,  with  numerous  fibres  at  the  bottom, 
composed  of  many  smaller  bulbs  denomi- 
nated cloves,  which  are  included  in  a 
common  membranous  covering,  each  of 
which  being  planted,  grows,  and  in  one 
season  attains  the  size  and  structure  of 
the  parent  bulb ;  the  leaves  are  cauline, 
or  form  a  kind  of  stalk,  which  seldom 
spindles,  except  when  the  same  roots  re- 
main in  the  ground  two  or  three  years, 
when  they  run  up  and  bear  a  flower  and 
small  bulbs  at  the  top.  It  deserves  to  be 
cultivated  in  the  garden  for  the  sake  of 
its  root,  which  is  in  great  estimation  for 
culinary  and  other  domestic  purposes. 
Indeed,  the  roots,  as  well  as  all  the  other 
parts  of  the  plant,  have  a  very  acrid  taste, 
with  an  highly  offensive  smell,  which  has 
rendered  its  cultivation  in  gardens  less 
desirable.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  capable  of 
growing  in  most  sorts  of  soils  and  situa- 


tions, and  readily  propagated  either  by 
roots  or  seeds. 

Rocambole  has  very  small  compound 
bulbs,  which  grow  in  clusters;  the  stalk 
generally  spindling  two  or  three  feet  high, 
with  many  bulbs  at  its  summit,  which,  as 
well  as  the  root  bulbs,  are  useful  for  the 
same  purposes  as  garlic,  though  much  in- 
ferior. The  latter,  or  the  flowery  kinds, 
have  the  flower-stems  rising  immediately 
from  the  root,  growing  erect,  and  attain- 
ing different  heights,  from  twelve  to  thir-^ 
ty  inches ;  in  some  the  leaves  are  radical, 
in  others  cauline,  or  elevated  with  the 
stalk;  some  are  broad  like  those  of  a  tu- 
lip, others  long  and  narrow  like  a  daffo- 
dil, and  some  taper  and  rush-like  ;  but  in 
all  the  sorts  the  stems  are  terminated  by 
a  sort  of  sheath,  from  which  is  protruded 
an  aggregate  of  many  small  flowers,  form- 
ing a  kind  of  umbel.  The  flowers  singly 
are  composed  each  of  six  petals,  which, 
though  separately  small,  from  many  be- 
ing collected  into  large  heads,  are  very 
conspicuous.  Of  the  second  division,  or 
the  onion  kind,  the  characters,  &c.  of 
which  are  the  same  as  those  of  garlic, 
the  species  are  these  :  1.  Cepa,  or  com- 
mon onion;  the  best  garden  varieties  of 
which  are,  the  Strasburgh  or  common 
round  onion,  the  oval  or  long-keeping 
common  onion,  the  Spanish  large  flat 
onion,  the  Spanish  silken  skinned  onionl 
the  Spanish  red-skinned  onion,  and  the 
Portugal  great  roundish  oval  onion.  2. 
Fistulosum,  or  the  ciboule,  or  Welsh  on- 
ion. 3.  Schacnoprasum,  cives  or  chives. 
4.  Ascalonicum,  eschalot  or  schallot.  5. 
Canadcnse,  or  Canada-tree  onion.  All  the 
first  species  and  varieties  have  large  bul- 
bous roots,  and  the  plants  are  biennial,  or, 
being  sown  in  the  spring,  arrive  at  per- 
fection in  the  root  the  same  year,  and 
next  year  shoot  up  into  stalk,  flower  and 
ripen  seed,  when  the  stalks  quickly 
die,  and  the  individuals  are  annihilated. 
But  the  second  and  third  species  never 
form  any  bulbs  at  bottom ;  they  are,  how- 
ever, hardy  and  perennial,  and  may  be 
continued  many  years.  And  the  fourth 
and  fifth  species  are  bulbous  rooted  pe- 
rennials, multiplying  greatly  by  off-sets, 
as  is  evident  from  their  culture. 

Ciboule,  or  Welsh  onion.  This  is  a  pe- 
rennial plant,  which  never  forms  any  bulb 
at  bottom  ;  therefore  deserves  to  be  cul- 
tivated only  to  be  drawn  as  young*  green 
onions  for  salads,  8cc.  in  spring  ;  but,  on 
account  of  its  strong  taste,  it  is  greatly 
inferior  to  those  of  the  common  onion. 
From  the  plants  being  so  extremely  har- 
dy a$  to  survive  the  severest  winter,  in 


ALL 


ALL 


v/hieh,  though  the  blades  be  cut  off,  the 
roots  remain  sound,  and  shoot  forth  with 
great  vigour  early  in  spring,  furnishing 
seasonable  supplies  till  May,  when  they 
generally  run  to  seed.  From  this  singu- 
lar hardness  they  may  be  cultivated  more 
or  less  as  a  winter  standing  crop,  with 
advantage,  for  spring  use. 

Cives,  or  chives.  This  is  the  smallest 
of  all  the  onion  kind,  rising  but  a  few 
inches  high,  but  its  roots  are  perennial, 
and  increase  considerably  into  clusters, 
from  which  large  tufts  of  slender  awl- 
shaped  leaves  issue,  which  are  the  prin- 
cipal part  used,  the  roots  never  forming 
any  bulb,  at  least  not  bigger  than  small 
peas.  This  is  a  hardy  plant,  which  me- 
rits a  place  in  every  garden.  Its  clusters 
of  leaves  rise  early  in  spring,  and  are  use- 
ful both  in  salads  and  foi*  culinary  pur- 
poses, in  default  of  onions.  The  method 
of  gathering  it  is,  to  cut  the  leaves  off  near 
the  ground,  by  which  a  fresh  supply  is 
soon  produced  from  the  bottom  ;  or  oc- 
casionally the  plants  in  clusters  may  be 
slipped  quite  to  the  root  in  separate  lit- 
tle plants,  resembling  young  onions,  and 
used  as  substitutes  for  them.  It  is  easily 
increased  by  dividing  the  roots  in  spring, 
and  planting  eight  or  ten  of  them  toge- 
ther in  holes,  at  six  inches  distance  ;  in 
this  way,  by  autumn,  they  will  multiply  in- 
to bunches  of  a  large  size. 

Eschalot,  or  schallot.  This  is  a  species 
of  onion  which  is  bulbous-rooted,  and 
which  increases  greatly  by  off-sets,  the 
largest  of  which  are  the  proper  parts  of 
the  plant  for  use.  The  bulbs  are  oblong, 
irregular,  and  seldom  grow  large  ;  as  they 
generally  increase  into  clusters,  they  do 
not  swell  like  roots  that  grow  singly. 
From  the  roots  are  produced  many  long, 
narrow,  infirm  leaves  in  the  spring,  and 
which  wither  in  July  or  August,  when  the 
roots  are  full  grown  •.  they  are  then  taken 
up,  made  dry,  and  housed,  when  they 
keep  in  good  perfection  till  the  following 
spring. 

Canada,  or  tree-onion.  This  deserves 
to  be  cultivated,  both  as  a  curiosity  in. 
producing  the  onion  at  the  top  of  the 
stalk,  and  for  the  use  of  the  onions,  es- 
pecially for  pickling,  in  which  they  are  ex- 
cellent, and  superior  in  flavour  to  the 
common  onion.  It  is  perennial,  and  pro- 
pagated by  planting  the  bulbs  in  spring  or 
autumn.  Either  the  root-bulbs,  or  those 
produced  on  the  top  of  the  stalk,  being 
planted  in  a  bed  or  beds  of  any  good  earth, 
in  rows  a  foot  asunder,  six  inches  distance 
in  each  row,  and  two  or  three  inches 
deep,  they  shoot  up  leaves  and  stalks  in 


the  spring  and  summer,  and  produce  the; 
bulbs,  for  use  in  July  or  August ;  and  the 
root-bulbs  remaining,  furnish  a  produc- 
tion of  top-bulbs,  annually,  in  that  season ; 
the  root-bulb  increasing  by  off-sets,  may 
be  taken  up  occasionally  at  the  time  the 
stem  decays  in  autumn  ;  or  once  in  two 
or  three  years,  in  order  to  separate  the 
off-sets,  and  replant  them  when  necessary. 

The  leek  is  the  third  division  of  the  ge- 
nus, the  general  characters  of  which  are 
the  same  as  those  before  described,  and 
the  species  and  varieties  are,  the  porrum, 
or  common  leek,  which  may  be  said  to 
be  an  annual-biennial  plant ;  for  although 
the  roots  often  survive  after  perfecting 
seeds,  yet  the  plants  always  attain  perfec- 
tion the  same  year  they  are  sown,  and  the 
year  afterwards  run  up  to  stalk,  and  be- 
come unfit  for  use.  The  seed-stalk  of 
this  plant  does  not  belly  like  that  of  the 
onion.  The  best  of  the  varieties  of  this 
plant  for  general  culture  is  the  broad- 
leaved  or  London  leek,  which  attains  a 
large  growth,  the  neck  acquiring  a  thick 
substance,  in  length  from  six  to  nine  or 
ten  inches,  dividing  upwards  into  many 
large,  long,  thick  leaves,  arranging  them- 
selves in  somewhat  of  a  fan-shape.  There 
are  seven  species  indigenous  in  America, 
and  described  byPursh,  TJIZ.  :  1.  A.  vi- 
neaje,  common  in  old  fields.  2.  A.  fra- 
grans,  (which  is  A.  inodorum  of  Botani- 
cal Magazine  1129,  and  A.  mutabile  of 
Michaux's  fl.  Ame.  1  p.  195)  found  on  the 
mountains  of  Virginia  snd  Corolina.  3. 
A.  striatum  (which  is  A.  ornithogaloides 
of  Halt's  fl.  Car.  121,  and  ornithogalum 
bivalve  of  Lin.)  native  in  Virginia  and 
Carolina.  4.  A.  angulosum,  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Missouri  by  Lewis  and  Nut- 
tall.  5.  A.  triflorum,  found  in  shady 
woods  and  high  mountains  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. 6.  A.  canadense,  found  in  fields  and 
woods  from  Canada  to  Carolina.  7.  A. 
tricoccon,  found  in  shady  woods,  Penn- 
sylvania to  Virginia. 

ALLODIAL,  an  epithet  given  to  an  in- 
heritance held  without  any  acknowledg- 
ment to  a  lord  or  superior,  in  opposition 
to  feudal. 

ALLODIUM,  or  ALLEUD,  denotes 
lands  which  are  the  absolute  property  of 
their  owner,  without  being  obliged  to  pay 
any  service  oracknowledgment  whatever 
to  a  superior  lord  ;  in  which  sense  they 
stand  opposed  to  feudal  lands,  which  pay 
a  fee  to  some  superior. 

ALLOPHYLUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Octandria  Monogynia  class  of  plants^ 
the  calyx  of  which  is  a  perianthium  com- 
posed of  four  leaves  of  an  orbicular  figure, 


ALL 


ALM 


and  two  opposite  ones  smaller  than  the 
others  ;  the  corolla  consists  of  four  petals, 
less  than  the  cup,  of  an  orbicular  figure, 
and  equal  one  to  another,  with  large  un- 
gues,  of  the  same  length  with  the  smaller 
leaves  of  the  cup.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies :  A.  zeylanicus  is  a  tree  having1  the 
appearance  of  persea,  and  a  native  of  Cey- 
lon. A.  cominia  vises  30  feet  in  height, 
with  a  stem  as  thick  as  a  man's  thigh, 
with  numerous  flowers,  to  which  succeed 
berries  the  size  of  a  pin's  head,  with  shell 
and  kernel ,  grows  plentifully  in  Jamaica. 
A.  ternatus  is  a  native  of  Cochin  China. 

ALLOY,  or  ALLAT,  a  proportion  of  a 
baser  metal  mixed  with  a  finer  one.  Thus 
all  gold  coin  has  an  alloy  of  silver  and 
copper,  as  silver  coin  has  of  copper  alone  ; 
the  proportion  in  the  former  case,  for 
standard  gold,  being  two  carats  of  alloy 
in  a  pound  troy  of  gold  ;  and  in  the  latter, 
18  penny  weights  of  alloy  for  a  pound 
troy  of  silver. 

According  as  gold  or  silver  has  more  or 
less  alloy  than  that  mentioned  above,  it 
is  said  to  he  coarser  or  finer  than  the 
standard.  However,  it  ought  to  be  re- 
marked, that  the  coin  of  different  nations 
varies  greatly  in  this  respect ;  some  using 
a  larger,  and  others  a  less  proportion  of 
alloy,  the  original  intention  of  which  was 
to  give  the  coir,  a  due  degree  of  hardness. 

ALLOY,  in  a  chemical  sense,  may  be  de- 
fined a  combination  of  two  or  more  me- 
tals into  one  homogeneous  mass,  not  se- 
parable from  each  other  by  mere  heat. 
The  most  valuable  and  useful  of  these  are, 
brass,  type-metal,  tutenag,  bronze,  spe- 
culum metal,  for  which  see  the  different 
articles.  If  two  metals  being  fused  toge- 
ther produce  a  mass,  whose  specific  gra- 
vity is  either  greater  orless  than  the  mean 
specific  gravity  of  its  elements,  the  result 
is  an  alloy,  or  proper  chemical  combina- 
tion. One  of  the  most  striking  proofs  of 
actual  combination  between  the  parts  of 
an  alloy  is,  a  remarkable  increase  of  fusi- 
bility. This,  in  almost  all  cases,  is  much 
greater  than  could  be  inferred  from  the 
mean  fusibility  of  its  component  parts. 
Thus,  equal  parts  of  tin  and  iron  will  melt 
at  the  same  temperature  as  is  required 
for  equal  parts  of  tin  and  copper,  notwith- 
standing the  great  difference  between  the 
fusing  heat  of  copper  and  iron,  when  they 
are  each  of  them  pure.  So  also  an  alloy 
of  tin,  bismuth,  and  lead,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  3,  8,  and  5,  will  melt  in  boiling 
water,  which  is  a  less  heat  than  is  neces- 
sary for  the  liquefactien  of  bismuth,  the 
most  fusible  of  the  three.  The  oxyda- 
bility  of  an  alloy  is  generally  either  great- 


er or  less  than  that  of  the  unmixed  me- 
tals. Tin  and  lead  mixed  will,  at  a  low  red 
heat,  take  fire,  and  oxydate  immediately. 

ALLUSION,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  by 
which  something  is  applied  to,  or  under- 
stood of  another,  on  account  of  some  si- 
militude between  them. 

ALLUVIAL,  by  alluvial  depositions  is 
meant  the  soil  which  has  been  formed  by 
the  destruction  of  mountains,  and  the 
washing  down  of  their  particles  by  tor- 
rents of  water.  The  alluvial  formations 
constitute  the  great  mass  of  the  earth's 
surface.  They  have  been  formed  by  the 
gradual  action  of  rain  or  river  water  up- 
on the  other  formations.  They  may  be 
divided  into  two  kinds,  viz.  those  depo- 
sited in  the  vallies  and  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, or  upon  elevated  plains,  which  of- 
ten occur  in  mountains;  and  those  depo- 
sited upon  flat  land.  The  first  kind  con- 
sists of  sand,  gravel,  &c.  which  constitut 
ed  the  more  solid  parts  of  the  neighbour- 
ing mountains  and  which  remained  when 
the  less  solid  parts  have  been  washed 
away.  They  sometimes  contain  ores, 
particularly  gold  and  tin,  which  existed 
in  the  neighbouring  mountains.  The  se- 
cond kind  consists  of  loam,  clay,  sand, 
turf,  and  calctuff.  Here  are  also  earth 
and  brown  coal,  in  which  amber  isfound, 
wood  coal,  bituminous  wood,  and  bog-iron 
ore.  The  sand  contains  some  metals. 
The  calctuff'  contains  plants,  roots,  moss, 
bones,  &c.  which  it  has  incrusted.  The 
clay  and  sand  often  contain  petrified 
wood,  and  skeletons  of  quadrupeds. 

ALLUVION,  among  civilians,  denotes 
the  gradual  increase  of  land  along  the 
sea-shore,  or  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  This, 
when  slow  and  imperceptible,  is  deemed 
a  lawful  means  of  acquisition  :  but  when 
a  considerable  portion  of  land  is  torn  a- 
way  at  once  by  the  violence  of  the  cur- 
rent, and  joined  to  a  neighbouring  estat3,it 
may  be  claimed  again  by  the  formerowner. 

ALMAGEST,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
book  composed  by  Ptolemy ;  being  a  col- 
lection of  a  great  number  of  the  observa- 
tions and  problems  of  the  ancients,  relat- 
ing to  geometry  and  astronomy,  but  espe- 
cially the  latter  ;  and  being  the  first  work 
of  this  kind  which  has  come  down  to  us, 
and  containing  a  catalogue  of  the  fixed 
stars,  with  their  places,  besides  numerous 
records  and  observations  of  eclipses,  the 
motions  of  the  planets,  &c.  it  will  ever  be 
held  dear  and  valuable  to  the  cultivators 
of  astronomy.  See  PTOLEMY. 

In  the  original  Greek  it  is  called 
<rvvT»%i$  fifytw,  the  "  great  composi- 
tion" or  "  collection."  And  to  the  word 


ALMAMON. 


W/tW  the  Arabians  joined  the  particle 
"  al,"  and  thence  called  it "  Almaghesti," 
or,  as  we  call  it  from  them,  the  Almagest. 
ALMAMON,  Caliph  of  Bagdat,  a  phi- 
losopher and  astronomer  in  the  beginning 
of  the  ninth  century,  he  having  ascended 
the  throne  in  the  year  814.  He  was  son 
of  Harun  Al-Raschid,  and  grandson  of 
Almansor.  Having  been  educated  with 
great  care,  and  with  a  love  for  the  liberal 
sciences,  he  applied  himself  to  cultivate 
and  encourage  them  in  his  own  country. 
For  this  purpose  he  requested  the  Greek 
emperors  to  supply  him  with  such  books 
of  philosophy  as  they  had  among  them ; 
and  he  collected  skilful  interpreters  to 
translate  them  into  the  Arabic  language. 
He  also  encouraged  his  subjects  to  study 
them  ;  frequenting  the  meetings  of  the 
learned,  and  assisting  at  their  exercises 
and  deliberations.  He  formed  a  college 
at  Korasun,  and  selected  to  preside  over 
it  Mesul  of  Damascus,  a  famous  Christian 
physician.  When  his  father,  who  was 
still  living,  remonstrated  against  the  ap- 
pointment, on  account  of  the  president's 
religion,  he  replied,  that  he  had  chosen 
him,  not  as  a  teacher  of  theology,  but  for 
the  instruction  of  his  subjects  in  science 
and  the  useful  arts,  and  that  his  father 
well  knew,  that  the  most  learned  men 
and  skilful  artists  in  his  dominions  were 
Jews  and  Christians.  He  caused  Ptolemy's 
Almagest  to  be  translated  in  827,  by  Isaac 
Ben-honain,  and  Thabet  Ben-korah,  ac- 
cording to  Herbelot,  but  according  to 
others,  by  Sergius  and  Alhazen,  the  son 
of  Joseph.  In  his  reign,  and  doubtless 
by  his  encouragement,  an  astronomer  of 
Bagdat  named  Habash,  composed  three 
sets  of  astronomical  tables. 

Alnaamon  himself  made  many  astrono- 
mical observations,  and  determined  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  to  be  then  23° 
35',  or  23°  33'  in  some  manuscripts,  but 
Vossius  says  23°  51',  or  23°  34'.  He  also 
caused  skilful  observers  to  procure  pro- 
per instruments  to  be  made,  and  to  exer- 
cise themselves  in  astronomical  observa- 
tions ;  which  they  did  accordingly  at  She- 
masi,  in  the  province  of  Bagdat,  and  upon 
Mount  Casius,  near  Damas. 

Under  the  auspices  of  Mamon,  also,  a 
degree  of  the  meridian  was  measured  on 
the  plains  of  Sinjar,  or  Sindgiar,  upon 
the  borders  of  the  Red  Sea;  by  which 
the  degree  was  found  to  contain  56  2-3 
miles,  of  4000  coudees  each,  the  coudee 
being  a  foot  and  a  half:  but  it  is  not 
known  what  foot  is  here  meant,  whether 
the  Roman,  the  Alexandrian,  or  some 
er.  Albufeda  says  that  this  cubit  con- 


tained  27  inches,  each  inch  being  deter- 
mined by  six  grains  of  barley  placed  side- 
ways ;  but  Thevenot  says,  that  144  grains 
of  barley,  placed  in  this  manner,  would 
give  a  length  equal  to  1£  Paris  foot: 
four  cubits  would  be  equal  to  one  toise 
and  nine  inches,  and  therefore  4000  cu- 
bits, that  is,  56  2-3  miles,  would  give 
63,730  toises.  But  if  the  ordinary  cubit, 
of  24  inches  was  the  measure  to  which 
the  calculation  is  to  be  referred,  the  de- 
gree, in  this  estimate  of  it  would  contain 
56,666  toises.  According  to  another  val- 
uation of  a  cubit,  this  measure  would  con- 
sist of  53,123  French  toises. 

Almamon  was  a  liberal  and  zealous  en- 
courager  of  science,  in  consequence  oi 
which  the  Saracens  began  to  acquire  a 
degree  of  civilization  and  refinement,  to 
which  they  had  formerly  been  strangers. 
The  liberality  of  his  mind  obtained  for 
Almamon  the  reputation  of  infidelity. 
But  whatever  opinions  he  might  hold  re- 
specting the  Koran,  he  seems  to  have  had 
a  confidence  and  trust  in  the  Supreme 
Being.  In  this  work  we  shall  not  follow 
the  Caliph  into  the  field  of  battle,  nor  re- 
cord his  victories,  which  were  brilliant 
and  important.  We  must  look  to  him  in 
the  character  of  a  philosopher  and  man 
of  science,  and  in  addition  to  what  has 
already  been  noticed,  we  may  remark, 
that  he  built  a  new  nilometer,  for  mea- 
suring the  increase  of  the  Nile,  and  re- 
paired one  that  was  gone  to  decay.  In 
the  year  833,  as  he  was  returning  from 
one  of  his  expeditions,  he  umvarily 
quenched  his  thirst,  while  very  much 
heated  by  exercise,  with  cold  water,. 
which  brought  on  a  disorder  that  termi- 
nated his  life.  During  his  last  illness,  he 
settled  the  affairs  of  the  state,  and  then 
exclaiming,  in  the  spirit  of  piety,  "  O 
thou  who  never  diest,  have  mercy  on  me, 
a  dying  man."  He  expired  at  the  age  of 
49,  after  a  reign  of  20  years.  He  was  in- 
terred at  Tarsus.  To  the  principles  of 
science,  and  not  to  those  of  the  Moham- 
medan religion,  have  been  ascribed  the 
liberality  and  benignity  of  temper,  which 
he  displayed  in  certain  trying  circum- 
stances. When  his  uncle  and  rival  Ibra 
him  was  taken,  brought  to  trial,  and  con- 
demned, the.  caliph,  instead  of  sanction- 
ing the  sentence,  tenderly  embraced  his 
relation,  saying,  "  Uncle,  be  of  good 
cheer,  I  will  do  you  no  injury  :"  and  he 
not  only  pardoned  him,  but  granted  him 
a  rank  and  fortune  suitable  to  his  birth. 
Being  complimented  on  account  of  this 
generous  deed,  he  exclaimed,  "Did  but 
men  know  the  pleasure  that  I  feel  in  par- 


ALM 


ALO 


doning,  all  who  have  offended  me  would 
come  and  confess  their  faults."  Alma- 
mon,  in  the  course  of  his  reign,  employ- 
ed the  most  skilful  astronomers  that  he 
eould  find,  to  compose  a  body  of  astrono- 
mical science,  which  still  subsists  among 
oriental  MS S.  entitled  "  Astronomia  ela- 
borata  a  compluribus  D.  D.  jussu  regis 
Maimon." 

ALMANAC,  in  matters  of  literature,  a 
table  containing  the  calendar  of  days  and 
months,  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun, 
the  age  of  the  moon,  8cc. 

Authors  are  neither  agreed  about  the 
inventor  of  almanacs,  nor  the  etymology 
of  the  word;  some  deriving  it  from  the 
Arabic  particle  a/,  and  manah,  to  count; 
whilst  others  think  it  comes  from  almanah, 
i.  e.  handsels,  or  new  year's  gifts,  because 
the  astrologers  of  Arabia  used,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year,  to  make  presents  of 
their  ephemerides  for  the  year  ensuing. 

As  to  the  antiquity  of  almanacs,  Du- 
eange  informs  us,  that  the  Egyptian  as- 
trologers, long  before  the  Arabians,  used 
the  term  ahnenach,  and  almenachica  des- 
criptio,  for  their  monthly  predictions.  Be 
this  as  it  will,  Regiomontanus  is  allowed 
to  have  been  the  first  who  reduced  alma- 
nacs to  their  present  form. 

ALMANACS,  construction  of.  The  first 
thing  to  be  done  is,  to  compute  the  sun's 
and  moon's  place  for  each  day  in  the  year, 
or  it  may  be  taken  from  some  epheme- 
rides  and  entered  in  the  almanac  ;  next, 
find  the  dominical  letter,  and,  by  means 
thereof,  distribute  the  calendar  into 
•weeks  :  then,  having  computed  the  time 
of  Easter,  by  it  fix  the  other  moveable 
feasts ;  adding  the  immoveable  ones, 
with  the  names  of  the  martyrs,  the  rising 
and  setting  of  each  luminary,  the  length 
of  day  and  night^  the  aspects  of  the  pla- 
nets, the  phases  of  the  moon,  and  the 
sun's  entrance  into  the  cardinal  points  of 
the  elliptic,  i.  e.  the  two  equinoxes  and 
solstices. 

These  are  the  principal  contents  of  al- 
manacs ;  besides  which  there  are  others 
of  a  political  nature,  and  consequently 
different  in  different  countries,  as  the 
birth-days  and  coronation  of  princes,  ta- 
bles of  interest,  &c. 

On  the  whole,  there  appears  to  be  no 
mystery,  or  even  difficulty,  in  almanac 
making,  provided  tables  of  the  heavenly 
motions  be  not  wanting.  For  the  duties 
upon  almanacs,  see  STAMP-DUTIES. 

ALMAVAC,  nautical  and  astronomical 
tphemerin,  is  a  kind  of  national  almanac, 
j^ublished  annually  by  anticipation,  under 
the  direction  of  the  commissioners  of  lon- 


gitude. Besides  every  thing  essential  to 
general  use  that  is  to  be  found  in  other 
almanacs,  it  contains,  among  other  par- 
ticulars, the  distances  of  the  moon  from 
the  sun  and  fixed  stars  for  every  three 
hours  of  apparent  time,  adapted  to  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich,  by  comparing 
which  with  the  distances  carefully  ob- 
served at  sea,  the  mariner  may  readily  in- 
fer his  longitude  to  a  decree  of  exactness 
that  may  be  thought  sufficient  for  most 
nautical  purposes.  The  publication  of  it 
is  chiefly  designed  to  facilitate  the  use  of 
Mayer's  lunar  tables,  by  superseding  the 
necessity  of  intricate  calculations  in  de- 
termining the  longitude  at  sea. 

ALMANAC,  is  part  of  the  law  of  England, 
of  which  the  courts  must  take  notice  in 
the  returning  of  writs ;  but  the  almanac 
to  go  by  is  that  annexed  to  the  book  of 
Common  Prayer.  An  almanac,  in  which 
the  father  had  written  the  day  of  the  na- 
tivity of  his  son,  was  allowed  as  evidence 
to  prove  the  nonage  of  his  son. 

ALMOND-frw,  in  botany.  See  AMYG- 
DALA s. 

ALMUCANTARS,  in  astronomy,  an 
Arabic  word  denoting  circles  of  the 
sphere  passing  through  the  centre  of  the 
sun,  or  a  star,  parallel  to  the  horizon, 
being  the  same  as  parallels  of  akitude. 

Almucantars  are  the  same,  with  respect 
to  the  azimuths  and  horizon,  that  the  pa- 
rallels of  latitude  are,  with  regard  to  the 
meridians  and  equator.  They  serve  to 
shew  the  height  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and 
are  described  on  many  quadrants,  &c. 

ALNAGE,  or  AULNAGE,  in  the  Eng- 
lish polity,  the  measuring  of  woollen  ma- 
nufactures with  an  ell,  and  the  other  func- 
tions of  the  alnager.  See  the  next  arti- 
cle Alnage  was  at  first  intended  as  a 
proof  of  the  goodness  of  the  commodity, 
and  -therefore  a  seal  was  invented,  as  a 
signal  that  the  commodity  was  made  ac- 
cording to  the  statute. 

ALNAGER,  in  the  English  polity,  a 
public  sworn  officer,  whose  business  is  to 
examine  into  the  assize  of  all  woollen 
cloth  made  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
to  fix  seals  upon  them.  Another  branch 
of  his  office  is,  to  collect  an  alnage  duty 
to  the  king.  See  the  last  article. 

There  are  now  three  officers  relating  to 
the  alnage,  namely,  a  searcher,  measurer, 
and  alnager;  all  which  were  formerly 
comprised  in  the  alnager,  until,  by  his 
own  neglect,  it  was  thought  proper  to 
separate  these  offices. 

ALNUS,  the  alder-tree,  in  botany.  Seje 
BETULA. 

ALOp;,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 


ALO 


ALO 


andria  Monogynia  class  of  plants,  with  a 
liliaceous  flower,  consisting1  of  only  one 
tubular  leaf  divided  into  six  deep  seg- 
ments at  the  edge ;  its  fruit  is  sm  oblong 
capsule,  divided  into  three  cells,  and  con- 
taining a  number  of  angulated  seeds. 
There  are  16  species. 

Several  species  of  this  exotic  plant  are 
cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  the  curious, 
where  they  afford  a  very  pleasing  variety, 
as  well  by  the  odd  shape  of  their  leaves, 
as  by  the  different  spots  with  which  they 
are  variegated. 

Some  aloes  are  arborescent,  or  divided 
into  a  number  of  branches,  like  trees ; 
others  are  very  small,  growing  close  to 
the  ground.  The  two  most  considerable 
species  are  the  aloe  of  America,  and  that 
of  Asia;  the  former  on  account  of  its 
beautiful  flowers,  and  the  latter  for  the 
drug  prepared  from  it. 

All  the  aloes  are  natives  of  hot  climates ; 
and  the  place  of  growth  of  most  of  them 
is  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Hotten- 
tots hollow  out  the  trunk  of  the  first  spe- 
cies, or  A.  dichotoma,  to  make  quivers 
for  their  arrows;  and  several  of  them  are 
used  for  hedges.  Among  the  Mahome- 
tans, and  particularly  in  Egypt,  the  aloe 
is  a  kind  of  symbolic  plant,  and  dedicated 
to  the  offices  of  religion  :  for  pilgrims,  on 
their  return  from  Mecca,  suspend  it  over 
their  doors  as  an  evidence  of  their  having 
performed  that  holy  journey.  The  super- 
stitious Egyptians  imagine,  that  it  has  the 
virtue  of  keeping  off  apparitions  and  evil 
spirits  from  their  houses,  and  it  is  hung 
over  the  doors  of  Christians  and  Jews  in 
Cairo  for  this  purpose.  They  also  distil 
from  it  a  water,  which  is  sold  in  the  shops, 
and  recommended  in  coughs,  asthmas  and 
hysterics.  Hasselquist  mentions  a  per- 
son who  was  cured  of  the  jaundice  in  four 
days  by  taking  about  half  a  pint  of  it.  The 
Arabians  call  it  sabbara.  The  negroes, 
as  we  are  informed  by  Adanson,  in  his 
voyage  to  Senegal,  make  very  good  ropes 
of  the  leaves  of  the  Guinea  aloes,  which 
are  not  apt  to  rot  in  water.  M.  Fabroni, 
as  we  learn  from  theAnnales  de  Chimie, 
procured  from  the  leaves  of  the  aloe  suc- 
cotrina  angustifolia,  a  violet  dye,  which 
resists  the  action  of  oxygen,  acids,  and 
alkalies.  This  juice,  he  says,  produces  a 
superb  transparent  colour,  which  is  high- 
ly proper  for  works  in  miniature,  and 
which,  when  dissolved  in  water,  may 
serve,  either  cold  or  warm,  for  dying  silk 
from  the  lightest  to  the  darkest  shade  : 
and  he  reckons  it  one  of  the  most  durable 
colours  known  in  nature.  Aloes  was 
ustd  among  the  ancients  in  embalming1, 


to  preserve  bodies  from  putrefaction.  Qf 
this  species  of  aloes,  interpreters  under- 
stand that  to  have  been  which  Nicodemus 
brought  to  embalm  the  body  of  Christ, 
John  xix.  3.  Aloes,  whose  resinous  part 
is  not  soluble  in  water,  have  been  used  as 
a  preservative  to  ship's  bottoms  against 
the  worms,  to  which  those  that  trade  to 
the  East  and  West  Indies  are  particularly 
subject.  One  ounce  of  aloes  is  sufficient 
for  two  superficial  feet  of  plank  ;  about 
12ib.  for  a  vessel  of  50  tons  burthen,  and 
SOOlb.  for  a  first  rate  man  of  war.  It 
may  be  incorporated  with  six  pounds  of 
pitch,  one  of  Spanish  brown,  or  whiting, 
and  a  quart  of  oil ;  or  with  the  same  pro- 
portion of  turpentine,  Spanish  brown  and 
tallow.  Such  a  coat,  it  has  been  said,  will 
preserve  a  ship's  bottom  eight  months., 
and  the  expense  for  a  first  rate  ship  will 
be  about  18/.  The  same  composition  may 
be  used  in  hot  countries  for  preserving 
rafters,  &c.  from  the  wood-ant.  The  effi- 
cacy of  aloes,  as  a  defence  against  worras^ 
has  been  controverted. 

AI.OE,  or  ALOES,  in  pharmacy,  the  in- 
spissated juice  of  the  aloe  perfoliata,  Asi- 
atic aloe,  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  from  the  leaves,  fresh  pulled,  is 
pressed  a  juice,  the  thinner  and  purer 
part  of  which  is  poured  off,  and  set  in  the 
sun  to  evaporate  to  a  hard  yellowish  sub- 
stance, which  is  called  sitccotrine  alog,  as 
being  chiefly  made  at  Succotra.  The 
thicker  part,  being  put  into  another  ves- 
sel, hardens  into  a  substance  of  a  liver- 
colour,  and  thence  called  aloe  hepatica. 
The  thickest  part,  or  sediment,  hardens 
into  a  coarse  substance,  called  aloe  caba- 
tinciy  or  the  horse-aloe,  as  being  chiefly 
used  as  a  purge  for  horses. 

Fabroni  has  discovered  that  the  recent 
juice  of  the  leaves  of  the  aloe  has  the  pro- 
perty of  absorbing  oxygen,  of  assuming  a 
fine  reddish  purple,  and  of  yielding  a  pig- 
ment which  he  strongly  recommends  to 
the  artist. 

ALOPECURUS,  fox-tail-grass,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  Triandria  Digynia 
class  of  plants,  and  of  the  natural  order  of 
Grasses,  the  calyx  of  which  is  a  bivalve 
glume,  containing  a  single  flower;  the 
valves  are  hollow,  of  an  ovate  lanceolatec! 
figure,  equal  in  size,  and  compressed  ; 
the  corolla  is  univalve  ;  the  valve  is  con- 
cave, and  of  the  length  of  the  cup,  and 
has  a  very  long  arista  inserted  into  its 
back  near  the  base.  There  is  no  peri- 
carpium  :  the  corolla  itself  remains,  and 
contains  the  seed,  which  is  single  and  of 
a  roundish  figure.  There  are  12  species. 
The  A.,  pratensis,  meadow  foxtail,  is  a  na- 


ALP 


ALP 


•ive  of  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  found 
with  us  very  common  in  pastures  and 
meadows.  It  is  perennial,  and  flowers  in 
May.  This  is  the  best  grass  to  be  sown 
in  low  meadow  grounds,  or  in  boggy 
places  which  have  been  drained.  It  is 
grateful  to  cattle,  and  possesses  the  three 
•rreat  requisites  of  quantity,  quality,  and 
earliness,  in  a  degree  superior  to  any 
other,  and  is  therefore  highly  deserving 
of  cultivation  in  lands  that  are  proper  for 
It.  The  seed  may  be  easily  collected,  as 
it  does  not  quit  the  chaff,  and  the  spikes 
are  very  prolific  ;  but  the  larva;  of  a  spe- 
cies of  tnuscae,  which  are  themselves  the 
prey  of  the  cimex  campestris,  devour  the 
i-jeedsso  much,  that  in  many  spikes  scarce- 
ly one  is  found  perfect.  "A.  agrestis  is  a 
very  troublesome  weed  in  cultivated 
ground,  and  among  wheat  it  is  execrated 
by  farmers  under  the  name  of  blackbent : 
it  is  also  common  by  way  sides,  as  well  as 
in  corn  fields,  and  in  pastures  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight.  It  has  acquired  the  name  of 
mouse-tail  grass  in  English,  from  the 
great  length  and  slenderness  of  the  spike, 
which  resembles  the  tail  of  a  mouse.  It 
is  annual,  and  flowers  in  July,  continues 
flowering  till  autumn,  and  comes  iaito 
bloom  very  soon  after  being  sown. 

ALPHABET,  in  matters  of  literature, 
the  natural  or  accustomed  series  of  the 
several  letters  of  a  language. 

As  alphabets  were  not  contrived  with 
design,  or  according*  to  the  just  rules  of 
analogy  and  reason,  but  have  been  suc- 
cessively framed  and  altered,  as  occasion 
required,  it  is  not  surprising  that  many 
grievous  complaints  have  been  heard  of 
iheir  deficiencies,  and  divers  attempts 
made  to  establish  new  and  more  adequate 
0nes  in  their  place. 

All  the  alphabets  extant  are  charged  by 
Bishop  Wilkins  with  great  irregularities, 
with  respect  both  to  order,  number,  pow- 
er, figure,  &c. 

As  to  the  order,  it  appears  (says  he) 
•  nartificial,  precarious,  and  confused,  as 
the  vowels  and  consonants  are  not  redu- 
ced into  classes,  with  such  order  of  pre- 
cedence and  subsequence  as  their  natures 
will  bear.  Of  this  imperfection,  the 
Greek  alphabet,  which  is  one  of  the  least 
defective,  is  far  from  being  free:  for  in- 
stance, the  Greeks  should  have  separated 
the  consonants  from  the  vowels  ;  after 
the  vowels  they  should  have  placed  the 
diphthongs,  and  then  the  consonants; 
whereas, 'in  fact,  the  order  is  so  perverted 
that  we  find  the  ^<*£ov,the  fifteenth  letter 
in  order  of  th.e  alphabet,  and  the  «.*«?« 


or  long'  o,  the  twenty -fourth  and  last,  the 
e  the  fifth,  and  the  »  the  seventh. 

\Vith  respect  to  the  number,  they  are 
both  redundant  and  deficient ;  redundant, 
by  allotting  the  same  sound  to  several 
letters,  as  in  the  Latin  c  and  k,f  and  ph  ; 
or  by  reckoning  double  letters  among  the 
simple  elements  of  speech,  as  in  the 
Greek  |  and  ^  the  Latin  q  or  cu,  *  or  ex, 
and  the  j  consonant ;  deficient  in  many 
respects,  particularly  with  regard  to  vow- 
els, of  which  seven  or  eight  kinds  are 
commonly  used,  though  the  Latin  alpha- 
bet takes  notice  only  of  five.  Add  to  this, 
that  the  difference  among  them,  with  re- 
gard to  long  and  short,  is  not  sufficiently 
provided  against. 

The  powers,  again,  are  not  more  ex- 
empt from  confusion  ;  the  vowels,  for  in- 
stance, are  generally  acknowledged  to 
have  each  of  them  several  different 
sounds ;  and  among  the  consonants  we 
need  only  bring,  as  evidence  of  their  dif- 
ferent pronunciation,  the  letter  c  in  the 
word  circa,  and  g  in  the  word  negligence. 
Hence  it  happens,  that  some  words  are 
differently  "written,  though  pronounced 
in  the  same  manner,  as  cessio  and  sessio ; 
and  others  are  different  in  pronunciation, 
which  are  the  same  in  writing,  as^'re, 
dare,  and.  five,  vincnhtm. 

Finally,  the  figures  are  but  ill-concert- 
ed, there  being  nothing  in  the  characters 
of  the  vowels  answerable  to  the  different 
manner  of  pronunciation  ;  nor  in  the  con- 
sononts  analagous  to  their  agreements  or 
disagreements. 

Alphabets  of  different  nations  vary  in 
the  number  of  their  constituent  letters. 
The  English  alphabet  contains  twenty- 
four  letters,  to  which  if.;  andt>  consonants 
are  added,  the  number  will  be  twenty-six; 
the  French  twenty-three  ;  the  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan,  twenty- 
two  each  ;  the  Arabic,  twenty-eight;  the 
Persian,  thirty-one  ;  the  Turkish,  thirty- 
three  ;  the  Georgian,  thirty-six;  the  Cop- 
tic, thirty-two ;  the  Muscovite,  forty- 
three  ;  the  Greek,  twenty -four  ;  the  La- 
tin, twenty-two;  the  Sclavonic,  twenty- 
seven  ;  the  Dutch,  twenty-six  ;  the  Span- 
ish, twenty-seven  ;  the  Italian,  twenty ; 
the  Ethiopic,  as  well  as  Tartarian,  two- 
hundred  and  two  ;  the  Indians  of  Bengal, 
twenty-one  ;  the  Baramos,  nineteen  ;  the 
Chinese,  properly  speaking,  have  no  al- 
phabet, except  we  call  their  whole  lan- 
guage their  alphabet;  their  letters  are 
words,  or  rather  hieroglyphics,  and 
amount  to  about  80,000. 
If  alphabets  had  been  constructed  by 


ALP 


ALP 


able  persons,  after  a  full  examination  of 
the  subject,  they  would  not  have  been 
filled  with  such  contradictions  between 
the  manner  of  writing-  and  reading  as  we 
have  shown  above,  nor  with  those  imper- 
fections that  evidently  appear  in  the  al- 
phabets of  every  nation.  Mr.  Lodowick, 
however,  and  Bishop  Wilkins,  have  en- 
deavoured to  obviate  all  these,  in  their 
universal  alphabets  or  characters.  See 
CHARACTER. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  number  of  let- 
ters in  most  languages  should  be  so  small, 
and  that  of  words  so  great,  since  it  ap- 
pears, that,  allowing  only  24  letters  to  an 
alphabet,  the  different  words  or  combina- 
tions that  may  be  made  out  of  them,  ta- 
king them  first  one  by  one,  then  two  by 
two,  &.c.  &c.  would  amount  to  the  follow- 
ing number:— 1391,  724288,  887252, 
999425,  128493,  4022000.  See  COMBI- 
NATION. It  must  be  admitted,  neverthe- 
less, that  the  condition,  that  every  sylla- 
ble must  contain  at  least  one  vowel, 
would  modify  this  number  in  the  way  of 
denomination  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the 
combinations  in  polysyllabic  words  would 
operate  the  contrary  way. 

Many  learned  authors  have  composed 
inquiries  into  the  origin  of  alphabetic 
writing,  and  not  a  few  have  referred  the 
invention  to  the  immediate  inspiration  of 
God.  Nevertheless,  it  appears  to  be  a 
very  simple  and  direct  improvement  of 
the  hieroglyphic  art.  Sensible  objects 
are  depicted  in  outlines  by  children,  and 
most  rude  nations  ;  and,  as  in  the  con- 
struction of  languages,  so  in  this  writing 
by  figures,  substantives  will  come  to  be 
used  adjectively,  to  denote  relations  or 
qualities.  As  words  become  more  com- 
plex and  less  perfect  by  the  use  of  ab- 
stractions, so  likewise  must  the  hiero- 
glyphic picturesbecome  combined  and  im- 
perfect, and  at  length  must  have  denoted 
things  very  different  from  any  object  ca- 
pable of  being  delineated  ;  and,  among 
other  consequences,  there  is  one  very 
striking  ;  namely,  that  the  picture,  after 
degenerating  into  a  sign  or  character,  will 
be  associated  by  memory  with  the  oral 
character,  or  name,  or  correspondent 
word.  An  immediate  step  after  this  must 
be,  that  characters  associated  with  mono- 
syllabic words  will  be  frequently  put  to- 
g-ether to  form  polysyllabic  words,  in 
which  the  picture  is  left  out  of  the  consi- 
deration, and  the  sound  alone  forms  the 
subject  of  the  record,  (as  if  the  charac- 
ters for  man  and  eye  were  united  to  form 
the  word  many,  or  multitudinous.)  And 
lastly,  habit  must  in  fact  have  o-iven  a 

VOL.  r. 


preference,  in  the  composition  of  these 
polysyllabic  words,  to  such  simple  sounds 
and  their  characters  as  were  found  to  be 
most  extensively  useful.  That  is  to  say, 
an  unintentional  process  of  analysis  must 
have  thus  given  rise  to  the  alphabet. 

The  sounds  of  language  are  modified 
by  articulation,  which  depends  on  certain 
gross,  and  in  genaral  obvious  changes  in 
the  figure  of  the  organs ;  and  by  accent 
or  mere  intensity ;  and  by  intonation  or 
music.  The  first  of  these,  as  used  in 
discourse,  is  much  more  capable  of  having 
its  variations  marked  by  characters  than 
the  others;  and  from  this  circumstance, 
it  is  found  that  the  alphabet  can  deliver 
with  correctness  the  words  of  sach  lan- 
guages as  communicate  chiefly  by  articu- 
lation ;  but  in  languages  where  the  same 
articulated  monosyllable  denotes  a  great 
variety  of  things,  according  to  the  accent 
or  intonation,  there  will  be  comparatively 
few  instances  of  depicted  sound,  and  the 
system  of  writing  will  continue  to  be 
hieroglyphic,  or  rather  symbolic,  in  all  its 
improvements.  This  system  is,  for  the 
reason  here  mentioned,  in  use  in  China, 
and  does  not  seem  inferior  to  the  alpha- 
bet, but  in  some  respects  more  advanta- 
geous. 

ALPHABET  is  also  used  for  a  cypher, 
or  table  of  the  usual  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, with  the  corresponding  secret  cha- 
racters, and  other  blank  symbols,  intend- 
ed to  render  the  writing  more  difficult  to 
be  decyphered.  See  the  article  DECI- 
PHERING. 

ALPHABET,  among  merchants,  a  kind 
of  index,  with  the  twenty-four  letters  in 
their  natural  order,  in  which  are  set  down 
the  names  of  those  who  have  opened  ac- 
counts, referringto  the  folios  of  theledger. 

ALPHONSINE  tables,  astronomical  ta- 
bles, calculated  by  order  of  Alphonsus, 
King  of  Castile,  in  the  construction  of 
which  that  prince  is  supposed  to  have 
contributed  his  own  labour. 

ALPINA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monandria  Monogynia  class  of  plants, 
the  corolla  whereof  is  monopetalous,  un- 
equal, and  as  it  were  double ;  the  exte- 
rior one  is  trifid,  the  upper  segment  is 
hollow,  the  two  side  ones  flat,  and  it  has 
a  tube  ;  the  interior  is  short,  its  edge  is 
trifid,  and  the  lower  segment  of  the  three 
hangs  out  beyond  the  lateral  parts  of  the 
exterior  corolla,  the  other  two  are  emar- 
ginated,  and  the  base  is  ventricose  ;  the 
fruit  is  a  fleshy  capsule,  of  an  ovated 
figure,  composed  of  three  valves,  and 
containing  three  cells ;  the  seeds  are  nu- 
merous, of  an  ovated  figure,  with  a  pro- 

R 


ALP 


ALP 


4lve  of  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  found 
\vith  us  very  common  in  pastures  and 
meadows.  It  is  perennial,  and  flowers  in 
May.  This  is  the  best  g'rass  to  be  sown 
m  low  meadow  grounds,  or  in  boggy 
places  which  have  been  drained.  It  is 
grateful  to  cattle,  and  possesses  the  three 
great  requisites  of  quantity,  quality,  and 
earliness,  in  a  degree  superior  to  any 
other,  and  is  therefore  highly  deserving 
of  cultivation  in  lands  that  are  proper  for 
"it.  The  seed  may  be  easily  collected,  as 
>tdoes  not  quit  the  chaff',  and  the  spikes 
are  very  prolific  ;  but  the  larvae  of  a  spe- 
cies of  fluiscse,  which  are  themselves  the 
prey  of  the  cimex  campestris,  devour  the 
seeds  so  much,  that  in  many  spikes  scarce- 
ly one  is  found  perfect.  A.  agrestis  is  a 
very  troublesome  weed  in  cultivated 
ground,  and  among  wheat  it  is  execrated 
by  farmers  under  the  name  of  blackbent: 
it  is  also  common  by  way  sides,  as  well  as 
in  corn  fields,  and  in  pastures  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight.  It  has  acquired  the  name  of 
mouse-tail  grass  in  English,  from  the 
great  length  and  slendernessof  the  spike, 
Which  resembles  the  tail  of  a  mouse.  It 
is  annual,  and  flowers  in  July,  continues 
flowering  till  autumn,  and  comes  into 
bloom  very  soon  after  being  sown. 

ALPHABET,  in  matters  of  literature, 
the  natural  or  accustomed  series  of  the 
several  letters  of  a  language. 

As  alphabets  were  not  contrived  with 
design,  or  according  to  the  just  rules  of 
analogy  and  reason,  but  have  been  suc- 
cessively framed  and  altered,  as  occasion 
required,  it  is  not  surprising  that  many 
grievous  complaints  have  been  heard  of 
iheir  deficiencies,  and  divers  attempts 
made  to  establish  new  and  more  adequate 
cnes  in  their  place. 

All  the  alphabets  extant  are  charged  by 
Bishop  Wilkins  with  great  irregularities, 
with  respect  both  to  order,  number,  pow- 
er, figure,  &c. 

As  to  the  order,  it  appears  (says  he) 
.nartificial,  precarious,  and  confused,  as 
the  vowels  and  consonants  are  not  redu- 
ced into  classes,  with  such  order  of  pre- 
cedence and  subsequence  as  their  natures 
will  bear.  Of  this  imperfection,  the 
Greek  alphabet,  which  is  one  of  the  least 
defective,  is  far  from  being  free:  for  in- 
stance, the  Greeks  should  have  separated 
the  consonants  from  the  vowels;  after 
the  vowels  they  should  have  placed  the 
diphthongs,  and  then  the  consonants ; 
whereas,  in  fact,  the  order  is  so  perverted 
that  we  find  the  *,«,<*£0v,the  fifteenth  letter 
an  order  of  the  alphabet,  and  the  «*tf7« 


or  long  o,  the  twenty -fourth  and  last,  the 
e  the  fifth,  and  the  »  the  seventh. 

With  respect  to  the  number,  they  are 
both  redundant  and  deficient;  redundant, 
by  allotting  the  same  sound  to  several 
letters,  as  in  the  Latin  c  and  k,f  and  ph  ; 
or  by  reckoning  double  letters  among  the 
simple  elements  of  speech,  as  in  the 
Greek  |  and  ^  the  Latin  q  or  cu,  x  or  ex, 
and  the  j  consonant ;  deficient  in  many 
respects,  particularly  with  regard  to  vow- 
els, of  which  seven  or  eight  kinds  are 
commonly  used,  though  the  Latin  alpha- 
bet takes  notice  only  of  five.  Add  to  this, 
that  the  difference  among  them,  with  re- 
gard to  long  and  short,  is  not  sufficiently 
provided  against. 

The  powers,  again,  are  not  more  ex- 
empt from  confusion  ;  the  vowels,  for  in- 
stance, are  generally  acknowledged  to 
have  each  of  them  several  different 
sounds  ;  and  among  the  consonants  we 
need  only  bring,  as  evidence  of  theirdif- 
ferent  pronunciation,  the  letter  c  in  the 
word  circa,  and  g  in  the  word  negligence. 
Hence  it  happens,  that  some  words  are 
differently  "written,  though  pronounced 
in  the  same  manner,  as  cessio  and  sessio  ; 
and  others  are  different  in  pronunciation, 
which  are  the  same  in  writing,  AS  give, 
dare,  &nd  give,  vincuhtm. 

Finally,  the  figures  are  but  ill-concert- 
ed, there  being  nothing  in  the  characters 
of  the  vowels  answerable  to  the  different 
manner  of  pronunciation  ;  nor  in  the  con- 
sononts  analagous  to  their  agreements  or 
disagreements. 

Alphabets  of  different  nations  vary  in 
the  number  of  their  constituent  letters. 
The  English  alphabet  contains  twenty- 
four  letters,  to  which  if,;  andv  consonants 
are  added,  the  number  will  be  twenty-six; 
the  French  twenty-three  ;  the  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan,  twenty- 
two  each  ;  the  Arabic,  twenty-eight;  the 
Persian,  thirty-one  ;  the  Turkish,  thirty- 
three  ;  the  Georgian,  thirty-six;  the  Cop- 
tic, thirty-two;  the  Muscovite,  forty- 
three  ;  the  Greek,  twenty-four  ;  the  La- 
tin, twenty-two;  the  Sclavonic,  twenty- 
seven  ;  the  Dutch,  twenty-six  ;  the  Span- 
ish, twenty-seven;  the  "Italian,  twenty; 
the  Ethiopic,  as  well  as  Tartarian,  two- 
hundred  and  two  ;  the  Indians  of  Bengal, 
twenty-one  ;  the  Raramos,  nineteen  ;  the 
Chinese,  properly  speaking,  have  no  al- 
phabet, except  we  call  their  whole  lan- 
guage their  alphabet;  their  letters  are 
words,  or  rather  hieroglyphics,  and 
amount  to  about  80,000. 

If  alphabets  had  been  constructed  by 


ALP 


ALP 


able  persons,  after  a  full  examination  of 
the  subject,  they  would  not  have  been 
filled  with  such  contradictions  between 
the  manner  of  writing-  and  reading  as  we 
have  shown  above,  nor  with  those  imper- 
fections that  evidently  appear  in  the  al- 
phabets of  every  nation.  Mr.  Lodowick, 
however,  and  Bishop  Wilkins,  have  en- 
deavoured to  obviate  all  these,  in  their 
universal  alphabets  or  characters.  See 
CHARACTER. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  number  of  let- 
ters in  most  languages  should  be  so  small, 
and  that  of  words  so  great,  since  it  ap- 
pears, that,  allowing  only  24  letters  to  an 
alphabet,  the  different  words  or  combina- 
tions that  may  be  made  out  of  them,  ta- 
king them  first  one  by  one,  then  two  by 
two,  &,c.  &c.  would  amount  to  the  follow- 
ing number:— 1391,  724288,  887252, 
999425,  128493,  4022000.  See  COMBI- 
NATION. It  must  be  admitted,  neverthe- 
less, that  the  condition,  that  every  sylla- 
ble must  contain  at  least  one  vowel, 
would  modify  this  number  in  the  way  of 
denomination  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the 
combinations  in  polysyllabic  words  would 
operate  the  contrary  way. 

Many  learned  authors  have  composed 
inquiries  into  the  origin  of  alphabetic 
writing,  and  not  a  few  have  referred  the 
invention  to  the  immediate  inspiration  of 
God.  Nevertheless,  it  appears  to  be  a 
very  simple  and  direct  improvement  of 
the  hieroglyphic  art.  Sensible  objects 
are  depicted  in  outlines  by  children,  and 
most  rude  nations  ;  and,  as  in  the  con- 
struction of  languages,  so  in  this  writing 
by  figures,  substantives  will  come  to  be 
used  adjectively,  to  denote  relations  or 
qualities.  As  words  become  more  com- 
plex and  less  perfect  by  the  use  of  ab- 
stractions, so  likewise  must  the  hiero- 
glyphic picturesbecome  combined  and  im- 
perfect, and  at  length  must  have  denoted 
things  very  different  from  any  object  ca- 
pable of  being  delineated  ;  and,  among 
other  consequences,  there  is  one  very 
striking  ;  namely,  that  the  picture,  after 
degenerating  into  a  sign  or  character,  will 
be  associated  by  memory  with  the  oral 
character,  or  name,  or  correspondent 
word.  An  immediate  step  after  this  must 
be,  that  characters  associated  with  mono- 
syllabic words  will  be  frequently  put  to- 
gether to  form  polysyllabic  words,  in 
which  the  picture  is  left  out  of  the  consi- 
deration, and  the  sound  alone  forms  the 
subject  of  the  record,  (as  if  the  charac- 
ters for  man  and  eye  were  united  to  form 
the  word  many,  or  multitudinous.)  And 
lastly,  habit  must  in  fact  have  e;iven  a 

VOL.  r, 


preference,  in  the  composition  of  these 
polysyllabic  words,  to  such  simple  sounds 
and  iheir  characters  as  were  found  to  be 
most  extensively  useful.  That  is  to  say, 
an  unintentional  process  of  analysis  must 
have  thus  given  rise  to  the  alphabet. 

The  sounds  of  language  are  modified 
by  articulation,  which  depends  on  certain 
gross,  and  in  genaral  obvious  changes  in 
the  figure  of  the  organs;  and  by  accent 
or  mere  intensity ;  and  by  intonation  or 
music.  The  first  of  these,  as  used  in 
discourse,  is  much  more  capable  of  having 
its  variations  marked  by  characters  than 
the  others;  and  from  this  circumstance, 
it  is  found  that  the  alphabet  can  deliver 
with  correctness  the  words  of  sach  lan- 
guages as  communicate  chiefly  by  articu- 
lation ;  but  in  languages  where  the  same 
articulated  monosyllable  denotes  a  great 
variety  of  things,  according  to  the  accent 
or  intonation^  there  will  be  comparatively 
few  instances  of  depicted  sound,  and  the 
system  of  writing  will  continue  to  be 
hieroglyphic,  or  rather  symbolic,  in  all  its 
improvements.  This  system  is,  for  the 
reason  here  mentioned,  in  use  in  China, 
and  does  not  seem  inferior  to  the  alpha- 
bet, but  in  some  respects  more  advanta- 
geous. 

ALPHABET  is  also  used  for  a  cypher, 
or  table  of  the  usual  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, with  the  corresponding  secret  cha- 
racters, and  other  blank  symbols,  intend- 
ed to  render  the  writing  more  difficult  to 
be  decyphered.  See  the  article  DECT- 

PHERIIfG. 

ALPHABET,  among  merchants,  a  kind 
of  index,  with  the  twenty-four  letters  in 
their  natural  order,  in  which  are  set  down 
the  names  of  those  who  have  opened  ac- 
counts,referringto  the  folios  of  the  ledger. 

ALPHONSINE  tables,  astronomical  ta- 
bles, calculated  by  order  of  Alphonsus, 
King1  of  Castile,  in  the  construction  of 
which  that  prince  is  supposed  to  have 
contributed  his  own  labour. 

ALPINA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monandria  Monogynia  class  of  plants, 
the  corolla  whereof  is  monopetalous,  un- 
equal, and  as  it  were  double ;  the  exte- 
rior one  is  trifid,  the  upper  segment  is 
hollow,  the  two  side  ones  flat,  and  it  has 
a  tube  ;  the  interior  is  short,  its  edge  is 
trifid,  and  the  lower  segment  of  the  three 
hangs  out  beyond  the  lateral  parts  of  the 
exterior  corolla,  the  other  two  are  emar- 
ginated,  and  the  base  is  ventricose  ;  the 
fruit  is  a  fleshy  capsule,  of  an  ovated 
figure,  composed  of  three  valves,  and 
containing  three  cells ;  the  seeds  are  nu- 
merous, of  an  ovated  figure,  with  a  pro- 

R 


ALS 


ALT 


roinent  but  truncated  apex,  and  a  cauda- 
ted  base.    There  are  seven  species. 

ALSIME,  chick-weed,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  Pentandria  Trigynia  class  and 
order,  and  the  natural  order  of  Caryo- 
phyllei :  its  characters  are,  that  the  calyx 
is  a  five-leaved  perianthium,  leaflets  con- 
cave, oblong  and  acuminate :  the  corolla 
has  five  equal   petals,    longer  than  the 
calyx ;  the  stamina  consists  of  capillary 
filaments,  the  anthers  roundish ;  the  pis- 
tillum  has  a  subovate  germ,  styles  filiform, 
and  stigmas  obtuse;  the  pericarpium  is 
an  otate,  one-celled,  three-valved,  cap- 
sule, covered  with  the  calyx ;  the  seeds 
are  very  many  and  roundish.     There  are 
five  species,  of  which  the  following  is  the 
principal.       A.  media,    common    chick- 
weed,  with  the  petals  bipartite,  and  leaves 
ovate  cordate.     The  number  of  stamens 
in  the  flower  of  the  common  chick-weed 
is  uncertain,  from  three  to  ten.  This  spe- 
cies in   different  soils  and  situations  as- 
sumes different  appearances ;    but  it  is 
distinguished  from  the  cerastiums,  which 
it  most  resembles,  by  the  number  of  pis- 
tils, and  by  having  the  petals  shorter  than 
the  leaves  of  the  calyx,  and  from  all  the 
plants  related  to  it,  and  particularly  the 
steliaria  nemorum,   by  having  the  stalk 
alternately  hairy  on  one  side  only.     Dr. 
Withering  refers  it  to  the  steliaria,  with 
which  genus  it  agrees  in  various  respects, 
and  especially  in  the  capsules  opening 
with    six  valves.      He   observes,  that  it 
grows  almost  in  all  situations,  from  damp 
and  almost  boggy  woods,  to  the  driest 
gravel  walks  in  gardens;    but  in  these 
various  states  its  appearances  are  very 
different,  so  that  those  who  have  only  ta- 
ken notice  of  it  as  garden  chick-weed 
would  hardly  know  it  in  woods,  where 
it    sometimes    exceeds  half  a  yard   in 
height,  and  has  leaves  near  two  inches 
long  and  more  than  one  inch  broad.     In 
its  truly   wild  state,  he   says,  in  damp 
woods,  and  hedge  bottoms,  with  a  north- 
ern aspect,  it  has  almost  always  ten  sta- 
mens; but  in  drier  soils  and  more  sunny 
exposures,  the  stamens  are  usually  five  or 
three.     When  the  flowers  first  open,  the 
peduncles  are  upright ;  as  the  flowers  go 
off*  they  hang  down  ;  and  when  the  seeds 
ripen,  they  again  become  upright.     Dr. 
Withering  observes,  that  the  flowers  are 
upright,  and  open  from  nine  in  the  morn- 
ing till  noon  ;  but  if  it  rains,  they  do  not 
open.     After  rain  they  become  pendent ; 
but  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  rise  again. 
In  gardens  or  dunghills,  chick-weed  sheds 
abundance   of  seeds,  which  are  round, 
compressed,  yellow,  and  rough,  with  lit- 


the  tubercles  :  and  thus  becomes  a  trou» 
blesome  weed  ;  but  if  it  be  not  suffered  to 
seed,  it  may  be  destroyed,  as  it  is  annual, 
without  much  trouble.  This  species  is  a 
remarkable  instance  of  the  sleep  of  plants; 
for  every  night  the  leaves  approach  in 
pairs,  including  with  their  upper  surfaces 
the  tender  rudiments  of  the  new  shoots  ; 
and  the  uppermost  pair  but  one,  at  the 
end  of  the  stalk,  is  furnished  with  longer 
leaf-stalks  than  the  others,  so  that  they 
cun  close  upon  the  terminating  pair,  and 
protect  the  end  of  the  branch  The 
young  shoots  and  leaves,  when  boiled, 
can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  spring 
spinach,  and  are  equally  wholesome. 
Swine  are  very  fond  of  it ;  cows  and  hor- 
ses eat  it ;  sheep  are  indifferent  to  it ; 
and  goats  refuse  it.  This  plant  is  found 
wild  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  It  is 
annual,  and  flowers  almost  through  the 
whole  year. 

ALSTONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Polyandria  Monogynia  class  and  order. 
Essen,  char,  corol.  one-petalled,  eight  or 
ten  cleft:  clefts  alternated.  There  is  but 
one  species,  a  shrub  found  in  South  Ame- 
rica. It  is  very  smooth,  and  has  the  air 
of  the  bohea-tea,  in  the  leaves,  calyxes, 
and  situations  of  the  flowers.  The  dried 
leaves  taste  like  those  of  Chinese  tea. 

ALSTROEMERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and 
order :  cor.  six-petalled,  somewhat  two- 
lipped  ;  the  lower  petals  tubular  at  the 
base;  stamina  declined.  There  are  six 
species,  all  found  in  South  America. 

ALT,  in  music,  a  term  applied  to  that 
part  of  the  great  scale  of  sounds,  which 
lies  between  F  above  the  treble-cleft  note 
and  G  in  altissimo. 

ALTAR,  a.  place  upon  which  sacrifices 
were  anciently  offered  to  some  deity. 

The  heathens  at  first  made  their  altars 
only  of  turf;  in  following  times  they  were 
made  of  stone,  of  marble,  of  wood,  and 
even  of  horn,  as  that  of  Apollo  in  Delos. 
Altars  differed  in  figure  as  well  as  in  ma- 
terials. Some  were  round,  others  square, 
and  others  oval.  All  of  them  were  turn- 
ed towards  the  east,  and  stood  lower  than 
the  statues  of  the  gods,  and  were  gene- 
rally adorned  with  sculpture,  inscriptions, 
and  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  particu- 
lar tree  consecrated  to  the  deity.  Thus, 
the  altars  of  Jupiter  were  decked  with 
oak,  those  of  Apollo  with  laurel,  those  of 
Venus  with  myrtle,  and  those  of  Minerva 
with  olive. 

The  height  of  altars  also  differed  ac- 
cording to  the  different  gods  to  whom 
they  sacrificed.  Those  of  the  celestial 


ALT 


ALU 


gods  were  raised  to  a  great  height  above 
the  ground  ;  those  appointed  for  the  ter- 
restrial were  almost  on  a  level'  with  the 
surface  of  the  earth;  and,  on  the  contra- 
ry, they  dug  a  hole  for  the  altars  of  the 
infernal  gods.  According  to  Servius,  the 
first  were  called  altaria,  the  second  ane, 
and  the  last  crobiculi ;  but  this  distinction 
is  not  every  where  observed,  for  we  find 
in  the  best  authors,  the  word  am,  as  a  ge- 
neral word,  including  the  altars  of  celes- 
tial, infernal,  and  terrestrial  gods. 

Before  temples  were  in  use,  altars  were 
erected  sometimes  in  groves,  sometimes 
in  the  highways,  and  sometimes  on  the 
tops  of  mountains ;  and  it  was  a  custom 
to  engrave  upon  them  the  name,  proper 
ensign,  or  character  of  the  deity  to  whom 
they  were  consecrated.  Thus,  St.  Paul 
observed  an  altar  at  Athens,  with  an  in- 
scription To  tlie  unfcnoiun  God. 

In  the  great  temples  of  ancient  Rome, 
there  were  ordinarily  three  altars ;  the 
first  was  placed  in  the  sanctuary,  at  the 
foot  of  the  statue  of  the  Divinity,  upon 
which  incense  was  burnt,  and  libations  of- 
fered ;  the  second  was  before  the  gate  of 
the  temple,  and  upon  it  they  sacrificed 
the  victims :  and  the  third  was  a  portable 
altar,  upon  which  were  placed  the  offer- 
ings and  the  sacred  vessels. 

Besides  these  uses  of  the  altars,  the  an- 
cients swore  upon  them,  and  swore  by 
them,  in  making  alliances,  confirming 
treaties  of  peace,  and  on  other  solemn 
occasions.  Altars  also  served  as  a  place 
of  refuge  and  sanctuary  to  all  those  who 
fled  to  them,  whatever  crime  they  had 
committed. 

ALTAR  is  also  used,  among  Christians, 
for  the  communion-table. 

ALTERNATE,  in  heraldry,  is  said  in 
respect  of  the  situation  of  the  quarters. 

Thus  the  first  and  fourth  quarters,  and 
the  second  and  third,  are  usually  of  the 
same  nature,  and  are  called  alternate 
quarters. 

ALTERNATION  is  used  for  the  dif- 
ferent ways  which  any  number  of  quanti- 
ties may  be  changed,  or  combined.  See 
COMBINATION. 

ALTHJEA,  marsh-mallow,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  plants,  with  a  double  calyx,  the 
exterior  one  being  divided  into  nine  seg- 
ments; the  fruit  consists  of  numerous 
capsules,  each  containing  a  single  seed. 
It  belongs  to  the  Monodelphia  Polyan- 
dria  class  and  order.  There  are  nine  spe- 
cies. The  A.  officinalis  is  perennial,  and 
flowers  from  July  to  September.  It  grows 
plentifully  in  salt  marshes,  and  on  the 
banks  of  rivers  and  ditches,  in  many  parts 


of  England,  Holland,  France,  Italy,  Sibe- 
ria, &c.  It  has  been  in  great  request  in 
every  country  where  medicine  has  been 
regularly  cultivated.  All  its  parts  abound 
with  a  glutinous  juice,  with  scarcely  any 
smell  or  peculiar  taste. 

ALTIMETRY,  denotes  the  art  of  mea- 
suring altitudes  or  heights.  See  MENSU- 
RATION. 

ALTITUDE,  in  geometry,  one  of  the 
three  dimensions  of  body ;  being  the  same 
with  what  is  otherwise  called  height. 

Altitude  of  a  figure  is  the  distance  of 
its  vertex  from  its  base,  or  the  length  of 
a  perpendicular  let  fall  from  the  vertex 
to  the  base. 

Thales  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
first  person  who  applied  the  principles  of 
geometry  to  the  mensuration  of  altitude  : 
by  means  of  the  staff  he  measured  the 
height  of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  making 
the  altitude  of  the  staff  and  pyramid  pro- 
portional  to  the  length  of  the  shadows. 

ALTITUDE,  in  optics,  is  the  height  of  an 
object  above  a  line,  drawn  parallel  to 
the  horizon  from  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

ALTITUDE  of  the  eye,  in  perspective,  is 
its  perpendicular  height  above  the  geo- 
metrical plane. 

ALTITUDE  of  a  star,  &c.  in  astronomy, 
is  an  arch  of  a  vertical  circle,  intercepted 
between  the  stars  and  the  horizon. 

This  altitude  is  either  true  or  apparent, 
according  as  it  is  reckoned  from  the  ra- 
tional or  sensible  horizon,  and  the  diffe- 
rence between  these  is  what,  is  called  by 
astronomers  the  parallax  of  altitude. 
Near  the  horizon,  this  altitude  is  always 
increased  by  means  of  refraction. 

ALTITUDE  of  the  mercury,  in  the  baro- 
meter and  thermometer,  is  marked  by  de- 
grees or  equal  divisions,  placed  by  the 
side  of  the  tube,  of  those  instruments. 
The  altitude  of  the  mercury  in  the  baro- 
meter, in  and  about  the  metropolis,  is 
usually  comprised  between  28.4  and  30.6 
inches  :  in  the  course  of  the  last  seven 
years  it  has  not  varied  from  these  limits 
more  than  twice.  Turing  the  same  pe- 
riod, the  thermometer  in  the  shade  has 
been  rarely  higher  than  82°  or  83°,  and 
this  seldom  more  than  three  or  four  times 
in  a  whole  summer,  nor  often  lower  than 
about  8°  or  10°  below  the  freezing  point. 
This  degree  of  cold  is  not  common. 

ALTO-RELIEVO.     See  REMEVO. 

ALUM,  in  chemistry  and  the  arts,  is 
denominated  the  sulphate  of  alumina, 
though  it  is  not  merely  a  combination  of 
alumina  with  the  sulphuric  acid.  It  pos- 
sesses the  following  characters :  1.  It  has 
a  sweetish  astringent  taste.  2.  It  is  solu- 


ALUM. 


ble  in  warm  water,  and  the  solution  red- 
dens vegetable  colours,  which  proves  the 
acid  to  be  in  excess.  3.  When  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash, 
an  effervesence  is  produced  by  the  un- 
combined  acid,  which  prevents  the  first 
portions  of  alkali  that  are  added  to  the 
solution  of  sulphate  of  alumina  from  occa- 
sioning any  precipitate.  4.  When  sulphate 
of  alumina  is  heated,  it  swells  up,  loses  its 
regular  form,  and  becomes  a  dry  spongy 
mass  ;  but,  according  to  the  experiments 
of  Vauquelin,  the  whole  of  its  acid  cannot 
be  thus  expelled.  5.  The  combination  of 
sulphuric  acid  with  alumina  is  incapable 
of  crystallizing  without  an  addition  of 
potash,  which  makes  a  constituent  part  of 
all  the  alum  of  commerce.  6.  It  is  de- 
composed by  charcoal,  which  combines 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  acid,  and  leaves 
the  sulphur  attached  to  the  alumina. 

Dr.  Thompson  says  there  are  four  va- 
rieties of  alum,  all  of  which  are  triple 
salts ;  two  neutral,  and  two  he  calls  su- 
per-salts. These  are  thus  denominated : 

1.  Sulphate  of  alumina  and  potash. 

2.  -Sulphate  of  alumina  and  ammonia. 

3.  Super-sulphate  of  alumina  and  potash. 

4.  Super-sulphate  of  alumina  and  am- 
monia. 

The  discovery  of  alum  was  made  in 
Asia,  from  whence  it  continued  to  be  im- 
ported till  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centu- 
ry, when  a  number  of  alum  works  were 
established  in  Italy.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  it  was  manufactured  in  Germany 
and  Spain;  and  during  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign,  an  alum  manufactory  was  establish- 
ed in  England.  The  alum  of  commerce 
is  usually  obtained  from  native  mixtures 
of  pyrites  and  clay,  or  sulphuric  acid  and 
clay."  Bergman  has  published  a  very  com- 
plete dissertation  on  the  process  usually 
followed.  The  earth  from  which  it  is  pro- 
cured is  usually  called  aluminous  schistus, 
because  it  is  slaty.  Its  colour  is  blackish, 
because  it  contains  some  bitumen.  In 
most  cases  it  is  necessary  to  burn  it  be- 
fore it  can  be  employed  :  this  is  done  by 
means  of  a  slow  smothered  fire.  Some- 
times long  exposure  to  the  weather  is 
sufficient  to  produce  an  efflorescence  of 
alum  on  the  surface.  It  is  then  lixiviated, 
and  the  water  concentrated  by  evapora- 
tion, and  mixed  with  putrid  urine,  or  mu- 
riate of  potash  ;  crystals  of  alum  and  of 
sulphate  of  iron  usually  farm  together. 
The  composition  of  alum  has  been  but 
lately  understood  with  accuracy.  It  has 
been  long  known,  indeed,  that  one  of  its 
ingredients  is  sulphuric  acid ;  and  the  ex- 
periments of  Pott  and  Margraft'  proved  in- 


contestibly  that  alumina  is  another  ingre- 
dient. Bui  sulphuric  acid  and  alumina 
are  incapable  of  forming  alum.  Manu- 
facturers knew  that  the  addition  of  a  quan- 
tity of  potash  or  of  ammonia,  or  of  some 
substance  containing  these  alkalies,  is  al- 
most always  necessary,  and  it  was  proved, 
that  in  every  case  in  which  such  additions 
are  unnecessary,  the  earth  from  which  the 
alum  is  obtained  contains  already  a  quan- 
tity of  potash.  Various  conjectures  were 
made  about  the  part  which  potash  acts 
in  this  case  ;  but  Vauquelin  and  Chaptal 
appear  to  have  been  the  first  chemists 
that  ascertained,  by  decisive  experiments, 
that  alum  is  a  triple  salt,  composed  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  alumina,  and  potash  or  ammo- 
nia united  together.  Alum  crystallizes  in 
regular  octahedrons,  consisting  of  two 
four-sided  pyramids  applied  base  to  base. 
The  sides  are  equilateral  triangles.  The 
form  of  its  integrant  particles,  according 
to  Hauy,  is  the  regular  tetrahedron.  Its 
taste  is,  as  we  have  observed,  astringent. 
It  always  reddens  vegetable  blues.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  1.7109.  At  the  tempe- 
rature of  60°  "it  is  soluble  in  from  15  to 
20  parts  of  water,  and  in  f  ths  of  its  weight 
of  boilling  Water.  When  exposed  to  the 
air  it  effloresces  slightly.  When  exposed 
to  a  gentle  heat  it  undergoes  the  watery 
fusion.  A  strong  heat  causes  it  to  swell 
and  foam,  and  to  lose  about  44  per  cent 
of  its  weight,  consisting  chiefly  of  water 
of  crystallization.  What  remains  is  called 
calcined  or  burnt  alum,  and  is  some- 
times used  as  a  corrosive.  By  a  violent 
heat  the  greater  part  of  the  acid  may  be 
driven  off.  Though  the  properties  of 
alum  are  in  all  cases  pretty  nearly  the 
same,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  Vau- 
quelin that  three  varieties  of  it  occur  in 
commerce.  The  first  is  super-sulphate  of 
alumina  and  potash ;  the  second,  super- 
sulphate  of  alumina  and  ammonia;  the 
third  is  a  mixture  or  combination  of  these 
two,  and  contains  both  potash  and  ammo- 
nia. It  is  the  most  common  of  all ;  doubt- 
less, because  the  alum-makers  use  both 
urine  and  the  muriate  of  potash,  to  crys- 
tallize their  alum.  Vauquelin  has  lately 
analysed  a  number  of  specimens  of  alum 
manufactured  in  different  countries.  The 
result  was,  that  they  all  contain  very  near- 
ly the  same  proportion  of  ingredients. 
The  mean  of  all  his  trials  was  as  follows : 

Acid 30.52 

Alumina  .  .  .  .  10.50 
Potash  .  .  .  .  10.40 
Water  ....  48.58 


100.00 


ALU 


ALU 


\Vhen  an  unusual  quantity  of  potash  is 
added  to  alum  liquor,  the  salt  loses  its 
usual  form  and  crystallizes  into  cubes. 
This  constitutes  a  fourth  variety  of  alum, 
usually  distinguished  by  the  name  of  cu- 
bic alum.  It  contains  an  excess  of  alkali. 
When  the  potash  is  still  further  increased, 
Chaptal  has  observed,  jhe  salt  loses  the 
property  of  crystallizing  altogether,  and 
falls  down  in  flakes.  This  constitutes  a 
fifth  variety  of  olurn,  consisting  of  sul- 
phate of  potash  combined  with  a  small 
proportion  of  alumina.  If  three  parts  of 
alum  and  one  of  flour  or  sugar  be  melted 
together  in  an  iron  ladle,  and  the  mixture 
dried  till  it  becomes  blackish  and  ceases 
to  swell ;  if  it  be  then  pounded  small,  put 
into  a  glass  phial,  and  placed  in  a  sand- 
bath  till  a  blue  flame  issues  from  the 
mouth  of  the  phial,  and  after  burning  for 
a  minute  or  two,  be  allowed  to  cool,  a  sub- 
stance is  obtained,  known  by  the  name  of 
Homberg's  pyrophorus,  which  has  the 
property  of  catching  fire  whenever  it  is 
exposed  to  the  open  air,  especially  if  the 
air  be  moist.  This  substance  was  acci- 
dentally discovered  by  Hombergabout  the 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
while  he  was  engaged  in  his  experiments 
on  the  human  faeces.  He  had  distilled  a 
mixture  of  human  faeces  and  alum  till  he 
could  obtain  nothing  more  from  it  by 
means  of  heat ;  and  four  or  five  days  after, 
while  he  was  taking  the  residuum  out  of 
the  retort,  he  was  surprised  to  see  it  take 
fire  spontaneously.  Soon  after,  Lemery 
the  younger  discovered  that  honey,  sugar, 
flour,  or  almost  any  animal  or  vegetable 
matter,  could  be  substituted  for  human 
faeces ;  and  afterwards  Mr.  Lejoy  de  Su- 
vigny  showed  that  several  other  salts  con- 
taining sulphuric  acid  may  be  substituted 
for  alum.  Scheele  proved  that  alum  de- 
prived of  potash  is  incapable  of  forming 
pyrophorus,  and  that  sulphate  of  potash 
may  be  substituted  for  alum.  And  Mr. 
Proust  has  shewn  that  a  number  of  neu- 
tral salts,  composed  of  vegetable  acids 
and  earths,  when  distilled  by  a  strong  fire 
in  a  retort,  leave  a  residuum  which  takes 
fire  spontaneously  on  exposure  to  the  air. 
These  facts  have  thrown  a  great  deal  of 
light  on  the  nature  of  Homberg's  pyro- 
phorus, and  enabled  us  in  some  measure 
to  account  for  its  spontaneous  inflamma- 
ti6n.  It  has  been  ascertained,  that  part 
of  the  sulphuric  acid  is  decomposed  du- 
ring the  formation  of  the  pyrophorus,  and 
of  course  a  part  of  the  alkaline  base  be- 
comes uncombined  with  acid ;  and  the 
charcoal,  which  gives  it  its  black  colour, 
is  evidently  divided  into  very  minute  par- 


ticles. It  has  been  ascertained,  that  du- 
ring the  combustion  of  the  pyrophorus  a 
quantity  of  oxygen  is  absorbed.  The  in- 
flammation is  probably  occasioned  by  the 
charcoal ;  the  sulphuret  of  potash  also 
acts  an  essential  part.  Perhaps  it  produ- 
ces a  sudden  increase  of  temperature,  by 
the  absorption  and  solidification  of  water 
from  the  atmosphere. 

A  new  process  for  making  alum  is  used 
at  some  works,  for  which  we  are  indebt- 
ed to  Mr.  Sadler,  which  is  as  follows  : 
The  boilers  are  filled  with  prepared  li- 
quor of  10  pennyweights,  to  which  sul- 
phate of  potash  is  added,  and  boiled  toge- 
ther until  it  weighs  16  pennyweights,  by 
which  time  the  whole  of  the  superfluous 
alumina  and  the  oxyde  of  iron  is  precipi- 
tated. The  fluid  is  then  run  into  a  settler, 
where  it  remains  until  clear,  after  which 
it  is  pumped  into  a  second  boiler,  and  eva- 
porated up  to  26  pennyweights,  let  into 
the  coolers,  and  left  to  crystallize.  By  this 
process,  it  is  said,  he  gains  the  whole  of 
the  alum  at  one  evaporation,  and  from  the 
mother  liquor  remaining  there  is  a  pro- 
duct, the  sulphate  of  iron. 

ALUMINA,  in  chemistry,  one  of  the 
five  proper  earths.  It  was  discovered  by 
the  alchemists  that  alum  was  composed  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  an  earth,  the  nature  of 
which  was  long  unknown  ;  but  Geoffrey, 
and  afterwards  Margraflf,  found  that  the 
earth  of  alum  is  an  essential  ingredient 
in  clays,  and  gives  them  their  properties, 
hence  it  was  called  argil  •  but  Morveau. 
gave  it  the  name  of  alumina,  because  it 
is  obtained  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  pu- 
rity from  alum  by  the  following  process. 
Dissolve  alum  in  water,  and  add  to  the 
solution  ammonia  as  long  as  any  precipi- 
tate is  formed.  Decant  off  the  fluid  part, 
and  wash  the  precipitate  in  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water,  and  then  allow  it  to  dry, 
The  substance  thus  obtained  is  alumina  ; 
not  however  in  a  state  of  absolute  purity, 
for  it  still  retains  a  portion  of  the  sulphu- 
ric acid  with  which  it  was  combined  in 
the  alum.  But  it  may  be  rendered  tole- 
rably pure,  by  dissolving  the  newly  preci- 
pitated earth  in  muriatic  acid,  evaporating 
the  solution  till  a  drop  of  it  in  cooling  de- 
posits small  crystals,' setting  it  by  to  crys- 
tallize, separating  the  crystals,  concen- 
trating the  liquid  a  second  time,  and  se- 
parating the  crystals  which  are  again  de- 
posited. By  this  process,  most  of  the 
alum  which  the  earth  retained  will  be  se- 
parated in  crystals.  If  the  liquid  be  now 
mixed  with  ammonia  as  long  as  any  preci- 
pitate appears,  this  precipitate,  washed 
and  dried,  will  be  air.  mm  a  nearly  pure 


ALUMINA. 


Alumina  has  little  taste  :  when  pure,  it 
has  no  smell ;  but  if  it  contains  oxyde  of 
iron,  which  it  often  does,  it  emits  a  pecu- 
liar smell  when  breathed  upon,  known  by 
the  name  of  earthy  smell.  This  smell  is 
very  pi'eceptible  in  common  clays.  The 
specific  gravity  of  alumina  is  2.00.  When 
heat  is  applied  to  alumina,  it  gradually 
loses  weight,  in  consequence  of  the  eva- 
poration of  a  quantity  of  water,  with 
which,  in  its  usual  state,  it  is  combined ; 
at  the  same  time  its  bulk  is  considerably 
diminished.  The  spongy  alumina  parts 
with  its  moisture  very  readily  ;  but  the 
gelatinous  retains  it  very  strongly.  Spon- 
gy alumina,  when  exposed  to  a  red  heat, 
loses  0.58  parts  of  its  weight ;  gelatinous, 
only  0.43  :  spongy  alumina  loses  no  more 
than  0.58  when  exposed  to  a  heat  of  130° 
Wedgewood ;  gelatinous  in  the  same  tem- 
perature loses  but  0.4825.  Yet  Saussure 
has  shown  that  both  species,  after  being 
dried  in  the  temperature  of  60°,  contain 
equal  proportions  of  water.  Alumina  un- 
dergoes a  diminution  of  bulk  proportional 
to  the  heat  to  which  it  is  exposed.  This 
contraction  seems  owing,  in  low  tempera- 
tures, to  the  loss  of  moisture ;  but  in  high 
temperatures  it  must  be  owing  to  a  more 
intimate  combination  of  the  earthy  parti- 
cles with  each  other  ;  for  it  loses  no  per- 
ceptible weight  in  any  temperature,  how- 
ever high,  after  being  exposed  to  a  heat 
of  130°  Wedgewood. 

Mr.  Wedgewood  took  advantage  of  this 
property  of  alumina,  and  by  means  of  it 
constructed  an  instrument  for  measuring 
high  degrees  of  heat.  It  consists  of  pieces 
of  clay  of  a  determinate  size,  and  an  ap- 
paratus for  measuring  their  bulk  with  ac- 
curacy ;  one  of  these  pieces  is  put  into 
the  fire,  and  the  temperature  is  estimated 
by  the  contraction  of  the  piece.  The  con- 
traction of  the  clay-pieces  is  measured  by 
means  of  two  brass  rules,  fixed  upon  a 
plate,  the  distance  between  which  at  one 
extremity  is  0.5  inch,  and  the  other  ex- 
tremity 0.3  inch  ;  and  the  rules  are  exact- 
ly 24.0  inches  in  length,  and  divided  into 
240  equal  parts,  called  degrees.  These 
degrees  commence  at  the  widest  end  of 
the  scale.  The  first  of  them  indicates  a 
red  heat,  or  947°  Fahrenheit.  The  clay- 
pieces  are  small  cylinders,  baked  in  a  red 
heat,  and  made  so  as  to  fit  1°  of  the  scale. 
They  are  not  composed  of  pure  alumina, 
but  "of  a  fine  white  clay.  Alumina  is 
scarcelv  soluble  in  water ;  but  maybe  dif- 
fused through  that  liquid  with  great  fa- 
cility. Its  affinity  for  water,  however,  is 
very  considerable.  In  its  usual  state  it  is 
combined  with  more  than  its  own  weight 


of  water,  and  we  have  seen  with  what  ob- 
stinacy it  retains  it.  Even  this  combina- 
tion of  alumina  and  water  is  capable,  in 
its  usual  state  of  dryness,of  absorbing  2£ 
times  its  weight  of  water,  without  suffer- 
ing any  to  drop  out.  It  retains  this  water 
more  obstinately  than  any  of  the  earths 
hitherto  described.  In  a  freezing  cold  it 
contracts  more,  and  parts  with  more  of 
its  water,  than  any  other  earth  ;  a  circum- 
stance which  is  of  some  importance  in 
agriculture.  Alumina  has  no  effect  upon 
vegetable  blues.  It  cannot  be  crystallized 
artificially  ;  but  it  is  found  native  in  beauti- 
ful transparent  crystals,  exceedingly 
hard,  and  having  a  specific  gravity  of  4. 
It  is  distinguished  in  this  state  by  the  name 
of  sapphyr.  It  does  not  combine  with  me- 
tals ;  but  it  has  a  strong  affinity  for  me- 
tallic oxydes,  especially  for  those  oxydes 
which  contain  a  maximum  of  oxygen. 
Some  of  these  compounds  are  found  na- 
tive. Thus,  the  combination  of  alumina 
and  red  oxyde  of  iron  often  occurs  in  the 
form  of  a  yellow  powder,  which  is  em- 
ployed as  a  paint,  and  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  ochre.  There  is  a  strong  af- 
finity between  the  fixed  alkalies  and  alu- 
mina. When  heated  together  they  com- 
bine, and  form  a  loose  mass,  without  any 
transparency.  Liquid  fixed  alkali  dis- 
solves alumina  by  the  assistance  of  heat, 
and  retains  it  in  solution.  The  alumina 
is  precipitated  again,  unaltered,  by  drop- 
ping an  acid  into  the  solution.  Tliis  is  a 
method  employed  by  chemists  to  procure 
alumina  in  n  state  of  complete  purity ;  for 
alumina,  unless  it  be  dissolved  in  alkali, 
almost  always  retains  a  little  oxyde  of 
iron  and  some  acid,  which  disguise  its 
properties.  Liquid  ammonia  is  also  ca- 
pable of  dissolving  a  very  minute  propor- 
tion of  newly  precipitated  alumina.  Ba- 
rytes  and  strontian  also  combine  with  alu- 
mina, both  when  heated  with  it  in  a  cru- 
cible, and  when  boiled  with  it  in  water. 
The  result,  in  the  first  case,  is  a  greenish 
or  bluish-coloured  mass,  cohering  but  im- 
perfectly :  in  the  second,  two  compounds 
are  formed  ;  the  first,  containing  an  ex- 
cess of  alumina,  remains  in  the  state  of  an 
insoluble  powder ;  the  other,  containing 
an  excess  of  barytes  or  strontian,  is  held 
in  solution  by  the  water.  Alumina  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  lime,  and  readily  en- 
ters with  it  into  fusion.  None  of  the  earths 
is  of  more  importance  to  mankind  than 
alumina;  it  forms  the  basis  of  china  and 
stone-ware  of  all  kinds,  and  of  the  cruci- 
bles and  pots  employed  in  all  those  manu- 
factures which  require  a  strong  heat.  It 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  dyer  and 


AMA 


AMA 


calico  printer,  and  is  employed  too,  with 
the  greatest  advantage,  by  the  fuller  and 
cleaner  of  cloth. 

ALURNUS,  in  natural  history,  a  genus 
of  insects  of  the  order  Coleoptera.  Es- 
sen, character:  antennae  filiform,  short; 
feelers  four  to  six,  very  short :  jaw  hor- 
ney,  arched.  There  are  three  species. — 
A.  grossus,  an  inhabitant  of  South  Ameri- 
ca and  India  :  A.  femoratus,  found  in  In- 
dia: and  A.  dentipes,  found  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

ALYSSO,  or  ALTSSUM,  mad  wort,  in 
botany,  a  genus  of  the  Tetradynamia  Es- 
culosa  class  of  plants:  the  flower  is  of 
the  cruciform  kind,  and  consists  of  four 
leaves;  the  fruit  is  a  small  roundish  cap- 
sule divided  into  two  cells,  in  which  are 
contained  a  number  of  small  roundish 
seeds. 

The  alyssum  is  arranged  in  three  divi- 
sions, viz.  into  A.  in  which  the  stem  is 
somewhat  shrubby  :  B.  stems  herbace- 
ous :  C.  silules  inflated,  or  calyx  oblong, 
closed.  There  are  33  species ;  but  ac- 
cording to  Martyn  only  17.  All  the  spe- 
cies may  be  propagated  by  seed,  and  most 
of  them  by  slips  and  cuttings.  In  rich 
ground  they  seldom  live  through  the  win- 
ter in  England;  but  in  dry,  poor,  rub- 
bishy soil,  or  on  old  walls,  they  will  abide 
the  cold,  and  last  much  longer. 

AMALGAM,  in  the  arts.  The  metals 
in  general  unite  very  readily  with  one 
another,  and  form  compounds  ;  thus  pew- 
ter is  a  compound  of  lead  and  tin,  brass 
is  a  compound  of  copper  and  zinc,  &c. 
These  are  all  called  alloys,  except  when 
one  of  the  combining  metals  is  mercury  ; 
in  that  case  the  compound  is  called  an 
amalgam :  thus  mercury  and  gold  form  a 
compound  called  the  amalgam  of  gold. 

The  amalgam  of  gold  is  formed  very 
readily,  because  there  is  a  very  strong  af- 
finity between  the  two  metals.  If  a  bit  of 
gold  be  dipped  into  mercury,  its  surface, 
by  combining  with  mercury,  becomes  as 
white  as  silver.  The  easiest  way  of  form- 
ing this  amalgam  is,  to  throw  small  pieces 
of  red  hot  gold  into  mercury  heated  till 
it  begins  to  smoke.  The  proportions  of 
the  ingredients  are  not  determinable,  be- 
cause they  combine  in  any  proportion. 
This  amalgam  is  of  a  silvery  whiteness. 
By  squeezing  it  through  leather,  the  ex- 
cess of  mercury  may  be  separated,  and  a 
soft  white  amalgam  obtained,  which  gra- 
dually becomes  solid,  and  consists  of 
about  one  part  of  mercury  to  two  of  gold. 
It  melts  at  a  moderate  temperature  ;  and 
in  a  heat  below  redness  the  mercury  eva- 
porates, and  leaves  the  gold  in  a  state  of 


purity.  It  is  much  used  in  gilding.  The 
amalgam  is  spread  upon  the  metal  which 
is  to  be  gilt ;  and  then,  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  gentle  and  equal  heat,  the  mer- 
cury is  driven  off,  and  the  gold  left  adhe- 
ring to  the  metallic  surface  :  this  surface 
is  then  rubbed  with  a  brass  wire  brush 
under  water,  and  afterwards  burnished. 
The  amalgam  of  silver  is  made  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  gold,  and  with 
equal  ease.  It  forms  dentrical  crystals, 
which  contain  eight  parts  of  mercury  and 
one  of  silver.  It  it  of  a  white  colour,  and 
is  always  of  a  soft  consistence.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  greater  than  the  mean  of 
the  two  metals.  Gillert  has  even  re- 
marked, that  when  thrown  into  purefmer- 
cury,  it  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  that  liquid. 
When  heated  sufficiently,  the  mercury  is 
volatilized,  and  the  silver  remains  behind 
pure.  This  amalgam  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed, like  that  of  gold,  to  cover  the  sur- 
faces of  the  inferior  metals  with  a  thin 
coat  of  silver.  The  amalgam  of  tin  and 
mercury  is  much  used  in  electricity.  See 
GILDING. 

AMAUANTHUS,   in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Monoecia  Pentandria  class  and  or- 
der, of  the  Triandria  Tryginia  of  Gmelin's 
Linnaeus ;   its  characters  are,  that  those 
species  which  have  male  flowers  on  the 
same  plants  with  the  females  have  a  ca- 
lyx, which  is  a  five  or  three-leaved  peri- 
anthium,  upright,  coloured,   and  perma- 
nent; the  leaflets  lanceolate  and  acute  , 
no  corolla  ;  the  stamina  have  five  or  three 
capillary  filaments,  form   upright,  patu- 
lous,  of  the  length  of  the  calyx,  the  an- 
thers oblong  and  versatile  :  of  those  which 
have  female  flowers  in  the  same  raceme 
with  the  males,  the  calyx  is  a  perianthi- 
um  the  same  with  the  former ;  no  corol- 
la? the  pistillum  has  an  ovate  germ,  styles 
three,  short  and  subulate  ;  stigmas  sim- 
ple and  permanent ;  the  pericarpium  is 
an  ovate  capsule,  somewhat  compressed, 
as  is  also  the  calyx  on  which  it  is  placed, 
coloured,  and  of  the  same  size,  three- 
beaked,  one  celled,  cut  open  transverse- 
ly ;    the  seed  is  single,  globular,  com- 
pressed, and  large.     There  are  22  .-pe- 
cies,  of  which  we  notice  A.  melancolicus, 
two-coloured  A.  with  glomerules,  axilla- 
ry peduncled,  roundish,  and  leaves  ovate- 
lanceolate,  and  coloured.     This  species 
varies  in  the  colour  of  the  leaves  ;  being- 
in  the  open  air  of  a  dingy  purple  on  their 
upper  surface,    and  the    younger  ones 
green  ;  in  a  stove  the  whole  plant  is  pur- 
ple-coloured ;  but  it  is  easily  distinguish- 
ed in  all  states  by  its  colour,  leaves,  and 
the  lateness  of  its  flowering,  after  all  th^ 


AMA 


AMA 


others  are  past :  it  is  joined  by  La  Marck 
with   a  tri-colour;    a   native    of  Guiana 
and  the  East-Indies,    and   cultivated    in 
1731  by  Miller.     The  obscure  purple  and 
bright  crimson  of  the  leaves  are  so  blend- 
ed as  to  set  off  each  other,  and,  in  the 
vigorous  state  of  the  plants,  make  a  fine 
appearance.      A    tri-color,  three-colour- 
ed A.  with  glomerules  sessile,  roundish ; 
stem  clasping1,  and  leaves  lanceolate-ovate, 
coloured.    This  has  been  long  cultivated, 
being  in  the  garden  of  Gerard  in  1596, 
for  the  beauty  of  its  variegated  leaves,  in 
which  the  colours  are  elegantly  mixed ; 
these,  when  the  plants  are  vigorous,  are 
large  and  closely  set  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top  of  the  stalks,  and  the  branches 
form  a  kind  of  pyramid,  and  therefore 
there  is  not  a  more  handsome  plant  when 
in  full  lustre  :   a  native  of  Guiana,  Persia, 
Ceylon,  China,  Japan,  the  Society  Isles, 
&c.     A.  lividus,  livid  A.     These  are  the 
most  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  pleasure- 
garden  ;  but  they  are  tender,  and  require 
attention.    They  are  usually  disposed  in 
pots,  with  cocks-combs  and  other  showy 
plants,  for  adorning  court-yards,,  and  the 
environs  of  the  house.   The  seeds  of  these 
should  be  sown  in  a  moderate  hot-bed, 
about  the  end  of  March  ;  and  when  the 
plants  come  up,  they  should  have  much 
air  in  mild  weather.     When  they  are  fit 
for  transplanting,  they  should  be  removed 
to  another  moderate  hot -bed,  and  placed 
at  six  inches  distance,  watering  and  sha- 
ding them  till  they  have  taken  new  root; 
afterwards  they  should  have  free  air,  and 
frequent  but  gentle  waterings.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  June  they  should  be  taken  up, 
with  large  balls  of  earth  to  their  roots, 
and  planted  either  in  pots  or  the  borders 
of  the  pleasure-garden,  shaded  till  they 
have  taken  root,  and  afterwards  frequent- 
ly watered  in    dry   weather.     The  tree 
amaranth  must  be  planted  in  a  rich  light 
soil,  and  if  it  be  allowed  room,  and  well 
watered  in  dry  weather,  it  will  grow  to  a 
large  size,  and  make  a  fine  appearance. 
The  other  sorts  are  sufficiently  hardy  to 
bear  the  open  air,  and  may  be  sown  on  a 
bedof  light  earth  in  the  spring,  and  when 
the  plants  are  fit  to  remove,  transplanted 
into  any  part  of  the  garden,  where  they 
will  thrive  and  produce  plenty  of  seeds. 

AMARILLIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der, of  the  natural  order  of  Liliae  or  Lilia- 
ceae  ;  its  characters  are,  that  the  calyx  is 
a  spathe,  oblong,  obtuse,  compressed, 
emarginate,  gaping  on  the  flat  side,  and 
withering;  the  corolla  has  six  petals, 
lanceolate,  the  nectary  has  six  very  short 


scales  without  the  base  of  the  filaments  ; 
the  stamina  have  six  awl-shaped  filaments, 
with  oblong,  incumbent,  rising  anthers  ; 
the  pistillum  has  a  roundish,  furrowed, 
inferior  germ,  the  style  filiform,  almost  of 
the  length  and  in  the  situation  of  the  sta- 
mens, the  stigma  trifid  and  slender ;  the 
pericarpium  is  a  subovate,  three-celled., 
three-valved  capsule  ;  and  the  seeds  are 
several.      The  inflection  of  the  petals, 
stamens,  and  pistil,  is  very  various  in  the 
different  species  of  this  genus  ;  and  the 
corolla  in  most  of  the  species  is  rather 
hexapetaloid  than  six-petalled.     Gmelin 
reckons  27  species.     A.  lutea,  yellow  A. 
or  autumnal  narcissus,  with  an  undivided 
obtuse  spathe,  sessile;  flower  bell  sha- 
ped ;  corolla  erect,  shortly  tubular  at  the 
base,     and    erect    stamens,     alternately 
shorter ;  the  flowers  seldom  rise  above 
three  or  four  inches  high  ;    the    green 
leaves  come  up  at  the  same  time,  and 
when  the  flowers  are  past,  the  leaves  in- 
crease through  the  winter.    This  species 
recedes  a  little  from  the  genus     It  is  a 
native  of  the  South  of  France,  Spain,  Italy, 
and  Thrace  :  was  cultivated  by  Gerard, 
in  1596,  and  flowers  in  September.    A. 
formosissima,    jacobea    lily,     so    called, 
because  some  imagined  that  they  disco- 
vered in  it  a  likeness  to  the  badge  of  the 
order  of  the  knights  of  the  order  of  St. 
James,  in  Spain,  the  lilio-narcissus  and 
narcissus  of  others,   with  a  spathe  undi- 
vided, flower  pedicelled,  corolla  two-lip- 
ped, nodding,  deeply  six-parted  stamens, 
and  pistil  bent  down.     The  flowers  are 
produced  from  the  sides  of  the  bulbs,  are 
large,  of  a  deep  red,  and  make  a  beauti- 
ful appearance  :  it  is  a  native  of  America, 
first  known  in  Europe  in  1593,  some  roots 
of  it  having  been  found  on  board  a  ship 
which  had  returned  from  South  America, 
by  Simon  de  Jovar,  a  physician  at  Seville, 
who  sent  a  description  of  the  flowers  to 
Clusius,  who  published  a  drawing  of  it  in 
1601,  called,  by  Parkinson,  who  figured  it 
in  1629,  the  Indian  daffodil,  with  a  red 
flower  :  cultivated  in  the  Oxford  Garden 
in  1658.     A.  reginae,   Mexican  lily,  with 
spathe,  having  about  two  flowers,  pedicels 
divaricating,  corollas  bell-shaped,  shortly 
tubular,  nodding,  throat  of  the  tube  hir- 
sute and  leaves  lanceolate,  patulous ;  the 
bulb  is  green,  corolla  scarlet,  and  at  the 
bottom  whitish  green,  the  style  red,  the 
flowers  large,  of  a  bright  copper  colour, 
inclined  to  red  :  it  flowered  in  Fairchild's 
garden,  at  Hoxton,   in  1728 ;    and    Dr. 
Douglas  wrote  a  folio  pamphlet  upon  it, 
giving  it  the  title  of  lilium  reginae,  because 
it  was  in  full  beauty  on  the  first  of  March, 


AMA 


AMB 


tne  queen's  birth-clay  :    the  roots  were 
brought  from  Mexico,  and  therefore  Mr. 
Fairchild  called  it  Mexican  lily,  the  name 
which  it  has  retained.     It  flowers  in  the 
spring-  in  a  very  warm  stove  ;  is  jn  heauty 
in  February;  and  in  a  moderate  tempera- 
ture of  air  wil!  flower  in  March  or  April. 
A.  surniensis,  lilium  sarniense  of  Douglas, 
who  published  a  description  of  it  in  5.725 ; 
narcissus  of   others ;    Guernsey    lily,  so 
called  by  Mr.  Ray  in  16G5 ;   with  petals 
line  ar,  flat,  stamens  and  pistils  straightish, 
longer  than  the  corolla,  stigmas  parted, 
and  revolute.      The  bulb  is   an  oblong- 
spheroid  ;    the    leaves   are  dark  willow 
green  ;  the  number  of  flowers  is  common- 
ly from  eight  to  twelve,  and  circumfer- 
ence of  each  about  seven  inches ;  the  co- 
rolla, in  its  prime,  has  the  colour  of  a  fine 
gold  tissue,  wrought  on  a  rose-coloured 
ground,  and  when  it  begins  to  fade,  it  is 
a  pink:  in  full  sunshine,  it  seems  to  be 
studded  with  diamqnds,  but  by  candle- 
light the  specks  or  spangles  appear  more 
like  fine  gold  dust;  when  the  petals  be- 
gin  to  wither,  they  assume  a  deep  crim- 
son colour.    The  flowers  begin  to  come 
out  at  the  end  of  August,  and  the  head  is 
usually  three  weeks  in  gradually  expand- 
ing.    This  beautiful  plant  is  a  native  of 
Japan,  and  has  been  long1  naturalized  in 
Guernsey.    It  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
from   Japan  to    Paris,  and  cultivated  in 
Morin's  garden  before  1634.    It  was  cul- 
tivated at  Wimbledon,  in  England,  by 
General  Lambert,  in  1659,  and  in  1664  be- 
came more  common  :  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  in  Holland  before  1695.     The 
plants  are  reputed  to  owe  their  origin  in 
Guernsey  to  the  shipwreck  of  a  vessel  re- 
turning from  Japan,  probably  before  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.     The 
bulbs,  it  is  said,  being  cast  on  shore,  took 
root  in  that  sandy  soil,  and  produced  beau- 
tiful flowers,  which  engaged  the  attention 
of  Mr.  Hatton,  the  governor's  son,  who 
sent  roots  to  several  of  his  friends.     A  va- 
riety of  this,  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  is  described  by  Jacquin  with  a  ma- 
ny-flowered  spathe,  corollas  very  patent 
and  reflex  at  the  apex,  stamens  and  pistil 
somewhat  straight,  longer  than  the  corol- 
la, and  leaves  ensiform-linear.     Most  of 
these  species  have  very  beautiful  flowers, 
and  merit  the  attention  of  the  botanist  and 
florist.    The  first,  or  yellow  autumnal  A. 
is  very  hardy,  and  increases  by  offsets. 
The  season  for  transplanting  these  roots 
is  from  May  to  the  end  of  July,  when  the 
leaves  are  decayed.     They  will  grow  in 
any  soil  or  situation  ;  but  they  will  thrive 
best  in  a  fresh,  light,  dry  soil,  and  open 
VOL.  I. 


situation,  and  will  keep  flowering  from 
the  beginning  of  September  to  the  middle 
of  November,  provided  that  they  escape 
severe  frosts ;  and  a  succession  of  flowers 
will  spring  from  the  same  root.  The 
Guernsey  lily  has  been  cultivated  for  ma- 
ny years  in  the  gardens  of  Guernsey  and 
Jersey,  whence  the  roots  are  sent  to  most 
parts  of  Europe .  The  bulbs  are  common- 
ly brought  over  in  June  and  July,  and 
they  should  then  be  planted  in  pots  filled 
with  fresh,  light,  sandy  earth,  mixed  with 
a  small  quantity  of  very  rotten  dung, 
placed  in  a  warm  situation,  and  occasion- 
ally refreshed  with  water.  About  the 
middle  of  September  the  stronger  roots 
will  shew  their  red-coloured  flower-stem ; 
and  then  the  pots  should  be  removed  into 
a  situation  where  they  may  have  the  full 
benefit  of  the  sun,  and  be  sheltered  from 
strong  winds ;  but  not  placed  under 
glasses,  or  too  near  a  wall,  which  would 
draw  them  up,  and  render  them  less  beau- 
tiful. When  the  flowers  begin  to  open, 
the  pots  should  be  put  under  shelter,  so 
as  to  be  secure  from  too  much  wet,  but 
not  kept  too  close  or  too  warm.  The 
flowers  will  continue  in  beauty  for  a  month; 
and,  though  without  scent,  their  rich  co- 
lour entitles  them  to  the  first  rank  in  the 
flowery  tribe. 

AMASONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Didy namia  Angiospermia  class  and  order : 
calyx  five  cleft:  corolla  tubular,  with  a 
small  five-cleft  border :  berry  four-seeded. 
There  are  two  species. 

AMATEUR,  in  the  arts,  denotes  a  per- 
son understanding,  loving,  or  practising- 
the  fine  arts,  without  any  regard  to  pecu- 
niary advantage. 

AMBASSADOR,  a  person  appointed  by 
one  sovereign  power  to  another,  to  super- 
intend his  affairs  at  some  foreign  court, 
and  supposed  to  represent  the  power  from 
which  he  is  sent.  The  person  of  an  am- 
bassador is  inviolable. 

AMBER,  in  mineralogy,  a  resinous  sub- 
stance, called  by  the  ancients  electrum, 
found  in  different  countries  ;  but  most 
abundantly  in  Prussia,  either  on  the  sea- 
shore, or  under  ground,  at  the  depth  of 
100  feet,  reposing  on  wood  coal.  It  is  ob- 
tained in  lumps  of  different  sizes.  There 
are  the  white  and  the  yellow  amber.  1. 
The  white  amber  is  in  colour  straw-yel- 
low, inclining  to  yellowish  white ;  but  2. 
The  yellow  amber  is  a  wax-yellow,  pass- 
ing to  a  honey-yellow,  yellowish  brown, 
and  hyacinth-red.  It  is  found  in  blunt 
pieces,  with  a  rough  surface.  It  is  rather 
brittle,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  from  1.07 
to  1.08.  Amber  burns  with  a  vellow-co- 
S 


AMB 


AMB 


loured  flame,  and,  if  the  heat  be  strong 
enough,  melts,  and  emits  a  peculiar  agree- 
able odour,  and  leaves  little  ashes.  When 
rubbed,  it  acquires  a  strong  negative  elec- 
trical virtue.  From  this  property  is  de- 
rired  the  word  electricity.  It  is  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
Amber  is  often  found  in  the  ailing  al  de- 
posit (usually  called  Marie)  of  New-Jer- 
sey. According  to  Sir  J.  Hill,  it  is  said 
that  amber  has  been  found  in  digging  in- 
to the  alluvial  land  in  the  vicinity  of  Lon- 
don. It  is  found  sometimes  on  the  sea- 
shores of  several  parts  of  England.  Being 
susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  it  is  cut  into 
necklaces,  bracelets,  snuff-boxes,  and 
other  articles  of  dress.  Before  the  discov- 
ery of  the  diamond  and  other  precious 
stones  of  India,  it  was  considered  to  be  the 
most  precious  of  jewels,  and  was  employ- 
ed in  all  kinds  of  ornamental  dress  :  altars 
were  likewise  ornamented  with  it.  The 
greatest  quantity  at  present  consumed  in 
commerce  is  purchased  by  Armenian  and 
Grecian  merchants,  for  the  use,  it  is  con- 
jectured, of  pilgrims,  previously  to  their 
journey  to  Mecca,  and  that  on  their  arri- 
val there  it  is  burnt  in  honour  of  the  pro- 
phet Mahomet.  The  acid  and  oil  obtain- 
ed from  it  are  used  as  medicines. 

It  often  coniains  insects  of  various  spe- 
cies, in  a  state  of  complete  preservation, 
also  leaves,  and  other  parts  of  vegetables. 
Various  conjectures  have  been  made  re- 
specting its  origin  and  formation.  By 
some  it  is,  as  we  have  already  seen,  con- 
sidered as  a  vegetable  gum  or  resin ; 
others  regard  it  as  a  mineral  oil,  thicken- 
ed by  the  absorption  of  oxygen ;  and  Mr. 
Parkinson  is  of  opinion,  that  it  is  inspissa- 
ted mineral  oil.  There  was  lately  found 
in  Prussia  a  mass  of  amber  which  weighed 
upwards  of  13  pounds,  the  contents  of 
which  amounted  to  3181  cubic  inches. 
Five  thousand  dollars  are  said  to  have 
been  offered  for  it ;  and  the  Armenian 
merchants  assert,  that  in  Constantinople 
it  would  sell  for  six  times  that  price  at 
least.  Pitch-coal  is  sometimes  found  with 
amber,  and  is  called  black,  and  is  sold 
to  the  ignorant  at  a  great  price  Spe- 
cimens inclosing  insects,  &c.  are  highly 
valued,  and  the  amber  dealers  are  said  to 
be  possessed  of  means,  of  softening-  it,  m 
order  to  introduce  insects  and  other  fo- 
reign bodies  into  it.  Two  parts  of  the 
empyreumatic  oil  obtained  by  distilling 
mineral  pitch  boiled  severtil  times,  with 
three  parts  of  turpentine,  form  a  com- 
pound, which  hears  u  great  resemblance 
to  amber,  and  which  is  often  cut  into 
necklaces  and  other  ornaments,  and  sold 
as  true  amber. 


AMBERGRIS,  in  chemistry,  is  a  sufe- 
stance  found  floating  on  the  sea,  near  the 
coasts  of  India,  Africa,  and  Brazil,  usually 
in  small  pieces,  but  sometimes  in  mass- 
es of  50  or  100  pounds  in  weight.  Vari- 
ous opinions  have  been  entertained  con- 
cerning its  origin.  Some  affirmed  that  it 
was  the  concrete  juice  of  a  tree  ;  others 
thought  it  a  bitumen  ;  but  it  is  now  esta- 
blished that  it  is  a  concretion,  formed  m 
the  stomach  or  intestines  of  the  physeter 
macrocephalus,  or  spermaceti  whale.  Am- 
bergris, when  pure,  is  a  light,  soft  sub- 
stance which  swims  on  water.  Its  speci- 
fic gravity  varies  from  0.78  to  0.844.  Its 
colour  is  ash-grey,  with  brownish  yellow 
and  white  streaks.  It  has  an  agreeable 
smell,  which  improves  by  keeping.  Its 
taste  is  insipid.  When  heated  to  122°,  it 
melts  without  frothing ;  if  the  heat  be  in- 
creased to  212°,it  is  volatilized  completely 
in  a  white  smoke,  leaving  only  a  trace  of 
charcoal.  When  distilled,we  obtain  a  whi- 
tish acid  liquid  and  a  light  volatile  oil ;  a 
bulky  charcoal  remains  behind.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  water.  Acids  have  little  action 
on  it.  Weak  sulphuric  acid  occasions  no 
change;  but,  when  concentrated,  it  de- 
velopes  a  little  charcoal.  Nitric  acid  dis- 
solves it,  giving  out  at  the  same  time  ni- 
trous gas,  carbonic  acid,  and  azotic  gas. 
A  brownish  liquid  is  formed,  which  leaves, 
when  evaporated  to  dryness,  a  brittle 
brown  substance,  possessing  the  proper- 
ties of  a  resin.  The  alkalies  dissolve  it  by 
the  assistance  of  heat,  and  form  a  soap 
soluble  in  water.  Both  the  fixed  and  vola- 
tile oils  dissolve  ambergris.  It  is  soluble 
also  in  ether  and  alcohol.  It  possesses  the 
properties  of  the  salty  matter  into  which 
the  muscles  are  converted  by  nitric  acid, 
and  which  makes  its  appearance  when 
dead  bodies  are  allowed  to  putrefy  in  great 
numbers  together.  This  substance  has 
been  distinguished  by  the  name  of  adipo- 
cire,  from  its  resemblance  both  to  fat  and 
wax.  The  quantity  of  it  in  ambergris 
amounts  to  52.8  parts.  According  to  the 
analysis  of  ambergris  made  by  Bouillon  La 
Grange,  it  is  composed  of 

52.7  adipocire 

30.8  resin 

11.1  benzoic  acid 
5.4  charcoal 


1.000 


AMBIDEXTER,  a  person  who  can  use 
both  hands  with  the  same  facility,  and  for 
the  same  purposes,  that  the  generality  of 
people  do  their  right  hands. 

Were  it  not  for  education,  some  think 


AME 

that  all  mankind  would  be  ambidexters  ; 
•*nd,  in  fact,  we  frequently  find  nurses 
obliged  to  be  at  a  good  deal  of  pains  be- 
fore they  can  bring1  children  to  forego  the 
use  of  their  left  hands.  It  is  to  be  regret- 
ed,  that  any  of  the  gifts  of  nature  should 
be  thus  rendered  in  a  great  measure  use- 
less, as  there  are  many  occasions  in  life 
which  require  the  equal  use  of  both 
hands :  sfcch  as  the  operations  of  bleed- 
ing in  the  left  arm,  left  ancle,  &c. 

AMBROSIA,  in  botany,  the  name  of  a 
distinct  genus  of  plants,  with  flosculous 
flowers,  composed  of  several  small  infun- 
dibuliforui  floscules,  divided  into  five  seg- 
ments; these,  however,  are  barren;  the 
fruit,  which  IE  some  measure  resembles  a 
club,  growing  on  other  parts  of  the  plant. 

This  genus  belongs  to  the  Monoecia 
Pentandria  class  and  order.  There  arc 
five  species. 

AMBROSINJA,  in  botany,  a  genus' of 
the  Monoecia  Monadelphia  class  and  or- 
der ;  of  which  there  is  a.  species  found  in 
the  island  of  Sicily  :  spathe  one-leafed,  se- 
parated by  a  membranaceous  partition, 
containing  the  stamina  in  the  hinder  cell 
and  upper  part  of  the  partition,  pistils  in 
the  outer  cell,  and  lower  part  of'  the  par- 
tition :  the  root  is  tuberous;  leaves  radi- 
cal, ovate,  and  shining. 

AMBUSCADE,  or  AMBUSH,  in  the  mi- 
litary art,  properly  denotes  a  place  where 
soldiers  may  lie  concealed,  till  they  find 
an  opportunity  to  surprise  the  enemy. 

AMELLUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Syngenesia  Superflua :  receptacle  chaffy  ; 
down  simple  :  calyx  imbricate  :  florets  of 
the  ray  divided.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies. 

AMELIORATING  crops,  in  husbandry, 
are  such  as  are  supposed  to  improve  the 
lands  on  which  they  are  cultivated. 
Most  of  those  plants  which  have  a  large 
stem  and  shady  leaf  are  thought  to  ren- 
der the  soils  on  which  they  grow  more 
fertile,  by  producing  a  confined  or  stag- 
nated state  of  the  air.  The  improvement 
of  lands,  by  what  are  called  ameliorating 
crops,  probably  depends  upon  the  culture 
which  the  ground  receives  while  they 
are  growing,  and  the  returns  which  they 
make  to  it  in  the  way  of  manure,  after 
they  are  consumed  by  animals. 

AMEN,  in  the  scripture  language,  a 
solemn  formula,  or  conclusion  to  all  pray- 
er, signify  ing,  so  be  it. 

The  tei'in  amen  is  Hebrew,  being  de- 
rived from  the  verb  anan,  i,  e.  to  be  true, 
faithful,  &c.  so  that,  strictly  speaking,  it 
.signifies  truth  ;  and,  used  adverbially,  as 
h  frequently  clone  in  the  gospels,  truly  or 


AME 

verily.  Sometimes  it  is  repeated  twice 
together,  and  then  it  stands  for  the  super* 
lative,  as  amen,  amen,  dico  •vobis. 

The  word  in  music,  forms  the  usual 
conclusion  of  anthems,  hymns,  and  other 
sacred  compositions ;  and  has  so  long 
been  one  of  the  principal  themes  of  choral 
harmony,  as  to  have  given  birth  to  a  dis- 
tinct appellation  for  music  adapted  to  its 
expression  :  as  when  using  the  word  ad- 
jectively,  we  s:iy,  such  an  oratorio  or  an- 
them concludes  with  an  amen  chorus. 

AMEND,  or  A'MEJJDK,  in  the  French 
•customs,  a  pecuniary  punishment  impos- 
ed by  a  judge  for  any  crime,  false  prose- 
cution, or  groundless  appeal. 

AMENDE  honorable^  an  infamous  kind  of 
punishment  inflicted  in  France  upon  trai- 
tors, parricides,  or  sacrilegious  persons, 
in  the  following  manner:  the  offender 
being  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  hang- 
man, his  shirt  is  stripped  ofF,  and  a  rope 
put  about  his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his 
hand ;  then  he  is  led  into  court,  where  he 
must  beg  pardon  of  God,  the  King,  the 
Court,  and  his  Country.  Sometimes  the 
punishment  ends  here,  but  sometimes  it 
is  only  a  prelude  to  death,  or  banishment 
to  the  g-allies. 

Amende  honorable  is  a  term  also  used 
for  making  recantation  in  open  court,  or 
in  presence  of  the  pel-son  injured 

AMENDMENT,  in  law,  the  correction 
of  an  error  committed  in  a  process,  which 
may  be  amended  after  judgment,  unless 
the  error  lies  in  giving  judgment,  for  in 
that  case  it  is  not  amendable,  but  the  par- 
ty must  bring  a  writ  of  error. 

A  bill  may  be  amended  on  the  file  at 
any  time  before  the  plea  is  pleaded;  but 
not  afterwards,  without  motion  and  leave 
of  the  court. 

AMERCEMENT,  or  AMEIICIAMEST,  ir\ 
law,  a  pecuniary  punishment,  imposed 
upon  offenders  at  the  mercy  of  the  court. 
Amercements  differ  from  fines,  the  latter 
being  certain  punishments  growing  ex- 
pressly from  some  statute,  whereas  the 
former  are  imposed  arbitrarily,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  fault. 

Besides,  fines  are  assessed  by  the  court, 
but  amercements  by  the  country. 

A  court  of  record  only  can  fine,  all 
others  can  only  amerce. 

Sheriffs  are  amerceable  for  the  faults 
of  their  officers,  and  clerks  of  the  peace 
may  be  amerced  in  the  King's-bench  for 
gross  faults  in  indictments  removed  to 
that  court. 

A  town  is  subject  to  amercement  for 
the  escape  of  a  murderer  in  the  day-time, 
and  if  the  town  is  wallet!,  it  is  subject  te 


AME 


AME 


amercement,  whether  the  escape  hap- 
pens by  day  or  night. 

The  statute  of  Magna  Charta  ordains, 
that  a  freeman  is  not  to  be  amerced  for  a 
small  fault,  but  in  proportion  to  the  of- 
fence, by  his  peers  and  equals. 

AMERIMNUM,  or  AMEIUMBTOX,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  Biadelphia  Decan- 
dria  class  and  order ;  of  the  natural  order 
of  Papilionaceae  or  l-eguminosae ;  the  cha- 
racters of  which  are,  that  the  calyx  is  a 
one-leafed  perianthium;  tube  bell  saap- 
ed,  five-toothed,  the  teeth  sharp ;  the  co- 
rolla papilionaceous,  standard  with  an  ob- 
long- cla\v,  roundish,  heart-shaped,  ex- 
panding1 and  convex  wings  lanceolate, 
short  <n  than  the  standard,  and  keel  i-.hcrt; 
the  stamina  have  ten  filaments  conjoined, 
anthers  roundish;  the  pistillum  has  -i  ^erm 
pedicelled,  oblong,  compressed,  leafy,  va- 
ricose, with  lateral  veins,  within  woody, 
notgapmg;  cells  disposed  longitudinally 
within  ;  the  seeds  solitary,  kidney-shaped, 
thicker  at  the  base,  appendicted  at  the 
top.  There  are  two  species,  viz.  1.  A. 
Br  wnei :  this  shrub  rises  commonly  to 
dit  often  feet,  and  supports  itself 
on  oth<-v  shrubs.  It  is  a  native  of  Cartha- 
gena,  Jamaica,  and  Domingo.  2.  A.  ebe- 
nus,  Jamaica  ebony,  which  is  common  \n 
Jamaica  and  several  other  parts  of  the 
idies,  where  the  wood  is  cut,  and 
sci.  iii'.o  England  uncu-r  the  name  of  ebo- 
ny, though  the  true  ebony  is  a  native  of 
the  eastern  country,  and  of  a  different 
genus.  This  wood  is  of  a  fine  greenish 
brown  colour,  admits  of  polishing  well, 
so  that  it  is  much  valued  by  the  instru- 
ment makers,  and  it  is  of  a  very  hard  du- 
rable nature.  Dr.  Browne  says,  that  the 
trunk  seldom  exceeds  three  or  four  inch- 
es in  diameter;  that  the  slender  branches, 
being  very  tough  and  flexible,  are  used 
for  riding"  switches,  and  kept  at  all  the 
wharfs  about  Kingston,  to  scourge  the  re- 
fractory slaves. 

AMETHYST,  in  mineralogy,  is  one  of 
the  Quartz  family ;  it  occurs  massive  and 
in  rolled  pieces,  but  most  frequently  crys- 
tallized. The  crystals  are  six-sided  pyra- 
mids; colour  violet  blue,  passing  on  the 
one  hand  to  plum  blue,  brown,  brownish 
black ;  on  the  other  to  pearl  and  ash  grey, 
greyish  white,  greenish  white,  olive 
green,  and  in  some  rare  cases  pistachio 
green.  In  massive  varieties  several  co- 
lours appear  together  in  stripes  :  in  this 
state  they  are  composed  of  thick  prismatic 
distinct  concretions,  often  shooting-  into 
crystals  at  their  extremities.  Specific  gra- 
vity 2.75.  It  is  found  in  veins,  and  in  the 
follow  cavities  of  agate.  It  is  composed  of 


Silica 

Alumina  ... 
Oxide  of  iron  . 
and  a 
Trace  of  manganese 


0.25 
0.50 


98.25 

It  is  found  abundantly  in  different  parts 
of  Saxony  :  also  in  the  Hartz,  in  the  Ura- 
lian  mountains,  and  in  the  East  Indies. 
The  most  beautiful  varieties  are  found  at 
Catharmaburp;  in  Russia.  It  is  cut  into 
rings,  seals,  and  boxes,  but  it  is  not  very 
highly  valued.  The  green  is  the  chryso- 
lite of  some  Authors  :  the  oriental  amethyst 
is  the  Ki'pphire  :  it  is  sometimes  covered 
with  capillary  crystals  of  iron  mica,  and 
wl.fM  viewed  in  certain  positions  appears 
red  ;  this  variety  is  named  the  hair  ame- 
thyst. 

AMETHYST,  in  heraldry,  a  term  for  the 
purple  colour  in  the  coat  of  a  nobleman, 
in  use  with  those  who  blazon  by  precious 
stones  instead  of  metals  and  colours. 
This  in  a  gentleman's  escutcheon  is  call- 
ed purpure,  and  in  those  of  sovereign 
princes  mercury. 

AMETHYSTEA,  amethyst,  so  called 
from  the  amethystine  colours  of  the  flow- 
ers, in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Diandria 
Monogynia  class  :  the  characters  are,  that 
the  calyx  is  a  perianthium,  one-leafed, 
tube  bell-shaped,  angular,  semiquinque- 
fid,  subequa!,  acuminate,  and  permanent  ; 
the  corolla  is  one-petalled,  ringent,  little 
longer  than  the  calyx;  border  five-parted 
and  subequal  :  upper  lip  erect,  roundish, 
concave,  two-parted,  gaping;  lower  three- 
parted;  the  sides  rounded,  erect,  shorter; 
the  middle  quite  emire,  concave,  the 
length  of  the  upper  lip;  the  stamina  have 
filaments,  filiform,  approximating,  under 
the  upper  lip,  and  longer  than  it;  anthers 
simple  and  roundish  ;  the  pistillum  is  a 
quadrifid  germ,  style  size  of  the  stamens, 
stigmas  two,  and  acute  ;  no  pericarptum, 
but  the  calyx  becomes  more  bell-shaped 
and  spreading;  the  seeds  are  four,  short- 
er than  the  calyx;  obtuse,  and  angular 
within.  There  is  one  species,  viz.  A. 
coerulia,  mountain  upright  A.  which  is  u 
native  of  the  mountains  in  Siberia,  from 
whence  the  seeds  were  sent  to  the  Impe- 
rial garden  at  Petersburg!!,  and  in  1759  to 
Chelsea  garden,  where  the  plants  annu- 
ally produce  seeds.  It  is  annual,  and  hath 
an  upright  stalk,  which  rises  about  a 
foot  high,  and  towards  the  top  puts  out 
two  or  three  small  lateral  brunches;  these 
are  garnished  with  small  trifid  leaves, 
sawed  on  their  edges,  and  of  a  very  dark 
green  colour;  at  the  extremity  of  the 


AMM 


AMM 


branches  the  flowers  are  produced  in 
small  umbels  ;  these  are  of  a  fine  blue  co- 
lour, as  are  also  the  upper  part  of  the 
branches,  and  the  leaves  immediately  un- 
der the  umbel;  so  that  though  the  flow- 
ers are  small,  yet,  from  their  colour,  with 
that  of  the  upper  part  of  the  stalks,  the 
plants  make  a  pretty  appearance  during1 
their  continuance  in  flower. 

AMIA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  order  Abdominales.  Gene- 
ric character  :  head  bony,  naked,  rough, 
with  visible  sutures.  Teeth,  both  in  jaws 
and  palate,  close-set,  sharp,  numerous. 
Cirri  or  beards  two,  near  the  nostrils. 
Gill-membrane  twelve-rayed:  body  sca- 
ly. There  is  a  single  species,  Calva,  a 
small  fresh  water  fish,  inhabiting  some 
parts  of  Carolina,  of  which  the  tail  is 
rounded,  and  with  a  black  spot ;  it  is  sel- 
dom eaten. 

AMIABLE,  or  amicable  numbers,  such 
as  are  mutually  equal  to  the  sum  of  one 
another's  aliquot  parts,  as  the  numbers 
284  and  220. 

Van  Schouten  was  the  first  who  gave 
this  name  to  such  numbers,  of  which  there 
are  but  very  few  at  least  to  be  set  down 
and  manageable  by  us.  For  284  and  220 
are  the  two  least.  "  The  aliquot  parts  of 
220  are  1, 2, 4,  5, 10, 11,  20, 22,44, 55, 110, 
and  the  sum  of  these  is  equal  284.  The 
aliquot  parts  of  284  are  1,  2,  4,  71,  142, 
and  the  sum  of  these  is  220.  The  second 
pair  of  applicable  numbers  are  17296  and 
18416.  The  third  parr  are  9363584  and 
9437056. 

AMIANTHUS.     See  ASBESTOS. 

AMICUS  cin-ite,  in  law,  if  a  judge  be 
doubtful  or  mistaken,  in  a  matter  of  law, 
a  bystander  may  inform  the  court  as  ami- 
c.us  curioE. 

AMMANNIA,  named  by  Houstoun  in 
honour  of  J.  Amman,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Tetrandria  Monegynia  class  and 
order.  Its  characters  are,  that  the  calyx 
is  a  perianthium,  bell-shaped,  oblong, 
erect,  with  eight  streaks  and  folds,  quad- 
rangular, eight-toothed,  teeth  alternate, 
bent  in,  and  permanent ;  corolla  none,  or 
four-petalled,  petals  vertically  ovate, 
spreading,  inverted  into  the  calyx ;  the 
stamina  have  filaments,  (four  or  eight) 
bristly,  the  length  of  the  calyx  into  which 
they  are  inserted,  anthers  twin ;  the  pistil- 
lutn  is  a  germ,  subovate,  large  and  supe- 
rior, style  simple,  very  short,  and  stigma 
headed ;  the  pericarpium  is  a  roundish, 
four-celled  capsule  (bury)  covered  with 
the  calyx ;  the  seeds  are  numerous  and 
small. 

AMMI,  £?y>o/»V  rwf/,  in  botany,  a  dis- 


tinct genus  of  umbelliferous  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  Pentandria  Digynia  class 
of  Linnaeus  ;  the  flower  of  which  is  rosa- 
ceous, and  composed  of  heart -like  petals ; 
and  its  fruit  is  a  small  roundish  and  stri- 
ated capsule,  containing  two  striated 
seeds,  convex  on  one  side,  and  plane  on 
the  other.  There  are  four  species. 

AMMODYTES,  in  natural  history,  the 
launce,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the  order 
Apodes :  head  compressed,  narrower  than 
the  body  :  upper  lip  doubled  :  lower  jaw 
narrow,  pointed:  teeth  small  and  sharp. 
Gill-membrane  seven-fayed  :  body  long, 
roundish,  with  very  small  scales  :  tail  dis- 
tinct. A.  tobianus,  or  sand  launce,  so 
named  from  its  shape.  It  inhabits  the 
northern  seas ;  and  is  from  9  to  12  inches 
long.  It  buries  itself  on  the  recess  of  the 
tides  a  foot  deep  in  the  sand,  and  in  fine 
weather  rolls  itself  up,  and  lifts  its  nose 
just  above  the  sand  ;  it  is  the  prey  of 
other  rapacious  fish  ;  the  flesh  is  tolerably 
good,  but  it  is  used  in  most  cases  as  baits, 
The  launce  lives  on  worms,  water-insects, 
and  small  fishes,  and  even  occasionally  on 
those  of  its  own  species.  The  mackarel 
is  very  partial  to  this  fish  as  its  own  food. 
The  launce  spawns  in  May,  depositing- 
its  eggs  in  the  mud  near  the  edges  of  the 
coast. 

AMMONIA,  in  chemistry.  Volatile  al- 
kali, in  its  purest  form,  subsists  in  a  state 
of  gas,  and  was  thought,  till  the  late  expe- 
riments of  Mr.  Davy,  to  be  composed  of 
azote  and  hydrogen.  It  maybe  obtained 
in  the  following  manner :  put  into  a  retort 
a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  quick-lime  and 
one  part  of  sal  ammoniac  in  powder. 
Plunge  the  beak  of  the  retort  below 
the  mouth  of  a  glass  jar  filled  with  mer- 
cury, and  standing  inverted  in  a  basin  of 
mercury.  Apply  the  heat  of  a  lamp  to  the 
retort :  a  gas  conies  over,  which  displaces 
the  mercury  and  fills  the  jar.  This  gas 
is  ammonia.  It  was  known  by  the  name 
of  volatile  alkali ;  it  was  also  called  harts- 
horn, because  it  was  often  obtained  by 
distilling  the  horn  of  the  hart ;  spirit  of 
urine,  because  it  may  be  obtained  by  the 
same  process  from  urine  ;  and  spirit  of 
sal  ammoniac,  because  it  may  be  obtained 
from  that  salt.  Dr.  Black  first  pointed  out 
the  difference  between  ammonia  and  car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  or  ammonia  combined 
with  carbonic  acid;  and  Dr.  Priestley  dis- 
covered the  method  obtaining  it  in  a 
state  of  purity,  by  the  process  already 
described.  Ammonia,  in  a  state  of  gas, 
is  transparent  and  colourless  like  air;  its 
taste  is  acrid  and  caustic,  like  that  of  the 
fixed  alkalies,  but  not  nearly  so  strong, 


AMM 


AMM 


-nor  does  it  like  them  corrode  those  ani- 
mal  bodies  lo  which  it  is  applied  ;  its 
smell  is  remarkably  pungent,  though  not 
unpleasant  when  sufficiently  diluted.  Its 
use  as  a  stimulant  to  prevent  fainting  is 
well  known.  Animals  cannot  breathe  it 
without  death.  When  a  lighted  candle  is 
let  down  into  this  gas,  it  goes  out  three 
or  four  times  successively ;  but  at  each 
time  the  flame  is  considerably  enlarged 
by  the  addition  of  another  flame  of  a  pale 
yellow  colour,  and  at  last  this  flame  de- 
scends from  the  top  of  the  vessel  to  the 
bottom.  Its  specific  gravity,  according  to 
the  experiments  of  Kirwan,  is  0.60,  that  of 
air  being  1.00;  while  Mr.  Davy,  whose  gas 
was  probably  purer,  found  it  0.55.  At 
the  temperature  of  60°,  a  hundred  cubic 
inches  of  this  gas  weigh,  according  to 
Kirwan,  18.16  grains,  according  to  Davy, 
17.068.  Hence  it  is  to  common  air  nearly 
as  3  to  5.  When  exposed  to  a  cold  of 
— 45°  it  is  condensed  into  a  l;quid,  which 
again  assumes  the  gaseous  form  when  the 
temperature  is  raised.  When  passed 
through  a  red  hot  tube  of  porcelain  or 
glass,  it  is  totally  decomposed,  and  con- 
verted into  hydrogen  and  azotic  gas.  It 
combines  very  rapidly  with  water.  When 
a  bit  of  ice  is  brought  into  contact  with 
this  gas,  it  melts,  and  absorbs  the  ammo- 
nia, while  at  the  same  time  its  tempera- 
ture is  diminished.  Cold  water  absorbs 
this  gas  almost  instantaneously,  and  at  the 
-same  time  heat  is  evolved,  and  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  water  is  diminished. 
Water  is  capable  of  absorbing  and  con- 
densing more  than  a  third  of  its  weight 
•of  ammoniacal  gas.  It  is  in  this  state 
that  ammonia  is  usually  employed  by 
chemists.  The  term  ammonia  almost 
always  means  this  liquid  solution  of  am- 
monia in  water.  When  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  about  130°,  the  ammonia 
separates  under  the  form  of  gas.  When 
exposed  to  the  temperature  of — 46°,  it 
crystallizes  ;  and  when  suddenly  cooled 
down  to  —  68°,  it  assumes  the  appearance 
of  a  thick  jelly,  and  has  scarcely  any 
smell.  It  follows,  from  the  experiments 
of  Mr.  Davy,  that  a  saturated  solution  of 
ammonia  is  composed  of 

74.63  water. 
25.37  ammonia. 

100.00 

Charcoal  absorbs  ammoniacal  gas,  but 
does  not  alter  its  properties  while  cold. 
But  when  the  gas  is  made  to  pass  through 
red  hot  charcoal,  part  of  the  charcoal 


combines  with  it,  and  forms  a  substanee 
known  by  the  name  of  Prussic  acid.  Am- 
monia is  not  acted  on  by  azote  ;  but  it 
combines  rapidly  with  muriatic  acid  ;  the 
two  gases  concreting  into  the  solid  salt 
called  muriate  of  ammonia.  Ammonia 
does  not  combine  with  the  metals ;  but 
it  changes  some  of  them  into  oxydes,  and 
then  dissolves  them.  Liquid  ammonia  is 
capable  of  dissolving  the  oxydes  of  silver, 
copper,  iron,  tin,  nickel,  zinc,  bismuth, 
and  cobalt.  When  digested  upon  the 
oxydes  of  mercury,  lead,  or  manganese, 
it  is  decomposed,  water  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  hydrogen  of  the  ammonia 
with  the  oxygen  of  oxydes,  and  azotic 
gas  is  emitted.  If  a  considerable  heat  be 
applied,  nitric  acid  is  formed  at  the  same 
time  with  water.  Several  other  oxydes 
are  also  partly  deoxidized,  when  ammo- 
nia is  poured  into  their  solutions  in  acids. 
See  ALKALI,  CHEMISTUT,  &c. 

AMMONIAC,  in  chemistry,  a  gum  re- 
sin brought  from  the  East  Indies.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  a  species  of  the  Ferula. 
It  is  in  small  pieces  agglutinated  toge- 
ther, and  has  a  yellowish  white  colour.  Its 
smell  is  like  that  of  the  galbanum,  but 
more  pleasant.  Its  taste  is  a  nauseous 
sweet,  mixed  with  bitter.  It  does  not  melt. 
Water  dissolves  a  portion  of  it ;  the  so- 
lution is  milky,  but  gradually  lets  fall  a 
resinous  portion.  One-half  is  soluble  in 
alcohol.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.2.  Nei- 
ther alcohol  nor  water,  distilled  off  it, 
brings  over  any  thing. 

AMMONITRUM.  See  GLASS. 

AMMOPHILA,  in  natural  history,  the 
sand-tvasp,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
Hymenoptera :  gen.  char,  snout  conic,  in- 
flected, concealing  a  bifid  retractile  tubu- 
lar tongue:  jawsforcipated,  three-toothed 
at  the  tip  ;  antennae  filiform  in  each  sex, 
with  about  14  articulations :  eyes  oval : 
wings  plain :  sting  pungent,  concealed  in 
the  abdomen.  This  genus  is  separated 
from  that  of  the  sphex,  on  the  authority 
of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Kirby :  in  their  manners 
and  economy  they  resemble  each  other; 
and  it  is  probable  that  many  more  of  the 
spheges  might  with  propriety  be  removed 
into  this  genus.  There  are  four  species : 
A.  vulgaris  inhabits  Europe,  in  sandy, 
sunny  banks,  where  it  digs  ahole  with  its 
fore-feet,  and  buries  the  carcase  of  the 
larva  of  a  moth  or  half  dead  spider,  in  the 
body  of  which  it  has  deposited  its  eggs, 
and  then  covers  up  the  orifice. 

AMMUNITION,  a  general  term  for  all 
warlike  provisions,  but  more  especially 
powder,  ball,8tc. 

Ammunition,  arms,   utensils    of   war, 


AMN 


AMO 


gun-powder,  imported  without  licence 
from  his  majesty,  are,  by  the  laws  of  Eng- 
land, forfeited,  and  triple  the  vulue. 

And  again,  such  licence  obtained,  ex- 
cept for  furnishing  his  majesty's  public 
stores,  is  to  be  void,  and  the  offender  to 
incur  a  prxmunire,  and  to  be  disabled  to 
hold  any  office  from  the  crown. 

AMNESTY,  in  matters  of  policy,  an  act 
by  which  two  parties  at  variance  promise 
to  pardon  and  bury  in  oblivion  all  that  is 
past. 

Amnesty  is  either  general  and  unlimit- 
ed, or  particular  and  restrained,  though 
most  commonly  universal,  without  con- 
ditions or  exceptions  ;  such  as  that  which 
passed  in  Germany  at  the  peace  of  Osna- 
burg,  in  the  year  1648. 

Amnesty,  in  a  more  limited  sense,  de- 
notes a  pardon  granted  by  a  prince  to  his 
rebellious  subjects,  usually  with  some  ex- 
ceptions: such  was  that  granted  by 
Charles  II.  at  his  restoration. 

AMN1OS,  in  anatomy,  a  thin  pellucid 
membrane,  which  surrounds  the  foetus. 

The  foetus  in  the  uterus  is  enveloped  in 
a  peculiar  membranaceous  covering,  to 
which  anatomists  have  given  the  name  of 
amnios.  "Within  this  there  is  a  liquid, 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  liquor  of 
the  amnios,  which  surrounds  the  foetus  on 
every  part.  This  liquid,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  is  very  different  in  dif- 
ferent animals  ;  at  least  the  liquor  amnii 
in  women  and  in  cows,  which  alone  have 
hitherto  been  analysed,  have  not  the 
smallest  resemblance  to  each  other.  The 
liquor  of  the  amnios  of  women  is  a 
fluid  of  a  slightly  milky  colour,  a  weak 
pleasant  odour,  and  a  saltish  taste.  The 
white  colour  is  owing  to  a  curdy  matter 
suspended  in  it,  for  it  may  be  obtained 
quite  transparent  by  filtration.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  1.005.  It  gives  a  green 
colour  to  the  tincture  of  violets,  and  yet 
it  reddens  very  decidedly  the  tincture  of 
turnsole.  These  two  properties  would  in- 
dicate at  once  the  presence  of  an  acid  and 
of  an  alkali.  It  froths  considerably  when 
agitated.  On  the  application  of  heat  it 
becomes  opaque,  and  has  then  a  great  re- 
semblance to  milk  diluted  with  a  large 
quantity  of  water.  At  the  same  time  it 
exhales  the  odour  of  boiled  white  of  egg. 
Acids  render  it  more  transparent.  Alka- 
lies precipitate  an  animal  matter  in  small 
fiakos.  Alcohol  likewise  produces  a 
flaky  precipitate,  which,  when  collected 
and  dried,  becomes  transparent,  and  very 
like  glue.  The  infusion  of  nut  galls  pro- 
duces a  very  copious  brown  coloured 
precipitate,  Nitrate  of  silver  occasions  a 


white  precipitate,  which  is  insoluble  in 
nitric  acid,  and  consequently  is  muriate 
of  silver.  The  liquor  of  the  amnios  of 
the  cow  has  a  viscidity  similar  to  mucil- 
age of  gum  arabic,  a  brownish  red  colour, 
aii  acid  and  bitter  taste,  and  a  peculiar* 
odour,  not  unlike  that  of  some  vegetable 
extracts.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.028. 
It  reddens  the  tincture  of  turnsole,  and 
therefore  contains  an  acid.  Muriate  of 
barytes  causes  a  very  abundant  precipi- 
tate, which  renders  it  probable  that  it 
contains  sulphuric  acid.  Alcohol  sepa- 
rates from  it  a  great  quantity  of  a  reddish 
coloured  matter.  The  animal  matter 
possesses  the  following  properties :  It 
lias  a  reddish  brown  colour  and  a  peculi- 
ar taste  ;  it  is  very  soluble  in  water,  but 
insoluble  in  alcohol,  which  has  the  pro- 
perty of  separating  it  from  water.  Wh  eiv 
exposed  to  a  strong  heat,  it  swells,  ex- 
hales first  the  odour  of  burning  gum, 
then  of  empyreumatic  oil,  and  of  ammonia, 
and  at  last  the  peculiar  odour  of  prussic 
acid  becomes  very  conspicuous.  It  dif- 
fers from  gelatine  in  the  viscidity  which 
it  communicates  to  water,  in  not  forming 
a  jelly  when  concentrated,  ami  in  not  be- 
ing precipitated  by  tannin.  It  must  be 
therefore  ranked  among  the  very  unde- 
fined and  inaccurate  class  of  animal  muci- 
lages. When  burnt,  it  leaves  a  large  por- 
tion of  coal,  which  is  readily  incinerated 
and  leaves  a  little  white  ashes,  composed 
of  phosphate  of  magnesia,  and  a  small 
proportion  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

AMOMUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monandria  Monogynia  class  and  order, 
the  characters  of  which  are,  that  the 
calyx  is  a  peria  lithium,  oneHeafed,  cylin- 
draceous,  and  unequally  trifid :  the  co- 
rolla is  monopetalous  and  funnel-shaped, 
tube  cylindraceous,  border  three-parted, 
parts  oblong  and  spreading" :  the  nectary 
two-leaved  or  two-lipped,  lower  lip  in- 
serted under  the  upper  segment  of  the 
corolla,  spreading  almost  erect,  entire  or 
three-lobed ;  the  stamina  have  no  fila- 
ment, except  the  upper  lip  of  the  necta- 
ry smaller  than  the  lower,  and  opposite 
to  it,  accuminate  or  three-lobed  at  the 
tip ;  along  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
which  grows  longitudinally  a  large  ob- 
long anther,  germinate,  or  divided  by  z 
longitudinal  furrow  into  two,  which  are 
one-valved;  the  pistillum  has  an  inferior, 
oblong  germ,  style  filiform, drawn  through 
the  suture  of  the  anther,  stigma  turbi- 
nate,  obtuse  and  ciliate  ;  the  pericarpi- 
um  a  flt:shy  capsule,  ovate,  three-corner- 
ed, three-celled,  and  three-valved ;  the 
seeds  arc  several,  covered  with  a  sort  of 


VMO 


AMO 


berried  aril.  Gmelin,  in  his  edition  ot 
Linn?eus,  enumerates  twenty  species.  A. 
zinziber,  narrow-leaved  ginger,  cultivat- 
ed by  Miller,  and  flowering-  in  Septem- 
ber, is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and 
other  countries  of  Asia,  and  is  much  used 
there  and  in  the  West  Indies.  The  dried 
roots  furnish  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce  from  our  West -India  islands ; 
they  are  of  great  use  in  the  kitchen  and 
in  medicine,  and  when  preserved  green 
as  a  sweet-meat  are  preferable  to  every 
other  sort.  A.  zerumbet,  cultivated  at 
Hampton-court,  in  1690,  and  flowering 
with  us  from  September  to  November, 
when  the  stalks  perish  like  those  of  the 
true  ginger;  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
Chochinchina,  &c.  and  also  in  Otaheite, 
and  the  other  Society  Isles.  This  is  used 
externally  in  the  East,  in  cataplasms  and 
fomentations ;  but  not  internally,  as  spice 
or  medicine;  though  Garcias  says,  that 
it  makes  a  better  preserve  with  sugar 
than  the  other.  As  to  the  propagation 
and  culture  of  these  plants,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that  they  are  tender,  and  require 
a  warm  stove  to  preserve  them  in  this 
country.  They  are  easily  propagated  by 
parting  their  roots,  which  should  be  done 
in  the  spring,  before  they  put  out  new 
shoots;  in  parting  the  roots,  they  must 
not  be  divided  into  small  pieces,  espe- 
cially if  they  are  designed  to  have  flow- 
t  rsf  nor  should  they  be  planted  in  very 
large  pots.  They  thrive  best  in  a  light 
rich  earth,  such  as  that  of  the  kitchen 
garden  ;  and  with  this  the  pots  should  be 
tilled  within  two  inches  of  the  top,  and 
the  roots  should  be  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  pots,  with  their  crowns  upwards, 
und  the  pots  should  then  be  filled  with 
the  same  earth;  they  should  be  plunged 
into  a  hot-bed  of  tanner's  bark,  and  spa- 
ringly watered,  till  their  stalks  appeal- 
above  ground,  when  they  will  admit  of 
more  moisture,  especially  in  the  summer 
months  ;  but  in  autumn,  the  waterings 
must  not  be  frequent  nor  plentiful,  and 
during1  winter  very  sparing.  The  pots 
must  constantly  remain  plunged  in  the 
tan-bed;  for  if  they  are  taken  out  and 
placed  on  shelves  in  the  stove,  their  fib  res 
often  shrink,  and  thus  their  roots  decay. 
Bv  this  management  these  plants  have 
greatly  multiplied,  and  the  common  gin- 
ger has  produced  roots  weighing  five 
or  six  ounces  ;  but  the  others  have  been 
nearly  a  pound  weight.  In  the  West  In- 
dies the  ginger  thrives  best  in  a  rich  cool 
soil ;  in  a  more  clayey  soil  the  root  shrinks 
less  in  scalding.  '  The  land  laid  out  for 
the  culture  of  it  is  first  well  cleaved  and 


hoed,  and  then  slightly  trenched,  and 
planted  in  March  or  April;  it  flowers 
about  September;  and  when  the  stalks* 
are  wholly  withered,  the  roots  are  fit  to 
be  taken  up,  which  is  generally  done  in 
January  and  February 

AMONTONS,  (WILLIAM),  in  biogra- 
phy,  an  ingenious  French  experimental 
philosopher,  was  born  in  Normandy  the 
31st  of  August,  1663.  While  at  the  gram- 
mar school,  he  by  sickness  contracted 
a  deafness  that  almost  excluded  him 
from  the  conversation  of  mankind.  In 
this  situation  he  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  geometry  and  mechanics,  with 
which  he  was  so  delighted,  that  it  is  said 
he  refused  to  try  any  remedy  for  his  dis- 
order, either  because  he  deemed  it  incu- 
rable, or  because  it  increased  his  atten- 
tion to  his  studies.  Among  other  objects 
of  his  study  were,  the  arts  of  drawing, 
of  land-surveying,  and  of  building;  and 
shortly  after  he  acquired  some  knowledge 
of  those  more  sublime  laws  by  which  the 
universe  is  regulated.  He  studied  with 
great  care  the  nature  of  barometers  and 
thermometers ;  and  wrote  his  treatise  of 
"  Observations  and  experiments  concern- 
ing a  new  Hour-glass,  and  concerning 
Barometers,  Thermometers,  and  Hygros- 
copes;"  as  also  some  pieces  in  the  Jour- 
nal des  Savans.  In  1687,  he  presented  a 
new  hygroscope  to  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, which  was  much  approved.  He 
found  out  a  method  of  conveying  intelli- 
gence to  a  great  distance  in  a  short  space 
of  time  ;  this  was  by  making  signals  from 
one  person  to  another,  placed  at  as  great 
distances  from  each  other  as  they  could 
see  the  signals  by  means  of  telescopes  : 
this  was  unquestionably  done  upon  the 
principle  of  modern  telegraphs,  which 
were  brought  into  general  use  in  1794, 
almost  a  century  after  the  death  of  Amon- 
tons.  Amontons  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1699,  as  an 
eleve  under  the  third  astronomer;  and 
he  read  there  his  "  New  Theory  of  Fric- 
tion,"  in  which  he  happily  cleared  up  an 
important  object  in  Mechanics.  He  had 
a  particular  genius  for  making  experi- 
ments ;  his  notions  were  just  and  delicate: 
he  knew  how  to  prevent  the  inconve- 
niences of  his  new  inventions,  and  had 
a  wonderful  skill  in  executing  them.  He 
died  of  an  inflammation  in  his  bowels,  the 
llth  of  October,  1705,  being  only  42 
vears  of  age.  His  pieces  are  contained  in 
the  different  volumes  of  the  memoirs  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences;  these  are 
numerous,  and  upon  various  subjects ; 
us  the  air,  action  of  fire,  barometers, 


AMP 


AMP 


thermometers,  hygrometers,  friction,  ma- 
chines, heat,  cold,  rarefactions,  pumps, 
&c.  They  may  be  seen  in  the  volumes 
for  the  years  1696,  1699,  17J2,  1703, 
1704,  and  1705.  The  character  of  Amon- 
tons  for  integrity,  modesty,  and  candour, 
was  no  less  distinguished  than  his  talents 
and  genius  in  philosophical  pursuits. 
Upon  his  death  in  1705,  M.  Fontenelle 
delivered  an  elegant  and  impressive  eulo- 
gium  on  his  merits.  See  MEMOIRS  of  the 
Academy  for  that  year. 

AMORPHA,  in  'botany,  bastard  indigo, 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Dia- 
delphia  Decandria  class  of  Linnaeus ;  the 
flower  of  which  consists  of  one  petal, 
vertically  ovated,  hollow,  and  erect ;  and 
the  fruit  is  a  lunulated  pod,  of  a  com- 
pressed form,  and  covered  with  tuber- 
cles, in  which  are  contained  two  seeds,  of 
an  oblong  kidney -like  shape.  There  are 
two  species. 

This  shrub  grows  naturally  in  Carolina, 
where  formerly  the  inhabitants  made  a 
coarse  sort  of  indigo,  which  occasioned 
its  name  of  the  bastard  indigo.  It  rises 
with  many  irregular  stems  to  the  height 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  feet,  with  very  long 
winged  leaves.  It  was  observed  by  Thun- 
berg  in  the  island  of  Niphon,  belonging 
to  japan,  but  is  now  become  very  com- 
mon in  the  gardens  and  nurseries  near 
London,  where  it  is  propagated  as  a 
flowering  shrub.  It  is  propagated  by 
seeds  sent  from  America.  , 

AMPELIS,  in  natural  history,  the  chat- 
terer, a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
Passeres,  bill  straight,  convex,  subincur- 
ved,  each  mandible  notched :  nostrils 
covered  with  bristles :  tongue  sharp,  car- 
tilaginous, bifid :  middle  toe  connected  at 
the  base  to  the  outside.  There  are,  ac- 
cording to  Gmelin,  fourteen  species :  we 
shall  notice  the  following :  A.  garrulus, 
or  waxen  chatterer ;  a  beautiful  bird 
about  eight  inches  long.  Its  bill  is  black, 
and  has  a  small  notch  at  the  end;  its 
eyes  are  placed  in  a  band  of  black,  which 
passes  from  the  base  of  the  bill  to  the 
hinder  part  of  the  head.  Its  throat  is 
black  ;  its  feathers  on  the  head  are  long, 
forming  a  crest ;  all  the  upper  parts  of 
the  body  are  of  a  reddish  ash  colour; 
the  breast  and  belly  inclining  to  purple  ; 
the  tail  feathers  are  black,  tipped  with 
pale  yellow  ;  the  quills  are  black,  the 
third  and/ourth  tipped  on  their  outer 
edges  with  white  :  the  five  following  with 
straw  colour,  but  in  some  bright  yellow ; 
the  secondaries  are  tipped  with  white, 
each  being  pointed  with  a  flat  horny  sub- 
Stance  of  a  bright  vermilion  colour. 

VOL.  I. 


These  appendages  vary  in  different  sub- 
jects.  This  rare  bird  visits  our  island 
only  at  uncertain  intervals.  Their  sum- 
mer residence  is  supposed  to  be  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  within  the  arc- 
tic circle,  whence  they  spread  themselves 
into  other  countries,  where  they  remain 
during  the  winter,  and  return  in  the 
spring  to  their  usual  haunts.  The  food 
of  this  bird  is  berries  of  various  kinds; 
in  some  countries  it  is  said  to  be  extreme- 
ly fond  of  grapes.  Only  this  species  of  the 
chatterer  is  found  in  Europe,  the  others 
are  natives  of  America.  See  plate  1. 
Aves,  fig.  5.  A.  carunculata,  has  a  black 
bill,  with  a  pendulous,  expansile,  movea- 
ble  caruncle  at  the  base,  inhabits  Cayenne 
and  Brazil,  and  is  about  twelve  inches 
long.  The  bill  is  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
and  black ;  at  the  base  is  a  fleshy  carbun- 
cle hanging  over  it,  like  that  of  a  turkey 
cock.  The  female  is  furnished  with  one 
as  well  as  the  male.  These  .birds  are 
said  to  have  a  very  loud  voice,  to  be  heard 
half  a  league  off,  which  is  composed  of 
merely  two  syllables,  in,  an,  uttered  in  a 
drawling  tone ;  but  some  have  compared 
it  to  the  sound  of  a  bell.  A.  Americana, 
cedar  bird  :  this  has  been  considered  by 
the  European  naturalists  as  a  mere  varie- 
ty of  their  chatterer;  but  Mr.  Wilson  has 
shewn  it  to  be  a  distinct  species. 

AMP  ELITES,  cannel-coal,  a  hard, 
opaque,  fossil,  inflammable  substance,  of 
a  black  colour.  The  ampelites,  examined 
by  a  microscope,  appears  composed  of  in- 
numerable very  small  thin  plates,  laid 
closely  and  firmly  upon  one  another,  and 
full  of  very  small  specks,  of  a  blacker  and 
more  shining  matter  than  the  rest.  There 
is  a  large  quarry  of  it  in  Alencon,  in 
France.  It  is  dug  also  in  many  parts  of 
England  ;  but  the  most  beautiful  is  found 
in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  :  it  lies  usu- 
ally at  considerable  depth.  It  is  capable 
of  a  very  fine  polish,  and  is  made  into 
trinkets,  and  will  pass  for  jet.  Husband- 
men dress  their  vines  with  it,  as  it  kills 
the  vermin  which  infest  them  :  it  is  like- 
wise used  for  dying  the  hair  black. 

AMPHIBIA,  in  natural  history,  a  class 
of  animals  that  live  either  on  land  or  in 
water.  The  title  Amphibia,  applied  to 
this  class  of  animals  by  Linnaeus,  may 
perhaps  be  considered  as  not  absolutely 
unexceptionable,  the  power  of  living  with 
equal  facility  both  in  land  and  water  be- 
ing not  granted  to  all  the  animals  which 
compose  it ;  yet,  since  it  is  certain  that 
the  major  part  are  found  to  possess  that 
faculty  in  a  considerable  degree,  the  title 
may  be  allowed  to  continue,  The  Am- 

T 


AMP 


AMP 


phibia,  from  the  peculiar  structure  of 
their  organs,  and  the  power  which  they 
possess  of  suspending-  respiration  at 
pleasure,  can  not  only  support  a  change 
of  element  uninjured,  but  can  also  occa- 
sionally endure  an  abstinence,  which 
would  infallibly  prove  fatal  to  the  higher 
order  of  animals.  It  bus  been  a  general 
doctrine  among  anatomists,  that  the  hearts 
of  the  Amphibia  were,  in  the  technical 
phrase,  unilocular,  or  furnished  with  only 
one  ventricle  or  cavity  ;  a  doctrine  main- 
tained by  many  eminent  anatomists,  and, 
in  general,  assented  to  by  the  greatest 
physiologists,  as  Boerhauve,  I-Ialler,  &c. 
&c.  and  only  occasionally  called  in  ques- 
tion, on  viewing  in  some  animals  of  this 
tribe  a  seemingly  different  structure. 
Thus  the  French  academicians  of  the 
seventeenth  century  pronounce  the  heart 
of  an  Indian  land  tortoise,  which  they 
examined,  to  have  in  reality  three  ventri- 
cles instead,  of  one.  Linnaeus,  in  his  Sys- 
tema  Naturae,  acquiesces  hi  the  general 
doctrine,  and  accordingly  makes  it  a  cha- 
racter of  this  class  of  animals.  Among 
later  physiologists,  however,  there  are  not 
wanting  some  who  think  it  more  correct 
to  say,  that  the  hearts  of  the  Amphibia 
are  in  reality  double,  or  furnished  with 
two  ventricles,  with  a  free  or  immediate 
communication  between  them.  The  lungs 
of  the  Amphibia  differ  widely  in  their  ap- 
pearance from  those  of  other  animals; 
consisting,  in  general,  of  a  pair  of  large 
bladders  or  membranaceous  receptacles, 
parted,  in  the  different  species,  into  more 
or  fewer  cancelli,  or  subdivisions,  among 
which  are  beautifully  distributed  the  pul- 
monary blood-vessels,  which  bear  but  a 
small  proportion  to  the  vesicular  part 
through  which  they  ramify ;  whereas,  in 
the  lungs  of  the  Mammalia,  so  great  is 
the  proportion  of  the  blood-vessels,  and 
so  very  small  are  the  vesicles,  or  air-cells, 
that  the  lungs  have  a  fleshy  rather  than 
a  membranaceous  appearance.  In  the 
Amphibia,  therefore,  the  vesicular  sys- 
tem may  be  said  greatly  to  prevail  over 
the  vascular ;  and  in  the  Mammalia,  or 
warm-blooded  animals,  the  vascular 
system  to  prevail  over  the  vesicular. 
Many  of  the  Amphibia  are  possessed 
of  a  high  degree  of  reproductive  power, 
and  will  be  furnished  with  new  feet, 
tails,  &c.  when  those  parts  have  by 
any  accident  been  destroyed.  Many  are 
highly  beautiful  in  their  colours,  as  well 
as  elegant  in  their  forms ;  while  others, 
on  the  contrary,  are,  in  the  common  ac- 
ceptation of  the  words,  extremely  deform- 
ed, and  of  unpleasing  colours.  Their  bo- 


dies are  sometimes  defended  by  a  hard, 
horny  shield,  or  covering ;  sometimes 
rather  by  a  coriaceous  integument ;  some- 
time by  scales  ;  and  sometimes  have  no 
particular  defence  or  coating,  the  skin  be- 
ing merely  marked  by  soft,  pustular  warts, 
or  protuberances,  more  or  less  visible  in 
the  different  species.  The  bones  of  the 
Amphibia,  except  in  a  very  few  instances, 
are  of  a  more  cartilaginous  nature  than  in 
either  the  Mammalia  or  Birds :  many  spe- 
cies are  destitute  of  ribs,  while  others  have 
those  parts  very  numerous  :  some  are 
furnished  with  formidable  teeth  ;  others 
are  toothless :  some  are  fierce  and  pre- 
dacious ;  others  inoffensive.  Few,  ex- 
cept among  the  serpent  tribe,  are  of  a 
poisonous  nature,  the  general  prejudice 
against  them  having  arisen  rather  on  ac- 
count of  their  form,  than  from  any  real 
poisonous  quality;  but  among  the  ser- 
pents, we  meet  with  some  species  pos- 
sessed of  the  most  dreadful  poison,  as 
well  as  with  the  power  of  applying  it  with 
fatal  force  to  the  animals  which  they  at- 
tack. The  number  of  poisonous  serpents 
is,  however,  not  so  great  as  was  formerly 
imagined  ;  perhaps  not  more  than  a  sixth 
part  of  the  whole  number  of  known  spe- 
cies being  of  that  character.  Among  no 
animals  do  we  meet  with  beings  of  a  more 
singular  form  than  the  Amphibia;  some 
of  which  present  appearances  so  unusual, 
so  grotesque,  and  so  formidable,  that  even 
the  imagination  of  the  poet  or  painter  can 
hardly  be  supposed  to  exceed  the  reali- 
ties of  nature.  The  amphibia  in  general 
are  extremely  tenacious  of  life,  and  will 
continue  to  move,  and  exert  many  of  their 
animal  functions,  even  when  deprived  of 
the  head  itself.  The  experiments  which 
have  been  occasionally  made  on  these 
subjects  can  hardly  be  recited  without 
horror.  The  natural  life  of  some  of  the 
Amphibia,  more  particularly  of  the  tor- 
toise tribe,  is  extremely  long;  and  even 
to  the  smaller  tribes  of  frogs  and  lizards 
a  considerable  space  seems  allotted.  The 
same  is  also  highly  probable  with  respect 
to  the  serpent  tribe.  By  far  the  major 
part  of  the  Amphibia  are  oviparous,  some 
excluding  eggs  covered  with  a  hard  or 
calcareous  shell,  like  those  of  birds ; 
others,  such  as  are  covered  only  with  a 
tough  skin,  resembling  parchment ;  and 
in  many,  they  are  perfectly  gelatinous, 
without  any  kind  of  external  cpvering,  as 
is  the  spawn  of  the  common  frog.  Some 
few  are  viviparous ;  ihe  eggs  first  hatch- 
ing internally,  and  the  young  being  after- 
wards excluded  in  their  perfect  form,  as 
in  the  viper,  &c.  &c.  In  cold  and  tempe- 


AMP 


AMP 


rate  climates,  most  of  the  Amphibia  pass 
the  winter  in  a  torpid  state  ;  and  that 
sometimes  ia  a  degree  of  cold  which 
would  seem  but  ill  calculated  for  the  pre- 
servation of  animal  life.  The  common 
large  water-newt,  in  particular,  is  said  to 
have  been  occasionally  found  completely 
embedded  in  large  masses  of  ice,  in  which 
it  must  have  remained  inclosed  for  a  very 
considerable  period;  and  yet,  on  the  dis- 
solution of  the  ice,  has  been  restored  to 
life.  The  Amphibia  may  be  divided  into 
four  distributions,  viz.  Testudmes,  Ranae, 
Lacertse,  and  Serpentes;  or  Tortoises, 
Frogs,  Lizards,  and  Serpents.  The  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  three  former  of 
these  divisions  constitute  the  order  enti- 
tled Reptilia,  containing  the  Amphibia 
Pedata,  or  Footed  Amphibia.  The  last 
division,  or  that  of  Serpents,  constitutes 
the  order  Serpentes  ;  containing  the  Am- 
phibia Apoda,  or  Footless  Amphibia. 

AMPHITRITE,  a  genus  of  worms,  of 
the  order  Molusca;  body  projecting  from 
a  tube,  and  annulate  ;  peduncles  or  feet 
small,  numerous ;  feelers  two,  approxi- 
mate, feathered;  no  eyes.  There  are  seven 
species:  of  which  the  A.  renifurmis,  with 
a  rounded  body  and  simple  feelers,  is 
three  inches  long,  and  inhabits  the  seas 
about  Iceland.  The  body  is  of  a  most 
beautiful  red ;  head  defended  by  two 
semicircular  arches;  plumes  fourteen,  and 
alternately  red  and  white  ;  annulations  of 
the  body  from  80  to  90,  with  each  a  mi- 
nute tubercle  on  each  side  ;  tail  pointed, 
and  not  jointed;  tube  red,  tough,  cori- 
aceous, simple,  and  four  inches  long. 

AMPH1SBJHNA,  in  natural  history,  a 
genus  of  Serpents,  of  which  the  generic 
character  is,  body  cylindric,  equal;  an- 
nular divisions  on  body  and  tail.  Accord- 
ing to  Gmelin  there  are  five  species ;  but 
Dr.  Shaw  mentions  two  only,  viz.  the  Alba 
and  the  Fuliginosa.  The  whole  genus  is 
allied  to  that  of  the  Anguis,  and  in  some 
degree  to  the  Lacerta :  it  is,  however, 
readily  distinguished  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  exterior  surface  of  its  skin  is 
marked  in  well-defined  numerous  circles 
or  rings,  completely  surrounding,  the 
body,  and  divided  in  a  longitudinal  direc- 
tion by  still  more  numerous  straight  lines, 
thus  forming  so  many  square  or  parrallelo- 
gramic  scales.  The  alba  is  about  18  or 
20^  inches  long,  and  of  a  proportional 
thickness.  The  head,  which  is  covered 
with  large  scales,  being  but  little  larger 
in  diameter  than  the  body ;  the  tail  is 
short,  terminating  in  a  rounded  extremity. 
The  colour  is,  as  the  name  imports,  white, 
though  in  some  instances  it  is  tinged  with 


a  pale  rose  colour.  The  usual  number  of 
circles  in  this  snake  is  about  223  on 
the  body,  and  16  on  the  tail.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  South-America,  where  it  is  found 
in  woods,  preying  on  insects  and  worms. 
It  is  a  harmless  animal;  but  on  being 
handled,  it  excites  a  slight  itching  on  the 
skin,  accompanied  by  small  pustules, 
owing  to  an  acrimonious  moisture  ex- 
uding from  the  animal.  A.  fuliginosa  is 
at  all  times  readily  distinguished  by  its 
colours.  There  are  about  230  rings  on 
its  body  and  tail.  It  is  white,  variegated 
with  black  or  deep  brown  spots.  The 
head  is  without  spots.  It  is  found  in  ma- 
ny parts  of  South-America,  resembling 
the  alba  in  its  manners,  and  being  equally 
innoxious.  The  skin  of  the  amphisbiena 
is  remarkably  strong  and  tenacious,  and 
of  a  smooth  or  glossy  surface  :  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  able  to  perforate  the  ground 
with  great  facility,  in  the  manner  of  earth 
worms,  to  obtain  its  food.  The  other 
species  are  found  in  America.  See  plate 
Serpentes,  fig  2. 

AMPLITUDE,  in  astronomy,  an  arch 
of  the  horizon  intercepted  between  the 
east  or  west  point  thereof,  and  the  centre 
of  the  sun,  star,  or  planet,  at  its  rising 
and  setting,  and  so  is  either  north  or 
south. 

If  the  amplitude  be  taken  from  the 
rising  sun,  or  star,  it  is  called  its  rising 
or  ortive  amplitude  ;  if,  when  it  sets,  its 
setting  or  occasive  amplitude.  The  sun's 
amplitude,  either  rising  or  setting,  is 
found  by  the  globes,  by  bringing  the  sun's 
place  to  the  horizon,  either  on  the  east 
or  west  side,  and  the  degrees  from  the 
east  point,  either  north  or  south,  are  the 
amplitude  required.  To  find  the  ampli- 
tude trigonometrically,  say,  as  the  cosine 
of  the  latitude  :  radius  :  :  sine  of  the  pre- 
sent declination  :  sine  of  the  amplitude. 
This  problem  is  useful  in  navigation,  to 
find  the  variation  of  the  compass.  Thus, 
in  latitude  51°  31',  when  the  sun's  decli- 
nation is  23°  28',  then  we  say, 

As  60.  S.  61°  31',  :  10.  &c.  : :  S.  28°  28' 
:  S.  Amp.  or,  as  9.793990  :  10.  &c.  :  : 
9.600118  :  9.806127  =  sine  of  39°  47'  = 
the  amplitude  sought :  that  is,  the  suu 
then  rises  or  sets  39°  47'  from  the  east  or 
west  point  to  the  north  or  south,  us  the 
declination  is  either  north  or  south. 

AMPLITUDE,  magnetical,  the  different 
rising  or  setting  of  the  sun,  from  the  east 
or  west  points  of  the  compass.  It  is  found 
by  observing  the  sun,  at  his' rising  and 
setting,  by  an  amplitude  compass.  The 
difference  between  the  magneticul  ampli- 
tude and  the  true  amplitude  is  the  vari- 


AMY 


AMY 


tion  of  the  compass.  If  the  magnetical 
amplitude  be  found  to  be  .  .  61°  55' 
at  the  time  it  is  computed  as  above 

to  be     .     .    39°  47' 

th'en  the  difference  22°  8' 
is  the  variation  westward. 

AMPLITUDK  of  the  range  of  a  projectile, 
the  horizontal  line  subtending  the  path  in 
which  the  projectile  moved.  See  PRO- 
JECTILE. 

AMPUTATION,  in  surgery,  the  cut- 
ting off  a  limb,  or  other  part  of  the  body, 
with  an  instrument. 

AMULET,  a  charm,  or  preservative 
against  mischief,  witchcraft  or  diseases. 
Amulets  were  made  of  stone,  metal,  sim- 
ples, animals,  and,  in  a  word,  of  every 
thing  which  fancy  or  caprice  suggested ; 
and  sometimes  they  consisted  of  words, 
characters,  and  sentences,  ranged  in  a 
particular  order,  and  engraved  upon 
wood,  Sec.  and  worn  about  the  neck,  or 
some  other  part  of  the  body.  At  other 
times  they  were  neither  written  nor  en- 
graved, but  prepared  with  many  super- 
stitious ceremonies,  great  regard  being 
usually  paid  to  the  influence  of  the  stars. 
The  Arabians  have  given  to  this  species 
of  amulet  the  name  of  talisman. 

All  nations  have  been  fond  of  amulets ; 
the  Jews  were  extremely  superstitiows  in 
the  use  of  them,  to  drive  away  diseases  : 
and  the  Misna  forbids  them,  unless  re- 
ceived from  an  approved  man,  who  had 
cured  at  least  three  persons  before,  by 
the  same  means. 

Even  among  the  Christians  of  the 
early  times,  amulets  were  made  of  the 
wood  of  the  cross,  or  ribbands  with  atext 
of  scripture  written  in  them,  as  preserva- 
tives against  diseases;  and  therefore  the 
council  of  Laodicea  forbids  ecclesiastics 
to  make  such  amulets,  and  orders  all 
such  as  wore  them  to  be  cast  out  of  the 
church. 

AMYGDALOID.      See  TRAPS  THAN- 

SITI03V. 

AMYGDALUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Polyandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der; its  characters  are,  that  the  calyx  is 
a  perianthium,  one-leaved,  tubulous,  in- 
ferior, quinquefid,  deciduous,  divisions 
spreading  and  obtuse  ;  the  corolla  of  five 
petals,  oblong-ovate,  obtuse,  concave,  in- 
serted into  the  calyx ;  the  stamina  have 
filaments  about  30,  filiform,  erect,  shorter 
by  half  than  the  corolla,  inserted  into  the 
calyx;  anthers  simple  ;  the  pistillum  has 
a  roundish,  viilosc  germ,  simple  style,  of 
the  length  of  the  stamens,  and  headed 
stigma:  the  pericarpium  is  a  roundish, 


villose,  large  drupe,  with  a  longitudinal 
furrow  ;  the  seed  is   a  nut,  ovate,  com- 
pressed, acute,  with  prominent  sutures  on 
each  side,  reticulated  with  furrows,  and 
dotted  with  small  holes.     The  nut  of  the 
almond  is  covered  with  a  dry  skin  ;  that 
of  the  peach  with  a  small  pulp.     There 
are  seven  species,  of  which  we  shall  no- 
tice, 1.  A  persica,  with  all  the  serratures- 
of  the  leaves  acute,  and  the  flowers  ses- 
sile and  solitary.     There  are  two  varie- 
ties, viz.  the  peach-tree,  with  downy  fruit, 
and  the  nectarine,  with  smooth  fruit.     2. 
A.  communis,  the  almond  tree,  with  the 
lower  serratures  of  the  leaves  glandulous, 
and  the  flowers  sessile  and  in  couplets. 
The  common  almond  has  leaves  which  re- 
semble those  of  the  peach,  but  the  lower 
serratures  are  glandular;  they  proceed 
from  buds,  -both  above  and   below  the 
flowers,  and  not,  as  in  the  peach,  from 
the  ends  of  the  shoots  above  and  not  be- 
low the  flowers.    The  form  of  the  flower 
is  not  very  different;   but  they  usually 
come  out  in  pairs,  and  vary  more  in  their 
colour  from  the  fine  blush  of  the  apple- 
blossom  to  a  snowy  whiteness.  The  chief 
obvious  distinction  is  in  the  fruit,  which 
is  flatter,  with  a  coriaceous  covering  in- 
stead of  the  rich  pulp  of  the  peach  and 
nectarine,  opening  spontaneously  when 
the  kernel  is  ripe.     The  shell  is  not  so 
hard,  as  in  the  first  species,  and  is  some- 
times tender  and  very  brittle  ;  it  is  flatter, 
smoother,  and  the  furrows  or  holes  are 
more  superficial.      This  tree  is  a  great 
object  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  and  in  the 
south  of  France ;    and  there    are  large 
plantations  of  it  in  Provence  and  Dau- 
phine.     It  is  common  in  China,  and  most 
of  the  eastern  countries ;  and  also  in  Bar- 
bary,  where  it  is  a  native.     In  the  time  of 
Cato  it  seems  not  to  have  been  cultivated 
in  Italy  ;  for  he  calls  the  fruit  nuces  Grae- 
cae,  or  Greek  nuts.   With  us  it  is  valuable 
as  an  ornamental  tree  in  clumps,  shrub- 
beries, &c.  within  view  of  the  mansion; 
for   it    displays  its  delicate   red-purple 
bloom  in  the  month  of  March,  when  few 
other  trees  have  either  leaves  or  flowers. 
An  almond  tree,  covered  with  its  beauti- 
ful blossoms,  is  one  of  the  most  elegant 
objects  in  nature.     In  a  forward  spring 
they  often  appear  in  February ;  but  in 
this    case  the    frost  generally   destroys 
them,  and  they  bear  little  or  no  fruit;  but 
when  they  flower  in  March,  they  seldom 
fail  to  bear  plenty  of  fruit,  very  sweet, 
and  fitfor  the  table  when  green;  but  they 
will  not  keep  long.     The  amygdalus,  or 
almond-tree  is  cultivated  both  for  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  fruit,  and  as  being  highlv 


AMY 


AMY 


ornamental  in  shrubberies,  plantations, 
and  other  descriptions  of  pleasure  ground, 
from  its  coming1  into  bloom  early  in  the 
spring-.  It  is,  however  less  important  in 
the  former  than  the  latter  point  of  view, 
as  the  fruit  is  often  liable  to  miscarry  in 
this  climate.  All  the  species  and  varie- 
ties of  this  tree  are  deciduous,  and  of  a 
hardy  nature,  thriving-  well  in  most  com- 
mon garden  soils.  Those  of  the  tree  kind 
frequently  rise  to  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in 
height,  dividing  into  many  spreading 
branches,  which  ultimately  form  beauti- 
ful heads,  that  are  generally  well  adorned 
in  the  beginning  of  March  with  innume- 
rable flowers,  which  continue  in  full 
bloom  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  and 
are  followed  by  the  leaves,  which  are 
long  and  narrow,  and  the  fruit  takes  its 
growth.  This  is  downy,  rather  large,  and 
of  an  oval  form ;  consisting  of  a  thick 
tough,  leathery  substance,  that  embraces 
an  oblong  nut  or  stone,  in  which  the  ker- 
nel or  almond  is  inclosed,  which  is  the 
only  part  of  the  fruit  that  is  capable  of 
being  made  use  of.  The  dwarf,  shrubby 
sorts  of  this  tree  do  not,  however,  in  ge- 
neral exceed  three  or  four  feet  in  height, 
having  slender  stems,  which  send  forth  a 
great  number  of  small  branches  near  to 
the  ground  ;  and  in  the  single-flowered 
kind  various  suckers  are  frequently  sent  up 
from  the  root.  And  in  both  the  double  and 
single-flowered  almond  tree,all  the  young 
branches  are  thickly  beset  with  flowers  in 
the  spring,  which,  from  their  having  a 
fine  pale  red  colour,  and  continuing  some 
time  in  blow,  are  highly  ornamental.  The 
single  sort  have  their  flowers  coming  out 
about  the  end  of  March,  and  the  double 
kind  in  the  beginning-  of  April,  each  re- 
maining  about  a  fortnight  in  blow.  The 
sorts  chiefly  cultivated  for  use  in  this 
country  are,  according  to  Mr.  Forsyth, 
the  tender-shelled  almond,  the  sweet  al- 
mond, the  common  or  bitter  almond,  the 
sweet  Jordan  almond,  and  the  hard-shell- 
ed almond.  Those  propagated  only  for 
ornament  are,  the  dwarf  and  the  double- 
flowering  almonds. — Amygdalus  Persica, 
or  peach-tree.  Its  native  country  is  not 
known.  It  came  to  the  Romans  from 
Persia,  as  its  Latin  name,  mains  Persica, 
indicates :  and  it  has  been  cultivated  from 
time  immmemorial  in  most  parts  of  Asia ; 
it  has  been  adopted  by  almost  every  na- 
tion of  Europe,  and  now  flourishes  abun- 
dantly in  America,  where  it  has  been  in- 
troduced by  the  Europeans.  Of  this  tree 
we  have  only  one  distinct  species  ;  but 
there  are  a  great  many  varieties,  and  by 
producing  them  from  the  seed  or  kernel. 


they  may  be  almost  indefinitely  increased. 
But  though  they  are  capable  of  being 
greatly  augmented  in  this  manner,  it  is 
probable  that  but  very  few  possess  the 
necessary  qualities,  as  nursery-men  sel- 
dom cultivate  more  than  twenty  or  thirty 
sorts.  As  in  the  cultivation  of  this  sort 
of  tree  much  expense  is  constantly  re- 
quired in  walls  or  other  suitable  buildings, 
none  but  such  as  produce  fine  fruit  should 
be  attended  to.  This  sort  of  trees  will 
grow  to  a  considerable  height  as  stan- 
dards; but,  in  order  to  produce  and  ripen 
fruit,  requires  the  shelter  of  warm  walls. 
They  flower  early  in  the  spring  in  com- 
mon, the  flowers  appearing  before  the 
leaves,  mostly  on  the  shoots  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  and  either  singly  or  in  pairs 
along  their  sides.  They  are  formed  each 
of  five  small  petals,  with  many  stamina  in 
the  middle,  and  a  small  round  germen, 
that  becomes  the  peach .  The  fruit  is  dis- 
tinguished into  two  sorts,  the  peach  and 
pavie,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  flesh 
or  pulp  quitting  or  adhering  to  the  stone, 
as  in  the  former  it  easily  separates,  while 
in  the  latter  it  adheres  firmly.  There 
are  various  sorts  of  peaches  that  may  be 
cultivated ;  but  for  small  gardens  Mr. 
Forsyth  recommends  the  following  as  the 
most  suitable :  the  early  avant,  small 
mignonne,  the  Anne  peach,  royal  George, 
royal  Kensington, noblesse, early  Ne wing- 
ton,  Galland,  early  purple,  chancellor,  ni- 
vette,  the  Catharine,  the  late  Newiagton, 
Amygdalus  nucipersica,  or  the  nectarine 
tree.  This  is  now  generally  considered 
as  a  variety  of  the  peach ;  but  the  two 
trees  cannot  by  any  circumstances  in  their 
growth,  wood,  leaves,  or  flowers,  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  with  any  de- 
gree of  certainty.  The  fruits  are,  how- 
ever, readily  discriminated  in  all  their 
different  stages  of  growth,  that  of  the 
nectarine  having  a  smooth,  firm  cuticle, 
or  rind,  while  in  the  peach  it  is  covered 
with  a  soft,  downy  substance.  Besides, 
the  pulp  or  flesh  of  the  former  is  much 
more  firm  than  that  of  the  latter.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  the  nectarine  that 
may  be  cultivated ;  but  those  that  chiefly 
deserve  attention  are,  the  Fairchild's,  the 
violet,  the  elrouge,  the  Newington,  the 
Roman,  the  temple,  and  the  vermash. 
The  white  nectarine  may  also  be  cultiva- 
ted, both  for  the  goodness  of  its  fruit,  and 
as  being  a  curious  variety. 

AMYRIS,  .a  genus  of  the  Octandria 
Monoginia  class  and  order ;  its  charac- 
ters are,  that  the  calyx  is  a  perianthium, 
one-leafed,  four-toothed,  acute,  erect, 
small,  and  permanent ;  the  corolla  con- 


AMY 


ANA 


sists  of  four  oblong1,  concave,  and. spread- 
ing- petals ;  the  stamina  have  awl-shaped, 
erect  filaments ;  anthers  oblong1,  erect,  of 
the  length  of  the  corolla;  the  pistillum 
has  a  germ,  superior,  ovate,  style  thick- 
ish,  of  the  length  of  the  stamens,  and  stig- 
ma four-cornered ;  the  pericarpium  is  a 
drupaceous  and  roundish  berry  ;  and  the 
seed  is  a  round,  shining  nut.  There  are 
thirteen  species,  of  which  we  shall  notice 
A.  sylvatica,  with  leaves  ternate,  crinate, 
and  "acute.  This  is  an  erect,  leafy  shrub, 
from  t\vo  to  fifteen  feet  high,  according  to 
the  soil  and  situation,  abounding  with  a 
turpentine  of  a  strong  disagreeable  smell; 
it  is  found  plentifully  about  Carthagena, 
in  woods  near  the  sea,  and  flowers  in  Au- 
gust. A.  maritima,  small,  shrubby,  sweet 
wood,  with  leaves  ternate,  crenulated  and 
obtuse.  This  is  a  dwarf  shrub,  yielding 
a  juice  like  that  of  the  former,  but  more 
agreeable,  and  smelling  like  rue  :  the  ber- 
ry is  of  the  size  of  black  pepper,  black 
when  ripe,  inclosing  a  globular,  brittle 
nut,  in  which  is  a  white  kernel.  Swartz 
doubts  whether  the  preceding  be  a  dis- 
tinct species  from  this.  It  grows  in  very 
barren  coppices,  in  a  calcareous  rocky 
Soil,  both  near  the  sea,  and  on  the  interi- 
or mountains  of  Jamaica,  Hispaniola,  and 
Cuba,  and  flowers  from  June  to  Septem- 
ber. A.  gileadensis,  balsam  of  Gilead 
tree,  with  leaves  ternate,  quite  entire,  and 
peduncles  one-flowered  and  lateral.  This 
species  is  a  shrub  with  purplish  branches, 
having  protuberant  buds  loaded  with  bal- 
samic rosin  ;  the  flowers  proceed  from  the 
same  buds  by  threes ;  the  bracte  minute, 
and  slightly  bifid.  It  has  been  doubted 
whether  this  be  a  distinct  species  in  itself. 
A.  ambrosiaca,  with  leaves  pinnate  and 
petiolate,  and  panicles  crowded  and  axil- 
lary. This  is  a  tree,  with  a  trunk  thirty 
feet  high,  branching  at  the  top,  with 
branchlets  leafy  and  flowery  :  leaves  al- 
ternate, with  two  or  three  opposite,  ovate 
leaflets  on  each  side,  ending  in  long  points, 
smooth,  entire,  on  short  petioles,  gibbous 
at  the  base ;  flowers  yellowish  white, 
axillary,  and  corymbed;  perianth  very 
small  and  four-toothed  ;  petals  lanceolate, 
spreading  at  the  tip  :  filaments  filiform, 
half  as  long  as  the  calyx,  inserted  into  the 
tube ;  germ  superior,  subglobose,  style 
cylindrical ;  stigma  capitated,  depressed, 
and  four-cornered;  fruit  ovate,  oblique, 
four-celled,  resembling  that  of  the  laurel, 
the  nucleus  involved  in  a  brittle  covering, 
four-celled,  with  four  stones  wrapped  up 
in  a  viscid  red  pulp,  having  a  balsamic 
smell  and  taste,  hardening  into  a  grey 
rosin,  and  used  for  burning  as  a  perfume. 


The  whole  tree  is  sweet-scented,  and 
yields  a  very  odoriferous  balsam  from  the 
wounded  trunk  or  branches,  which  is 
used  in  the  dysentery  ;  the  dose  is  one 
dram  in  red  wine  ;  it  is  also  used  in  hou- 
ses and  churches  for  burning  as  a  per- 
fume. It  grows  in  the  woods  of  Guiana, 
and  by  the  sea-shore;  flowering  and  fruit- 
ing in  September.  A.  balsamifera,  sweet 
amyris,  white  candle-wood,  or  rose-wood, 
with  leaves  two-paired.  This  grows  to  a 
considerable  size,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  trees  in  the  island  of  Jamaica ; 
the  wood  is  white,  and  of  a  curled  grain 
when  young,  but  grows  of  a  dirty  cloud- 
ed  ash  colour  with  age,  bearing  a  fine 
polish,  and  having  a  pleasant  smell ;  it  is 
heavy,  and  much  esteemed  among  cabi- 
net-makers. All  the  parts  of  this  tree 
are  full  of  warm  aromatic  particles,  and 
may  be  used  in  baths  and  fomentations  ; 
the  berries  are  oblong,  and  have  the  taste 
of  the  balsam  copaiba.  An  infusion  of  the 
leaves  has  a  pleasant  flavour,  is  highly  ce- 
phalic, strengthens  the  nerves,  and  is  par- 
ticularly  restorative  to  weak  eyes.  In 
Jamaica  there  are  several  species  of  amy- 
ris, the  leaves  and  bark  of  which  yield  a 
fine  balsamic  juice  ;  and  if  the  body  were 
tapped  at  the  proper  season,  a  thick 
liquor  would  transude,  resembling  that  of 
the  Gilead  balsam,  to  which  the  taste  of 
the  bark  and  wood  of  the  smaller  branch- 
es bears  a  very  exact  relation.  Dr. 
Wright  apprehends  that  this  wood,  by 
distillation,  would  yield  a  perfume  equal 
to  the  oleum  rhodii. 

ANA,  among  physicians,  denotes  an 
equal  quantity  of  the  ingredients  which 
immediately  precede  it  in  prescriptions  : 
it  is  written  by  abbreviation  a  or  a  a  ; 
thus,  g,  thur.  mijrth.  alum,  a  a,  ^  j  :  that 
is,  take  frankincense,  myrrh,  and  allum, 
each  a  scruple. 

ANA,  in  matters  of  literature,  a  Latin 
termination,  added  to  the  titles  of  several 
books  in  other  languages. 

They  are  collections  of  the  conversa- 
tion and  memorable  sayings  of  men  of  wit 
and  learning;  the  scaligeriana  was  the 
first  book  that  appeared  with  a  title  in 
ana,  and  was  afterwards  followed  by  the 
Perroniana,  Thuuna,  Nudxana,  Menagi- 
ana,  and  even  by  Arlequiniana,  in  ridicule 
of  all  books  in  ana.  The  Menagiana  are 
accounted  the  best. 

ANA,  among  occult  philosophers,  a 
term  used  to  denote  the  human  mind  ; 
from  whence  some  will  have  anasaptu,  u 
daemon  invoked  by  sick  persons,  to  be 
derived. 


ANA 


ANA 


ANABASIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Pentandria  Digynia  class  and  order  :  es- 
sen.  char. ;  calyx,  three-leaved ;  cor.  five- 
petalled  ;  berry,  one-seeded,  surrounded 
by  a  calyx :  there  are  four  species. 

ANACARDIUM,  in  botany,  acajou,  a 
genus  of  the  EnneandriaMonogynia  class 
and  order;  its  characters  are,  that  it  has 
hermaphrodite  flowers,  and  male  flowers, 
either  mixed  with  the  hermaphrodites,  or 
on  a  distinct  tree.  The  calyx  of  the 
former  is  a  perianthium,  five-leaved,  leaf- 
lets ovate,  concave,  coloured,  erect,  and 
deciduous;  the  corolla  has  five  petals, 
lanceolate,  acute,  three  times  as  long  as 
thejcalyx,  upright  at  bottom,  reflex  at  the 
end;  the  stamina  have  ten  filaments, 
united  at  the  base  and  upright,  nine  of 
them  capillary,  shorter  than  the  calyx ; 
the  pistillum  has  a  germ,  kidney-shaped, 
obliquely  emarginate  in  front,  .style  subu- 
late, bent  in,  the  length  of  the  corolla; 
stigma  small,  roundish,  depressed  and 
concave  ;  no  pericarpium ;  receptacle 
fleshy,  very  large  and  obovate ;  the  seed 
a  nut,  kidney-shaped,  large  at  the  top  of 
the  receptacle,  with  a  thick  shell,  cellular 
within,  and  abounding  in  oil.  The  calyx, 
corolla,  and  stamina,  of  the  male  flowers, 
as  in  the  hermaphrodites  ;  the  pistillum 
has  either  no  germ,  or  one  that  is  abor- 
tive. There  is  one  species,  viz.  A.  occi- 
clentale,  cashew -nut,  cassu  or  acajou. 
The  cashew  is  an  elegant  tree,  12  or  16 
feet  high,  spreading  much  as  it  rises,  and 
beginning  to  branch  at  the.  height  of  five 
feet,  according  to  Browne  ;  but  Long  af- 
firms that  in  good  soil  it  spreads  to  the 
size  of  a  walnut  tree,  which  it  resembles 
in  the  shape  and  smell  of  the  leaves  ; 
the  trunk  seldom  exceeds  half  a  foot  in 
diameter  ;  the  leaves  are  coriaceous,  sub- 
ovate,  shining,  entire,  petioled,  and  scat- 
tered alternately,  and  terminating,  con- 
taining many  small,  sweet-smelling  flow- 
ers, on  oblong  receptacles,  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  peduncle  ;  the  co- 
rolla red,  with  commonly  10  stamens,  one 
of  which  has  no  anther,  but  it  has  fre- 
quently eight,  or  only  seven,  all  fertile  ; 
and  there  are  sometimes  female  flowers, 
entirely  destitute  of  stamens.  The  fruit 
has  an  agreeable  subacid  flavour,  in  some 
degree  restringent ;  in  some  of  a  yellow, 
and  in  others  of  a  red  colour,  which  dif- 
ference may  be  probably  owing  to  the 
soil  or  culture.  The  juice  of  the  fruit,  fer- 
mented, affords  a  pleasant  wine ;  and 
distilled,  yields  a  spirit  exceeding  arrack 
•r  rum,  and  serves  to  make  punch,  and 
also  to  promote  urine.  The  ripe  fruit  is 
sometimes  roasted  and  sliced,  and  thus 


used  for  giving  an  agreeable  flavour  to 
punch.     The   restringency  of  the  juice 
has  recommended  it  as  a  remedy  in  drop- 
sical habits.     From  one  end  of  the  apple 
proceeds  the  nut,  which  is  kidney-shap- 
ed,  enclosed  in  two  shells,  the  outer  of 
an  ash  colour,  and  smooth,  and  the  inner 
covers  the  kernel.   Between  these  shells 
is  lodged  a  thick,  inflammable,  and  very 
caustic  oil,  which,  incautiously  applied  to 
the  lips  and  mouth,inflames  and  excoriates 
them.      This  oil   has  been   successfully 
used  for  eating  off  ring-worms,  cancerous 
ulcers,  and  corns  ;   but  it  should  be  very 
cautiously  applied.     Some  females  have 
used  it  as  a  cosmetic,  in  order  to  remove 
the  freckles  and  tan  occasioned  by  the 
scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  but  it  proves 
so  corrosive  as  to  peel  off  the'skin,  and 
cause  the  face  to  inflame  and  swell;   but 
after  enduring  the  pain  of  this  operation 
for  about  a  fortnight,  thin  new  skin,  as 
it  may  be  called,  appears,  fair-like  that  of 
a  new  born  infant.     This  oil  also  tinges 
linen  of  a  rusty  iron  colour,    that   can 
hardly  be  got  out ;  and  when  smeared  on 
wood    it    prevents    decay,    and    might, 
therefore,  serve  for  preserving  house  tim- 
ber and  ships'  bottoms.     The  fresh  ker- 
nel has  a  delicious   taste,   and   abounds 
with  a  sweet  milky  juice  ;   it  is  an  ingre- 
dient in  puddings,  &c.  and  is  eaten  raw, 
roasted  and  pickled.      The   negroes   of 
Brazil,  who  are  compelled  by  their  mas- 
ters, the  Portuguese,  to  eat  this  nut,  for 
want  of  other  sustenance,   obtain  relief 
from  this  involuntary  use  of  it  in  various 
disorders    of  the  stomach.     When  the 
kernel  is  ground  with  cacao,  it  improves 
the  chocolate  ;  but  if  it  be  kept  too  long 
it  becomes  shrivelled,  and  loses  its  flavour 
and  best  qualities.     The  milky  juice  of 
the  tree,  obtained  by  tapping  or  incision, 
will  stain  linen  of  a  deep  black,  which 
cannot  be  washed  out;    but  whether  this 
has  the  same  property  with  that  of  the 
eastern  anacardium,  has  not  yet  been  as- 
certained ;    for  the  inspissated  juice  of 
that  tree  is  the  best  sort  of  lack  which  is 
used  for  staining  black  in  China  or  Japan. 

ANACHRONISM,  in  matters  of  litera- 
ture, an  error  with  respect  to  chronology, 
whereby  an^event  is  placed  earlier  than  it 
really  happened,  in  which  sense  it  stands 
opposite  to  parachronism. 

ANACREONTIC  verse,  in  ancient  poe- 
try, a  kind  of  verse  so  called  from  its 
being  much  used  by  the  poet  Anacreon. 
It  consists  of  three  feet  and  a  half,  usually 
sporidees  and  iambics,  and  sometimes 
anapests  ;  such  is  that  of  Horace, 


ANA 


ANA 


f>ydia  die  per  omnes. 

The  word  anacreontic  is  sometimes 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  convivial 
songs,  glees,  &c.  denotes  a  gay  hilarity  of 
movement,  and  a  free  and  easy  style  of 
performance. 

ANACYGLUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  Syngenesia  Polygamia  Su- 
perflua.  Essen,  char,  receptacle  chaffy, 
seeds  crowned  with  an  emarginate  mar- 
gin, those  at  the  ray  inembranaceous  at 
the  sides.  There  are  five  species:  of 
which  the  creticus  and  orientalis  grow 
naturally  in  the  islands  of  the  Archipela- 
go. They  are  low  plants,  whose  branch- 
es trail  on  the  ground.  The  first  sort  has 
fine  cut  leaves,  like  those  of  chamo- 
mile  ;  the  flowers  are  small,  white,  and 
grow  single,  with  their  heads  declining  ; 
these  are  like  those  of  common  May- 
weed. The  second  has  leaves  like  those 
of  the  ox-eye;  the  flowers  are  white,  and 
like  those  of  chamomile. 

ANAGALLIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants,  belonging  to  the  Pentandria  Mo- 
nogynia  class  of  Linnaeus  ;  the  flower  of 
which  is  monopetalous,  multifid,  and  or- 
bicular ;  the  fruit  is  a  globose  capsule  ; 
containing  only  one  cell,  and  dividing  ho- 
rizontally into  two  hemispheres ;  the 
seeds  are  numerous  and  angular.  There 
are  six  species. 

ANAGRAM,  in  matters  of  literature, 
a 'transposition  of  the  letters  of  some 
name,  whereby  a  new  word  is  formed, 
either  to  the  advantage  or  disadvantage 
of  the  person  or  thing  to  which  the  name 
belongs ;  thus  from  Galenus  is  formed 
Angelus :  from  James,  Simea  ;  and  so  of 
others. 

Those  who  adhere  strictly  to  the  defi- 
nition of  an  anagram,  take  no  other  liber- 
ty than  that  of  omitting  or  retaining  the 
letter  h,  at  pleasure ;  whereas  others 
make  no  scruple  to  use  e  for  <e,  v  for  w, 
s  for  z,  and  c  for  A? ;  and  vice  versa. 

ANAGYRIS,  bean-trefoil,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  plants  with  papilionaceous  flow- 
ers, the  vixillum  of  which  is  shorter  than 
any  of  the  other  petals,  and  its  fruit  an 
oblong  pod,  containing  kidney-like  seeds: 
to  this  it  is  to  be  added,  that  three  leaves 
stand  on  every  petal.  It  belongs  to  the 
Diadelphiu  Decandria  class  of  Lin- 
naeus. 

According  to  Martyn,  there  are  three 
species  :  viz.  the  foetida,  cretica,  and  ino- 
dorata.  The  first  grows  wild  in  the 
south  of  France,  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  Si- 
cily ;  also  about  Symrna.  It  is  a  shrub 
that  rises  8  or  10  feet  high,  and  produces 


its  flowers  in  April  and  May,  which  are 
of  a  bright  yellow  colour,  growing  on 
spikes,  somewhat  like  those  of  the  la- 
burnum :  the  seeds  are  never  perfected 
in  this  country.  The  second  is  a  native  of 
Canada,  and  some  of  the  islands  of  the 
Archipelago,  and  is  very  rare  in  English 
gardens.  The  third  is  an  upright  shrub, 
equal  to  a  middle-sized  tree:  branches 
hanging  down,  frequently  scandent :  a  na- 
tive of  the  woods  of  Cochinchina. 

These  may  be  propagated  by  laying 
down  their  tender  branches  in  the  spring1, 
observing  to  tongue  them  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  layers  of  carnations. 

ANALCIME,  in  mineralogy,  a  species 
of  Zeolite,  found  crystallized  in  the  cavi- 
ties of  Basalt.  The  primitive  form  of  its 
crystals  is  a  cube.  It  is  sometimes  found 
crystallized  in  cubes,  whose  solid  angles 
are  wanting,  and  three  small  triangular 
faces  in  place  of  each  ;  sometimes  in  po- 
lyhedrons with  twenty-four  faces.  Spe- 
cific gravity  2.  Colour  white,  sometimes 
red.  When  rubbed,  it  acquires  only  a 
small  degree  of  electricity,  and  with  dif- 
ficulty. Before  the  blow-pipe  it  melts 
without  frothing  into  a  white  transparent 
glass. 

ANALEMMA,  in  geometry,  a  projec- 
tion of  the  sphere  on  the  plane  of  the  me- 
ridian, orthographically  made  by  straight 
lines  and  ellipses,  the  eye  being  supposed 
at  an  infinite  distance ;  and  in  the  east  or 
west  points  of  the  horizon.  See  MAPS. 

AJTALEMMA  denotes  likewise  an  instru- 
ment of  brass  or  wood,  upon  which  this 
kind  of  projection  is  drawn,  with  an  hori- 
zon and  cursor  fitted  to  it,  wherein  the 
solstitial  colure,  and  all  circles  parallel  to 
it,  will  be  concentric  circles  ;  all  circles 
oblique  to  the  eye  will  be  ellipses  ;  and 
all  circles  whose  planes  pass  through  the 
eye  will  be  right  lines.  The  use  of  this 
instrument  is  to  show  the  common  astro- 
nomical problems. 

ANALOGY,  in  matters  of  literature,  a 
certain  relation  and  agreement  between 
two  or  more  things,  which  in  other  re- 
spects are  entirely  different;  thus  the 
foot  of  a  mountain  bears  an  analogy  to  the 
foot  of  an  animal,  although  they  are  two 
very  different  things. 

There  is  likewise  an  analogy  between 
beings  that  have  some  conformity  or  re- 
semblance to  one  another ;  for  example, 
between  animals  and  plants,  and  between 
metals  and  vegetables ;  but  the  analogy 
is  still  stronger  between  two  different 
species  of  certain  animals. 

AXALORY,  among  grammarians,  is  the 
correspondence  which  a  word  or  phrase 


ANALYSIS. 


bears  to  the  genius  and  received  forms  of 
a  language. 

AMALYSIS,  in  a  general  sense,  is  the 
resolution  o:  something  compounded  in- 
to its  constituent  parts.  Hence, 

ANALYSIS,  in  chemistry,  is  the  separa- 
tion of  any  substance  into  its  constituent 
parts,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  their 
nature,  relative  proportion,  and  mode  of 
union.  An  instance  of  this  kind  is  to  be 
had  in  the  decomposition  of  water,  by 
which  it  is  foundjthat  the  constituent  parts 
are  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  fifteen  parts  of  the  former,  and 
eighty -n've  parts  of  the  latter.  As  every 
operation  in  chemistry  is  attended  with  a 
disunion  of  parts,  the  formation  of  new 
compounds  is  almost  an  invariable  conse- 
quence ;  hence,  the  business  of  analysis 
is  intimately  connected  with  the  whole  of 
chemical  science,  and  can  be  only  tho- 
roughly understood  by  one  that  is  well 
versed  in  every  branch  of  chemistry.  On 
so  extensive  a  subject,  it  is  in  vain  to 
attempt  laying  down  precise  rules  for  the 
mode  of  operation  generally.  We  may, 
however,  observe  that  a  compound  once 
formed,  perpetually  acquires  the  powers 
of  an  element,  in  being  able  to  unite,  un- 
decomposed,  with  other  bodies,  simple  or 
compounded,  in  various  proportions  ;  and 
thus  to  produce  new  substances, in  which 
the  constituent  parts  often  retain  their 
original  affinities,  and  in  analysis  again 
separate  into  their  elementary  .substances. 
\Ve  may  refer  to  nitrate  of  ammonia, 
which  is  a  salt  composed  of  nitric  acid, 
ammonia,  and  water,  each  of  which  is  it- 
self a  compound,  but  in  this  particular 
combination  it  acts  as  an  elementary 
body  ;  thus,  nitric  acid  consists  of  azote 
and  oxygen:  ammonia,  of  azote  and  hy- 
drogen :  and  water,  as  we  have  seen,  of 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  :  so  that,  in  truth, 
there  are  only  azo;  ,en,  and  oxy- 

gen, that  enter  in!  th(  combination  of 
nitrate  of  ammonia  ;  but  in  their  simple 
state,  they  cannot  be  made  to  form  the 
salt;  it  is  requisite  that  the  acid,  the  al- 
kali, and  the  water,  should  be  first  form- 
ed, in  order  to  get  the  neutral  salt. 

The  business  of  chemical  analysis  is  to 
resolve  a  body  into  its  constituent  parts  ; 
but  the  first  question  is,  to  determine,  in 
every  instance  of  analysis,  whether  the 
resolution  should  proceed  to  entire  sepa- 
ration into  real  elements,  or  only  into 
those  compounds  which  act  as  elements; 
as  in  the  case  referred  to,  whether  the 
nitrate  of  ammonia  should  be  resolved 
into  azote,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  ;  or 
•whether  it  should  not  first  bereduced  in- 

VOT  .  F, 


to  nitric  acid,  ammonia,  and  water.  The 
former  mode  is  best  calculated  for  re- 
search, the  latter  for  utility  ;  but  a  mix- 
ture of  the  two  methods  is  commonly 
adopted,  where  the  proportion  and  nature 
of  the  compound  produced  has  already 
been  fully  ascertained  by  previous  experi- 
ment. The  most  rigid  proof  of  the  accu- 
rscy  of  analysis  is,  to  be  able  to  produce 
the  same  compound,  by  uniting  the  =ucnti- 
cal  parts  which  we  have  given  as  its  con- 
stituents. This  can  rarely  be  performed 
in  a  manner  perfectly  satisfactory  ;  but  it 
frequently  happens  that  a  substance  may 
be  produced  that  resembles  the  one  ana- 
lysed, by  employing  similar  constituents, 
if  not  the  identical  substances.  This 
proof  even  is  almost  totally  wanting  in 
the  analysis  of  organised  bodies,  whether 
vegetable  or  animal,  especially  when  re- 
duced to  their  ultimate  elements,  and 
generally  when  only  separated  into  their 
immediate  constituents.  The  agents  made 
use  of  in  analysis  are,  heat,  the  electric 
and  galvanic  fluids,  if  they  are  two  fluids, 
and  the  application  of  re-agents  or  sub- 
stances, which  indicate  the  parts  of  the 
body  to  be  examined. 

ANALYSIS,  among  logicians,  is  a  me- 
thod of  tracing  things  backward  to  their 
source,  and  of  resolving  knowledge  into 
its  original  principles.  It  is  also  called 
the  method  of  resolution,  and  stands  op- 
posed to  the  synthetic  method,  or  method 
of  composition.  The  art  of  this  method 
consists  chiefly  in  combining  our  precep- 
tions,  and  classing  them  together  with  ad- 
dress; and  in  contriving  a  proper  expres- 
sion of  our  thoughts,  so  as  to  represent 
their  several  divisions,  classes,  and  rela- 
tions. This  is  clearly  seen  in  the  manner 
of  computing  by  figures  in  arithmetic,  but 
more  particularly  in  the  symbols  applied 
in  resolving  algebraical  problems. 

ANALYSIS,  among  mathematicians,  the 
art  of  discovering  the  truth  or  falsehood 
of  a  proposition,  or  its  possibility  and  im- 
possibility. This  is  done  by  supposing 
the  proposition,  such  as  it  is,  true  ;  and 
examining  what  follows  from  thence,  un- 
til we  arrive  at  some  evident  truth,  or 
some  impossibility,  of  which  the  first  pro- 
position is  a  necessary  consequence ;  and 
from  thence  establish  the  truth  or  impos- 
sibility of  that  proposition. 

The  analysis  of  the  ancient  geometri- 
cians consisted  in  the  application  of  the 
propositions  of  Euclid,  Apollonius,  &c.tiU 
they  arrived,  proceeding  step  by  step,  at 
the  truth  required.  That  of  the  moderns, 
though  not'so  elegant,  must,  however,  be 
allowed  more  readv  and  general.  By  this 

U 


ANA 


A\A 


last,  geometrical  dempnstrations  are  won- 
derfully abridged,  a  number  of  truths  are 
frequently  expressed  by  a  single  line,  and 
•whole  sciences  may  sometimes  be  learn- 
ed in  a  few  minutes,  which  otherwise 
would  be  scarcely  attained  in  many  years. 

Analysis  is  divided,  with  regard  to  its 
object,  into  that  of  finites,  and  infinites. 
Analysis  of  infinite  quantities,  that  which 
is  called  specious  arithmetic.  Analysis 
of  infinites,  the  same  with  fluxions.  See 
FLUXIONS. 

ANALYSIS,  in  mineralogy,  includes  the 
examination  of  metallic  ores,  and  of  the 
other  products  of  the  mineral  krngdom. 
See  MINERALS,  analysis  of. 

ANALYSIS  of  soils,  the  means  of  ascer- 
taining the  nature,  properties,  and  pro- 
portioVis  of  the  different  materials  of  which 
they  are  composed.  The  proper  execu- 
tion of  this  business  enables  the  farmer  to 
form  a  just  estimate  of  the  value  of  the 
different  parts  of  his  lands,  to  make  the 
application  of  ameliorating  substances 
with  propriety,  and  to  understand  the  ef- 
fects that  may  be  produced  by  the  combi- 
nations of  different  matters.  The  appa- 
ratus necessary  forthisbusiness  are,  scales 
and  weights  of  different  sizes;  some  por- 
celain, glass,  or  stone-ware  vessels,  un- 
glazed ;  some  muriatic  and  sulphuric 
acid,  alkali,  galls,  and  pure  distilled  water. 

ANAMORPHOSIS,  in  perspective  and 
painting,  a  monstrous  projection,  or  re- 
presentation of  an  image,  on  a  plane  or 
curved  surface,  which,  beheld  at  a  proper 
distance,''shall  appear  regular,  and  in)pro- 
portion. 

To  delineate  an  anamorphosis  upon  a 
plane  :  1.  Draw  the  square  A  B  C  D,  (plate 
I.  Miscel.  fig.  4,)  of  a  bigness  at  pleasure, 
and  subdivide  into  a  number  of  little 
squares.  2.  In  this  square,  called  the 
craticula  prototype,  let  the  image  to  be 
represented  deformed  be  drawn.  3.  Then 
draw  the  line  a  b  (ibid. fig.  5.)  equal  to  A 
B,  and  divide  it  into  the  same  number  of 
equal  parts  as  the  side  of  the  prototype 
A  B.  4.  Erect  the  perpendicular  E  V, 
in  the  middle  of  a  b,  so  much  the  longer 
as  the  deformity  of  the  image  is  to  be 
greater.  5.  Draw  V  S  perpendicular  to 
E  V,  so  much  the  shorter  as  you  would 
have  the-  image  appear  more  deformed. 
From  each  point  of  division  draw  straight 
lines  to  V,  and  join  the  points  a  and  S 
by  the  right  line  a  S.  6.  Through  the 
points  defg  draw  right  lines  parallel  to 
a  b,  then  will  «  .*-  c  '?  be  the  epace  in  which 
t.he  monstir  ;is  projection  is  to  be  deline- 
ated ;  this  space  is  called  the  craticular 
retype.  Lastly,  in  every  areola,  or  small 


trapezium  of  the  space  a,  b  c,  dt  dra\r 
what  appears  delineated  in  the  correspon- 
dent areola  of  the  square  A  B  C  D  ;  and 
thus  you  will  obtain  a  deformed  image, 
which  will  appear  in  just  proportion  to  an 
eye  distant  from  it  the  length  of  F  V,'and 
raised  above  its  height  V  S. 

An  image  may  be  deformed  mechani- 
cally, if  you  place  it,  having  little  holes 
made  here  and  there  in  it  with  a  needle, 
against  a  candle,  and  observe  where  the 
rays  going  through  these  holes  fall  on  a 
plane  or  curve  surface  ;  for  they  will 
give  the  corresponding  points  of  the 
image  to  be  deformed. 

The  practical  methods  of  drawing 
these  images  is  described  in  the  Leipsic 
Act,  for  the  year  1712,  where  we  have  an 
account  of  two  machines,  one  for  images, 
viewed  with  a  cylindrical,  and  the  other 
with  a  conical  mirror.  The  person  who 
has  this  instrument  may  take  any  point 
at  pleasure,  and  while  he  goes  over  the 
outlines  of  it  with  one  pen,  another  traces 
the  anamorphosis. 

In  the  cloister  of  the  Minims  at  Paris, 
there  are  two  anamorphoses  traced  upon 
two  of  the  sides  of  the  cloister,  one  repre- 
senting a  Magdalen,  and  the  other  St. 
John  writing  his  gospel.  They  are  so 
managed,  that  when  viewed  directly  they 
appear  like  a  kind  of  landscape,  but  from 
a  particular  point  of  sight  they  appear 
very  distinctly  like  human  figures. 

ANANAS.     See  BROMELIA. 

ANAP./EST,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  foot 
consisting  of  two  short  syllables  and  one 
long  :  such  is  the  word  scopulos.  It  is 
just  the  reverse  of  the  dactyl. 

ANAPHORA,  in  rhetoric,  a  verbal 
figure,  whereby  one  or  more  words  are 
repeated  in  the  begining  of  several  sen- 
tences. Thisis  a  lively  and  elegant  figure, 
and  serves  very  much  to  engage  the  at- 
tention; for,  by  the  frequent  return  of  the 
same  word,  the  mind  of  the  hearer  is 
held  in  an  agreeable  suspense  till  the 
whole  is  finished.  Such  is  that  in  the 
Psalms :  "  The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  pow- 
erful: the  voice  of  the  Lord  is  full  of 
majesty  :  the  voice  of  the  Lord  shake th 
in.the  wilderness."  Another  from  Cicero's 
fine  oration  against  Cataline  :  "You  do 
nothing,  you  attempt  nothing,  you  think 
nothing,  but  what  I  not  only  hear,  but  also 
see  and  plainly  perceive." 

ANARHICHAS,  in  natural  history,  -wolf- 
Jish,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  order  of 
Apodes  :  head  rounded,  blunt;  fore-teeth 
in  each  jaw  conic,  large,  divergent ;  six  or 
more;  grinders  in  the  lower  jaw  and  pa- 
late rounded;  gill-membrane  seven-ray- 


ANA 

e<l;  body  roundish,  caudal-fin  distinct. 
There  are  three  species.  A.  lupus,  or 
ravenous  wolf-fish,  inhabits  the  northern 
seas ;  grows  to  15  feet  long1 ;  it  is  a  most 
fierce  and  ravenous  fish,  and  will  fasten 
on  any  thing  within  its  reach.  It  feeds  on 
shell-fish,  which  it  grinds  to  pieces  with 
its  teeth,  and  swallows  shells  r.nd  all : 
moves  slowly,  with  something-  of  a  serpen- 
tine motion;  the  grinders  are  often  found 
fossile,  and  are  called  toad-stones ;  the 
flesh  is  good,  but  not  often  eaten.  The 
fossile  teeth  were  formerly  much  esteem- 
ed for  imaginary  virtues,  and  were  set  in 
gold  and  worn  as  rings.  Notwithstanding 
the  ferocity  of  this  fish,  which  is  as  dread- 
ful to  the  small  inhabitants  of  the  wa.- 
ter,  as  the  wolf  is  to  those  on  land,  it  is 
sometimes  attacked  and  destroyed  by  an 
enemy  of  far  inferior  size  and  strength,  viz. 
the  cyclopterus,  or  lump-fish,  which,  fast- 
ening itself  on  its  neck,  adheres  immove- 
ably,  tormenting  it  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  cause  its  death.  The  wolf-fish  fre- 
quents the  deep  part  of  the  sea,  and  in 
the  spring  approaches  the  coast,  in  order 
to  deposit  its  spawn  among  marine  plants : 
the  ova  are  about  the  size  of  peas ;  and 
the  young-  are  of  a  greenish  cast,  like  that 
of  sea-wrack,  among  which  they  reside 
for  some  time  after  their  birth.  See  plate 
I.  Pisces,  fig.  3.  A.  minor  is  found  in  the 
Greenland  seas;  and  the  A.  pantherinus 
inhabits  the  Northern  and  Frozen  Ocean. 

ANARRHINUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Didynamia  Angiospermia  class  and 
order :  calyx  five-leaved ;  corol  with  a 
nectariferous  prominence  at  its  base  point- 
ing downwards;  the  upper-lip  flat,  with- 
out palate,  and  the  orifice  pervious ;  cap- 
sule two  celled,  many-valved.  There 
are  five  species. 

ANAS,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  order  Anseres.  The  bill  in 
this  ^enus  is  strong,  broad,  flat  or 
depressed,  and  commonly  furnished  at 
the  end  with  an  additional  piece  termed  a 
nail,  the  edges  of  the  mandibles  marked 
with  sharp  teeth ;  nostrils  small,  oval : 
tongue  broad,  edges  near  the  base  fring- 
ed ;  toes  four,  three  before  and  one  be- 
hind, the  middle  one  the  longest.  Ac- 
cording to  Latham,  there  are  98  species, 
besides  varieties ;  but  Gmelin  gives  about 
120  species. 

From  the  swan  downward  to  the  teal, 
they  are  all  a  clean-plumaged  beautiful 
race  of  birds,  and  some  of  them  exquisite- 
ly so.  Those  which  have  been  reclaimed 
from  a  state  of  nature,  and  live  depen- 
dant on  man,  are  extremely  useful  to 
him.  under  his  protection  they  breed  in 


ANA 

great  abundance,  and,  without  requiring- 
much  of  his  time  and  care,  lead  their 
young  to  the  pool,  almost  as  soon  as 
hatched,  where  they  instantly,  with  in- 
stinctive perception,  begin  to  search  for 
their  food,  which  at  first  consists  chiefly 
of  weeds,  worms,  and  insects ;  those  they 
sift,  as  it  were,  from  the  mud,  and  for  that 
purpose  their  bills  are  admirably  adapt- 
ed. When  they  are  farther  advanced  in 
life,  they  pick  up  the  sodden  scattered 
grain  of  the  farm-yard,  which,  but  for 
their  assiduous  searchings,  would  be  lost. 
To  them  also  are  allotted  the  larger 
quantities  of  corn  which  are  shaken  by 
tlie  winds  from  the  over-ripened  ears  in 
the  fields.  On  this  clean  and  simple  food 
they  soon  become  fat,  and  their  flesh  is 
accounted  delicious  and  nourishing  In 
a  wild  state,  birds  of  various  kinds  pre- 
serve their  original  plumage  ;  but  when 
tamed,  they  soon  begin  to  vary,  and 
shew  the  effects  of  domestication  :  this 
is  the  case  with  the  tame  goose  and  the 
duck,  which  differ  as  much  from  the  wild 
of  their  respective  kinds,  as  they  do  from 
each  other.  We  shall  notice  the  follow- 
ing, as  among  the  most  interesting  of  the 
species  : 

Anas  Cygnus,  the  wild  swan,  measures 
five  feet  in  length,  and  above  seven  in 
breadth,  and  weighs  from  thirteen  to  six- 
teen pounds.  The  bill  is  three  inches 
long,  of  a  yellowish  white  ;  from  the  base 
to  the  middle,  and  thence  to  the  tip, 
black ;  the  bare  space  from  the  bill  over 
the  eye  and  eye-lids  is  yellow  :  the  whole 
plumage  in  adult  birds  is  of  a  pure  white, 
and  next  to  the  skin  they  are  clothed 
with  a  thick  fine  down :  the  legs  are 
black.  This  species  generally  keeps  to- 
gether in  small  flocks,  or  families,  except 
in  the  pairing  season,  and  at  the  setting 
in  of  winter.  At  the  latter  period  they 
assemble  in  immense  multitudes,  parti- 
cularly on  the  large  rivers  and  lakes  of 
the  thinly-inhabited  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America :  but  when 
the  extremity  of  the  weather  threatens  to 
become  insupportable,  in  order  to  shun 
the  gathering  storm,  they  shape  their 
course  high  in  the  air,  in  divided  and  di- 
minished numbers,  in  search  of  milder 
climates.  In  such  seasons  they  are  most 
commonly  seen  in  various  parts  of  the 
British  isles,  and  in  other  more  southern 
countries  of  Europe.  The  same  is  ob- 
served of  them  in  the  North  American 
states.  They  do  not,  however,  remain 
longer  than  till  the  approach  of  the 
spring,  when  they  again  retire  northward 
to  the  arctic  regions  to  breed.  A  few, 


ANAS. 


indeed,  drop  short,  and  perform  that  of- 
fice by  the  way,  for  they  are  known  to 
breed  in  some  of  the  Hebrides,  the  Ork- 
neys, Shetland,  and  other  solitary  isles;  but 
these  are  hardly  worth  notice  :  the  great 
bodies  of  them  are  met  with  in  the  large 
rivers  and  lakes  near  Hudson's  Bay,  and 
those  of  Kamtschatka,  Lapland,  and  Ice- 
land. They  are  said  to  return  to  the  lat- 
ter place  in  flocks  of  about  a  hundred 
at  a  time  in  the  spring,  and  also  to  pour 
in  upon  that  island  from  the  north,  in 
near'y  the  same  manner,  on  their  way 
southward,  in  the  autumn.  The  young 
whic'-  are  bred  there  remain  throughout 
the  first  year ;  and  in  August,  when  they 
are  in  moult,  and  unable  to  fly,  the  na- 
tives akinj:  advantage  of  this,  kill  them 
wiv  clubs,  suoot,  and  hunt  them  down 
with  dogs,  by  which  they  are  easily 
co!-  Tht.  The  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  by 
them  as  a  delicious  food,  as  are  also  the 
eggs,  which  are  gathered  in  the  spring. 
The  Icelanders,  Kamtschadales,  and  other 
ru:';  -esof  the  norihern  world,  dress  their 
skins  with  the  down  on,  sew  them  tog-e- 
ther and  make  them  into  garments  of 
various  Vinds  :  the  Northern  American  In- 
dians do  the  same,  and  sometimes  weave 
the  down  us  barbers  weave  the  cauls  for 
wigs,  and  then  manufacture  it  into  orna- 
mental dresses  for  the  women  of  rank, 
while  the  larger  feathers  are  formed  into 
eaps  and  plumes,  to  decorate  the  heads  of 
their  chiefs  and  warriors.  They  also  gather 
the  feathers  and  down  in  large  quantities, 
mid  barter  or  sel,!  them  to  the  inhabitants 
of  more  civilized  nations.  Much  has  been 
said  of  the  singing  of  the  swan,  in  ancient 
times,  and  many  beautiful  and  poetical  de- 
scriptions have  been  given  of  its  dying 
song.  No  fiction  of  natural  history,  no 
fable  of  antiquity,  v  as  ever  more  celebrat- 
ed, often  repeated,  or  better  received ; 
it  occupied  the  soft  and  lively  imagination 
of  the  Greeks :  poets,  orators,  and  even 
philosophers,  adopted  it  as  a  truth  too 
pleasing  to  be  doubted.  The  dull  insipid 
truth, however,  is  very  different  from  such 
amiable  and  affecting  fables ;  for  the  voice 
of  the  swan,  singly,  is  shrill,  piercing,  and 
harsh,  not  unlike  the  sound  of  a  clarionet 
when  blown  by  a  novice  in  music.  It  is, 
nevertheless,  asserted  by  those  who  have 
heard  the  united  and  varied  voices  of  a 
numerous  assemblage  of  them,  that  they 
produce  a  more  harmonious  effect,  parti- 
cularly when  softened  by  the  murmur  of 
the  waters.  At  the  setting  in  of  frosty 
weather,  the  wild  swans  are  said  to  asso- 
ciate in  pi-odigious  multitudes,  and,  thus 
viryited,  to  use  every  el  Fort  to  prevent  the 


water  from  freezing :  this  they  accomplish 
by  the  continual  stir  kept  up  amongst 
them  ;  and  by  constantly  dashing  it  with 
their  extended  wings,  they  are  enabled 
to  remain  as  long  as  it  suits  their  conveni- 
ence, in  some  favourite  part  of  a  lake  or 
river  which  abounds  with  their  food.  The 
swan  is  very  properly  entitled  the  peace- 
ful monarch  of  the  lake  :  conscious  of  his 
superior  strength,  he  fears  no  enemy,  nor 
suffers  any  bird,  however  powerful,  to  mo- 
lest him  ;  neither  does  he  prey  upon  any 
one.  His  vigorous  wing  is  a  shield  against 
the  attacks  even  of  the  eagle,  and  the  blows 
from  it  are  said  to  be  so  powerful  as  to 
stun  or  kill  the  fiercest  of  his  foes.  The 
wolf  or  the  fox  may  surprise  him  in  the 
dark,  but  their  efforts  are  vain  in  the  day, 
His  food  consists  of  the  grasses  and  weeds, 
and  the  seeds  and  roots  of  plants  which 
grow  on  the  margins  of  the  water,  and  of 
the  myriads  of  insects  which  skim  over, 
or  float  on  its  surface  ;  also  occasionally  of 
the  slimy  inhabitants  within  its  bosom 
The  female  makes  her  nest  of  the  wither- 
ed leaves  and  stalks  of  reeds  and  rushes, 
and  lays  commonly  six  or  seven  thick- 
shelled  white  eggs :  she  is  said  to  sit  upon 
them  six  weeks  before  they  are  hatched. 
Both  male  and  female  are  very  attentive 
to  their  young,  and  will  suffer  no  enemy 
to  approach  them. 

Anas  olor,  or  mute  swan.  The  phi 
mage  of  this  species  is  of  the  same  snowy 
whiteness  as  that  of  the  wild  swan,  and 
the  bird  is  covered  next  the  body  with  the 
same  kind  of  fine  close  down ;  but  it 
greatly  exceeds  the  wild  swan  in  size, 
weighing  about  twenty-five  pounds,  and 
measuring  more  in  the  length  of  the  body 
and  extent  of  the  wings.  This  also  dif- 
fers, in  being  furnished  with  aprojecting, 
callous,  black,  tubercle,  or  nob,  on  the 
base  of  the  upper  mandible,  and  in  the 
colour  of  the  bill,  which  in  this  is  red, 
with  black  edges  and  tip ;  the  naked  skin 
between  the  bill  and  the  eyes  is  also  of 
the  latter  colour :  in  the  wild  swan  this 
bare  space  is  yellow.  The  swan,  although 
possessed  of  the  power  to  rule,  yet  mo- 
lests none  of  the  other  water-birds,  and  is 
singularly  social  awl  attentive  to  those  of 
his  own  family,  which  he  protects  from 
every  insult.  While  they  are  employed 
with  the  cares  of  the  young  brood,  it  is 
not  safe  to  approach  near  them,  for  they 
will  fly  upon  any  stranger,  whom  they 
often  beat  to  the  ground  by  repeated 
blows;  and  they  have  been  known  by  a 
stroke  of  the  wing  to  break  a  man's  leg. 
But,  however  powerful  they  are  with  their 
wings,  yet  a  slight  blow  on  the  head  v.'sl! 


ANAS. 


kill  them.  The  swan,  for  ages  past,  has 
been  protected  on  the  river  Thames,Eng- 
land,  as  royal  property  ;  and  it  continues 
at  this  day  to  be  accounted  felony  to  steal 
their  eggs.  "  By  this  means  their  in- 
crease is  secured,  and  they  prove  a  de- 
lightful ornament  to  that  noble  river." 
Latham  says,  "  In  the  reign  of  Edward 
IV.  the  estimation  they  were  held  in  was 
such  that  no  one  who  possessed  a  free- 
hold of  less  than  the  clear  yearly  value 
of  five  marks  was  permitted  even  to 
keep  any."  In  those  times,  hardly  a  piece 
of  water  was  left  unoccupied  by  these 
birds,  as  well  on  account  of  the  gratifica- 
tion they  gave  to  the  eye  of  their  lordly 
owners,  as  that  which  they  also  afforded 
when  they  graced  the  sumptuous  board, 
at  the  splended  feasts  of  that  period:  but 
the  fashion  of  those  days  is  passed  away, 
and  swans  are  not  nearly  so  common  now 
as  they  were  formerly,  being  by  most  peo- 
ple accounted  a  coarse  kind  of  food,  and 
consequently  held  in  little  estimation  : 
but  the  cygnets  (so  the  young  swans  are 
called)  are  still  fattened  for  the  table,  and 
are  sold  very  high,  commonly  for  a  gui- 
nea each,  and  sometimes  for  more  :  hence 
it  may  be  presumed,  they  are  better  food 
than  is  generally  imagined.  This  species 
is  said  to  be  found  in  great  numbers  in 
llussia  and  Siberia,  as  well  as  further 
southward,  in  a  wild  state.  They  are, 
without  an  owner,  common  on  the  river 
Trent,  and  on  the  salt-water  inlet  of  the 
sea  near  Abbotsbury,  in  Dorsetshire :  they 
are  also  met  on  other  rivers  and  lakes  in 
.  different  parts  of  the  British  isles.  The 
female  makes  her  nest,  concealed  among 
the  rough  herbage,  near  the  water's  edge: 
she  lays  from  six  to  eight  large  white 
eggs,  and  sits  on  them  about  six  weeks 
(some  say  eight  weeks)  before  they  are 
hatched.  The  young  do  not  acquire 
their  full  plumage  till  the  second  year.  It 
is  found  by  experience  that  the  swan  will 
not  thrive  if  kept  out  of  the  water :  con- 
fined in  a  court  yard,  he  makes  an  awk- 
ward figure,  and  soon  becomes  dirty,  taw- 
dry, dull,  and  spiritless. 

Anas  Canadensis,  or  Canada  goose,  is 
another  useful  species,  which  has  been 
reclaimed  from  a  state  of  nature,  and  do- 
mesticated and  multiplied  in  many  parts 
of  Europe,  particularly  ia  France  and 
Germany ;  and  it  is  not  very  uncommon 
in  England.  It  is  as  familiar,  breeds  as 
freely,  and  is  in  every  respect  as  valuable 
as  the  common  goose  :  it  is  also  account- 
ed a  great  ornament  on  ponds  near  gen- 
tlemen's seats.  Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Arc- 
tic Zoology,  gives  the  following  interesting 


account  of  the  mode  of  taking  the  Canada 
goose  in  Hudson's  bay  :  "  the  English  ot 
Hudson's  bay  depend  greatly  on  geese, 
of  these  and  other  kinds,  for  their  support; 
and  in  favourable  years,  kill  three  or  four 
thousand,  which  they  salt  and  barrel. 
Their  arrival  is  impatiently  attended  ;  it 
is  the  harbinger  of  the  spring,  and  the 
month  named  by  the  Indians  the  Goose 
Moon.  They  appear  usually  at  our  set- 
tlements in  numbers,  about  St.  George's 
Day,  O.  S.,  and  fly  northward  to  nestle  in 
security.  They  prefer  islands  to  the  con- 
tinents, as  further  from  the  haunts  of  men. 
Thus,  Marble  Island  was  found,  in  Au- 
gust, to  swarm  with  swans,  geese,  ami 
ducks ;  the  old  ones  moulting,  and  the 
young  at  that  time  incapable  of  flying." 
"  The  English  send  out  their  servants,  as 
well  as  Indians,  to  shoot  these  birds  on 
their  passage.  It  is  in  vain  to  pursue  them; 
they  therefore  form  a  row  of  huts  made 
of  bows,  at  musket-shot  distance  from 
each  other,  and  place  them  in  a  line  across 
the  vast  marshes  of  the  country.  Each 
hovel,  or,  as  they  are  called,  stand,  is  oc- 
cupied by  only  a  single  person.  These 
attend  the  flight  of  the  birds,  and  on  their 
approach,  mimic  their'cackle  so  well,  that 
the  geese  will  answer,  and  wheel  and 
come  nearer  the  stand.  The  sportsman 
keeps  motionless,  and  on  his  knees,  with 
his  gun  cocked,  the  whole  time,  and  ne- 
ver fires  till  he  has  seen  the  eyes  of  the 
geese.  He  fires  as  they  are  going  from 
him,  then  picks  up  another  gun  that  lies 
by  him,  and  discharges  that.  The  geese 
which  he  has  killed  he  sets  up  on  sticks, 
as  if  alive,  to  decoy  others  ;  he  also  makes 
artificial  birds  for  the  same  purpose.  In 
a  good  day  (for  they  fly  in  very  uncertain 
and  unequal  numbers)  a  single  Indian  will 
kill  two  hundred.  Notwithstanding  every 
species  of  goose  has  a  different  call,  yet 
the  Indians  are  admirable  in  their  imita- 
tion of  every  one." — «  The  vernal  flight  of 
the  geese  lasts  from  the  middle  of  April 
until  the  middle  of  May.  Their  first  ap- 
pearance coincides  with  the  thawing  of 
the  swamps,  when  they  are  very  lean. 
The  autumnal,  or  the  season  of  their  re- 
turn with  their  young,  is  from  the  middle 
of  August  to  the  middle  of  October. 
Those  which  are  taken  in  this  latter  sea- 
son, when  the  frosts  usually  begin,  are- 
preserved  in  their  feathers,  and  left  to  be 
frozen,  for  the  fresh  provisions  of  the  win- 
ter stock.  The  feathers  constitute  an  ' 
article  of  commerce,  and  are  sent  into 
England."  This  is  the  common  wild 
goose  of  the  United  States;  cinereous; 
head  and  neck  black;  cheeks  and  chin 


A^AS. 


white,  also  the  vent  and  tail-cove rts  :  it 
is  often  tamed,  and  will  breed  with  the 
common  goose,  producing  a  larger  off- 
spring. 

Anas  Anser,  or  tame  goose.  To  de- 
scribe the  varied  plumage  and  the  econo- 
my of  this  well  known  and  valuable  do- 
mestic fowl  may  seem,  to  many,  a  need- 
less task;  but  to  others,  unacquainted 
with  rural  affairs,  it  may  be  interesting. 
Their  predominant  colours  are  white  and 
grey,  with  shades  of  ash,  blue  and  brown: 
some  of  them  are  yellowish,  others  dusky, 
and  many  are  found  to  differ  very  little 
in  appearance  from  the  wild  kind  last  de- 
scribed— the  original  stock,  whence,  in 
early  times,  they  were  all  derived.  The 
only  permanent  mark,  which  all  the  grey 
'ones  still  retain,  like  those  of  the  wild 
kind,  is  the  >  white  ring  which  surrounds 
the  root  of  the  tail.  They  are  generally 
furnished  with  a  small  tuft  on  the  head, 
and  the  most  usual  colour  of  the  males 
(gander  or  stig)  is  pure  white  :  the  bills 
and  feet  in  both  males  and  females  are  of 
an  orange  red.  By  studied  attention  in 
the  breeding,  two  sorts  of  these  geese 
have  been  obtained  :  the  less  are  by  many 
esteemed  as  being  more  delicate  eating: 
the  larger  are  by  others  preferred,  on  ac- 
count of  the  bountiful  appearance  they 
make  upon  the  festive  board.  The  ave- 
rage weight  of  the  latterkind  is  between 
nine  and  fifteen  pounds;  but  instances 
are  not  wanting,  where  they  have  been 
fed  to  upwards  of  twenty  pounds ;  this  is, 
however,  to  sacrifice  the  flavour  of  the 
food  to  the  size  and  appearance  of  the 
bird,  for  they  become  disgustingly  fat  and 
surfeiting,  and  the  methods  used  to  cram 
them  up  are  unnatural  and  cruel.  It  is 
not,  however,  altogether  on  account  of 
their  use  as  food  that  they  are  valuable  ; 
theirf eathers,  their  down,  and  their  quills, 
have  long  been  considered  as  articles  of 
more  importance,  and  from  which  their 
owners  reap  more  advantages.  In  this 
respect  the  poor  creatures  have  not  been 
spared :  urged  by  avarice,  their  inhuman 
masters  appear  to  have  ascertained  the  ex- 
act quantity  of  plumage  of  which  they  can 
bear  to  be  robbed  without  being  deprived 
of  life.  Mr.  Pennant,  in  describing  the 
methods  used  in  Lincolnshire,  in  breeding, 
rearing,  and  plucking  geese,  says,  "  they 
are  plucked  five  times  in  the  year;  first 
at  Lady-day  for  the  feathers  and  quills  : 
this  business  is  renewed,  for  the  feathers 
only,  four  times  more  between  that  and 
Mic^Kielmas :"  he  adds,  that  he  saw  the 
operation  performed  even  upon  goslings 
of  six  weeks  old,  from  which  the  feathers 


of  the  tails  were  plucked  ;  and  thut  num- 
bers of  the  geese  die  when  the  season  at'- 
lerwards  proves  cold.  But  this  unfeeling 
greedy  business  is  not  peculiar  to  one 
country,  for  much  the  same  is  practised 
in  others.  The  care  and  attention  bestow- 
ed upon  the  brood  geese,  while  they  are 
engaged  in  the  business  of  incubation,  in 
the  month  of  April,  is  nearly  the  same 
every  where  ;  wicker  pens  are  provided 
for  them,  placed  in  rows,  and  tier  above 
tier,  not  uncommonly  under  the  same 
roof  as  their  owner.  Some  place  water 
and  corn  near  the  nests ;  others  drive 
them  to  the  water  twice  a  day,  and  replace 
each  female  upon  her  own  nest  as  soon  as 
she  returns.  This  business  requires  the 
attendance  of  the  gozzard  (goose-herd)  a 
month  at  least,  in  which  time  the  young 
are  brought  forth  :  as  soon  afterwards  as 
the  brood  are  able  to  waddle  along,  they 
are,  together  with  their  dams,  driven  to 
the  contiguous  loughs  and  fens,  or  marsh- 
es, on  whose  grassy  margined  pools  they 
feed  and  thrive,  without  requiring  any 
further  attendance  until  the  autumn.  To 
these  marshes,  which  otherwise  would  be 
unoccupied,  (except  by  wild  birds,)  and 
be  only  useless  watery  wastes,  we  are 
principally  indebted  for  so  great  a  supply 
of  the  goose ;  for  in  almost  every  country, 
where  lakes  and  marshes  abound,  the 
neighbouring  inhabitants  keep  as  many  as 
suit  their  convenience ;  and  in  this  way 
immense  numbers  annually  attain  to  full 
growth  and  perfection ;  but  in  no  part  of 
the  world  are  such  numbers  reared,  as  in 
the  fens  of  Lincolnshire,  where  it  is  said 
to  be  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  single  per- 
son to  keep  a  thousand  old  geese,  each  of 
which,  on  an  average,  will  bring  up  seven 
young  ones.  So  far  those  only  are  no- 
ticed which  may  properly  be  called  the 
larger  flocks,  by  which  particular  watery 
districts  are  peopled;  and,  although  their 
aggregate  numbers  are  great,  yet  they 
form  only  a  part  of  the  large  family:  those 
of  the  farm  yard  taken  separately,  appear 
as  small  specks  on  a  great  map  ;  but 
when  they  are  gathered  together,  and 
added  to  those  kept  by  almost  every  cot- 
tager throughout  the  kingdom,  the  im- 
mense whole  will  appear  multiplied  in  a 
ratio  almost  incalculable.  A  great  part  of 
those  which  are  left  to  provide  for  them- 
selves during  the  summer,  in  the  solitary 
distant  waters,  as  well  as  those  which  en- 
liven the  village  green,  are  put  into  the 
stubble  fields  after  harvest,  to  fatten  upon 
the  scattered  grain :  and  some  are  penned 
up  for  this  purpose,  by  which  they  attain 
to  greater  bulk  ;  and  it  is  hardly  neceau- 


ANAS. 


ry  to  observe,  that  they  are  then  poured 
in  weekly  upon  the  tables  of  the  luxurious 
citizens  of  every  town  in  the  kingdom. 
But  these  distant    and  divided  supplies 
seem  trifling1  when   compared  with  the 
multitudes,  which,  in  the  season,  are  driv- 
en in  all  directions  into  the  metropolis; 
the  former  appear   only  like  the  scanty 
watering's  of  the  petty  streamlet ;  the  lat- 
ter like  the  copious  overflowing  torrent 
of  a  large  river.     To  the  country  market 
towns  they  are  carried  in  bags  and  pan- 
niers;   to  the  great  centre  of  trade  they 
are  sent  in  droves  of  many  thousands.  To 
a.  stranger  it  is  a  most  curious  spectacle  to 
view  these  hissing,  cackling,  gabbling,  but 
peaceful  armies,  with  grave  deportment, 
waddling  along,  (like  other  armies)  to  cer- 
tain destruction.  Thedriversare  each  pro- 
vided with  a  long  stick,  at  one  end  of  which 
a  red  rag  is  tied  as  a  lash,  and  a  hook  is 
fixed  at  the  other:  with  the  former,'of 
which  the  geese  seem  much  afraid,  they 
are  excited  forward  ;  and  with  the  latter, 
such  as  attempt  to  stray   are  caught  by 
the  neck  and  kept  in  order ;    or  if  lame, 
they  are  put  into  an  hospital-cart,  which 
usually  follows  each  large  drove.     In  this 
manner  they  perform  their  journies  from 
distant  parts,  and  are  said  to  get  forward 
at  the  rate  of  eight  or  ten  miles  in  a  day, 
from  three  in  the  morning  till  nine  at 
night :  those  which  become  fatigued  are 
fed  with  oats,  and  the  rest  with  barley. 
The  tame  goose  lays  from  seven  to  twelve 
eggs,  and  sometimes  more :  these  the  care- 
ful housewife  divides  equally  among  her 
brood  geese,   when    they  begin   to  sit. 
Those  of  her  geese  which  lay  a  second 
time  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  are  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  permitted  to  have  a  second 
hatching ;  but  the  eggs  are  used  for  house- 
hold purposes.    In  some  countries  the  do- 
mestic geese  require  much  less  care  and 
attendance  than  those  of  this  country.  The 
goose  has  for  many  ages  been  celebrated 
on  account  of  its  vigilance.     The  story  of 
the  saving  Rome  by  the  alarm  they  gave, 
when  the  Gauls  were  attempting  the  Capi- 
tol, is  well  known,  and  was  probably  the 
first  time  of  their  watchfulness  being  re- 
corded, and,  on  thataccount,  they  were  af- 
terwards held  in  the  highest  estimation  by 
the  Roman  people.  It  is  certain  that  noth- 
ing can  stir  in  the  night,  nor  the  least  or 
most  distant  noise  be  made,  but  the  geese 
are  roused,  and  immediately  begin  to  hold 
their  cackling  converse ;  and  on  the  near- 
er approach  of  apprehended  danger,  they 
set  up  their  more  shrill  and  clamorous 
cries.     It  is  on  account  of  this  property 
that  they  arc  esteemed  by  many  persons 


as  the  most  vigilant  of  all  centinels,  when 
placed  in  particular  situations. 

Anas  Erithrophus,  or  barnacle  of  Eu- 
rope.    The  barnacle  weighs  about  five 
pounds,  and  measures  more  than  two  feet 
in  length,  and  nearly  four  and  a  half  in 
breadth.     The  bill,  from  the  tip  to  the 
corners  of  the  mouth,  is  scarcely  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  black,  and  crossed  with  a 
pale  reddish  streak  on  each  side  :    a  nar- 
row black  line  passes  from  the  bill  to  the 
eyes,  the  irides  of  which  are  brown :  the 
head  is  small,  and  as  far  as  the  crown, 
together  with    the  cheeks    and    throat, 
white  :  the  rest  of  the  head  and  neck,  to 
the  breast  and  shoulders,  is  black.     The 
upper  part  of  the  plumage  is  prettily  mar- 
bled or  barred  with  blue-grey,  black,  and 
white  :  the  feathers  of  the  back  are  black, 
edged  with  white,  and  those  of  the  wing- 
coverts  and  scapulars  blue-grey,  border- 
ed with  black  near  their  margins,  and 
edged  with  white  :  the  quills  black,  edged 
a  little  way  from  the  tips  with" blue-grey  ; 
the  under  parts  of  the  tail  coverts  white  : 
the  thighs  are  marked  with  dusky  lines 
or  spots,  and  are  black  near  the  knees  : 
the  tail  is  black,  and  five  inches  and  a  half 
long  :  the  legs  and  feet  dusky,  very  thick 
and  short,  and  have  a  stumpy  appearance. 
In  severe  winters,  these  birds  are  not  un- 
common in    England,  particularly   in  the 
northern  and  western  parts,  where,  how- 
ever they  remain  only  a  short  time,  but 
depart  early  in  the  spring  to  their  north  ern 
wilds,  to  breed  and  spend  the  summer. 

Anas  Bernicla,  Brent  Goose.  Brown; 
head,  breast,  and  neck  black,  the  latter 
with  a  lateral  white  spot :  tail  coverts  and 
vent  white  :  plentiful  on  the  sea  coast  of 
North  America  in  autumn.  It  is  consi- 
dered by  Mr.  Wilson  as  the  same  with 
the  Barnacle  Goose  (A.  Erythropus.) 

Anas  molissima,  or  eider  duck.  This 
wild,  but  valuable  species  is  of  a  size  be- 
tween the  goose  and  the  domestic  duck, 
and  appears  to  be  one  of  the  graduated 
links  of  the  chain  which  connects  the  two 
kinds.  The  full-grown  old  males  general- 
ly measure  about  two  feet  two  inches  in 
length,  and  two  feet  eight  in  breadth,  and 
weigh  from  six  to  above  seven  pounds. 
The  female  is  nearly  of  the  same  shape, 
though  less  than  the  male,  weighing  only 
between  five  and  six  pounds;  but  her 
plumage  is  quite  different,  the  ground  co- 
lour being  of  a  reddish  brown,  prettily 
crossed  with  waved  black  lines;  and  in 
some  specimens  the  neck,  breast,  and 
belly,  are  tinged  with  ash  ;  the  wings  are 
crossed  with  two  bars  of  white :  quills 


ANA 


ANA 


dark :  the  neck  is  marked  with  longitudi- 
nal dusky  streaks,  and  the  belly  is  deep 
brown,  spotted  obscurely  with  black. 
The  eider  duck  lays  from  three  to  five 
large,  smooth,  pale,  olive-coloured  eggs  : 
these  she  deposits  and  conceals  in  a  nest, 
or  bed,  made  of  a  great  quantity  of  the 
soft,  warm,  elastic  down,  plucked  from  her 
own  breast,  and  sometimes  from  that  of 
her  mate.  The  ground-work,  or  foun- 
dation of  the  nest  is  formed  of  bent-grass, 
sea-weeds,  or  such  like  coarse  materials, 
and  it  is  placed  in  as  sheltered  a  spot  as 
the  bleak  and  solitary  place  can  afford. 
In  Greenland,  Iceland,  Spitzbergen,  Lap- 
land, and  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way, the  eiders  flock  together,  in  particu- 
lar breeding  places,  in  such  numbers,  and 
their  nests  are  so  close  together,  that  a 
person  in  walking  along  can  hardly  avoid 
treading  upon  them.  The  natives  of  these 
cold  climates  eagerly  watch  the  time  when 
the  first  hatchings  of  the  eggs  are  laid :  of 
these  they  rob  the  nest,  and  also  of  the 
more  important  article,  the  down  with 
which  it  is  lined,  which  they  carefully 
gather  and  carry  off.  These  birds  will  af- 
terwards strip  themselves  of  their  remain- 
ing down,  and  lay  a  second  hatching,  of 
which  also  they  are  sometimes  robbed : 
but  it  is  said  that  when  this  cruel  treat- 
ment is  too  often  repeated,  they  leave  the 
place,  and  return  to  it  no  more.  The  quan- 
tity of  this  valuable  commodity,  which  is 
thus  annually  collected  in  various  parts, 
is  uncertain.  Buffbn  mentions  one  par- 
ticular year,  in  which  the  Icelandic  com- 
pany sold  as  much  as  amounted  to  upwards 
of  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  sterling. 
This,  however,  must  be  only  a  smail  por- 
tion of  the  produce,  which  is  all  sold  by 
the  hardy  natives,  to  stuff  the  couches  of 
the  pampered  citizens  of  more  polished 
nations.  The  great  body  of  these  birds 
constantly  resides  in  the  remote  northern, 
frozen  climates,  the  rigours  of  which  their 
thick  clothing  well  enables  them  to  bear. 
They  are  said  to  keep  together  in  flocks 
in  the  open  parts  of  the  sea,  fishing  and 
diving  very  deep  in  quest  of  shell-fish  and 
other  food,  with  which  the  bottom  is  co- 
vered; and  when  they  have  satisfied  them- 
selves, they  retire  to  the  shore,  whither 
they  at  all  times  repair  for  shelter,  on  the 
approach  of  a  storm.  Other  less  numerous 
flocks  of  the  eiders  branch  out,  colonize, 
and  breed  further  southward,  in  both  Eu- 
rope and  America  :  they  are  found  on  til- 
promontories  and  numerous  isles  of  the 
coa**  of  Norway,  and  on  those  of  the  nor- 
thern, and  the  Hebrides  or  western  isles 
of  Scotland,  and  also  on  the  fern  isles,  on 


the  Northumberland  coast,  which  latter  is 
the  only  place  where  they  are  known  to 
breed  in  England,  and  may  be  said  to  be 
their  utmost  southern  limit  in  L«at  quarter, 
although  a  few  solitary  instances  of  single 
birds  being  shot  further  southward  along 
the  coast  have  sometimes  happened. 

Anas  Marilla,  scaup  duck,  or  Blue-bill. 
This  species  measures,  when  stretched 
out,  nearly  twenty  inches  in  length,  and 
thirty-two  in  breadth.  The  bill  is  broad, 
and  flat,  more  than  two  inches  long,  from 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  to  the  * "p,  and 
of  a  fine  pale  blue  or  lead  colour,  with  the 
nail  black :  irides  bright  deep  yellow :  the 
head  and  upper  half  of  the  neck  are  '  "ack, 
glossed  with  green  .-  the  lower  part  cf  the 
latter,  au:l  the  breast,  are  of  a  sleek  plain 
black:  the  throat,  rump,  upper  and  under 
coverts  of  the  tail,  and  part  of  the  '.highs, 
are  of  the  same  colour,  but  dull  am!  more 
inclining  to  brown.  The  tail,  when  spread 
out,  is  fan-shaped,  and  consists  of  fourteen 
short  brown  feathers.  The  legs  are  short, 
toes  long,  and,  as  well  as  the  ouU  r  or  la- 
teral webs  of  the  inner  toes,  are  of  a  dirty 
pale  blue  colour;  all  the  joints  and  the 
rest  of  the  webs  are  dusky.  These  birds 
are  said  to  vary  greatly  in  their  plumage, 
as  '.veil  as  size;  but  those  which  iiave 
come  under  the  author's  observation  were 
all  nearly  alike.  The  scaup  duck,  like 
others  of  the  same  genus,  quits  the  ri- 
gours of  the  dreary  north  in  the  winter 
months,  and  in  that  season  only  is  met. 
with  on  various  parts  of  the  An  :rican 
shores.  It  is  well  known  in  England. 

Anas  Clangula,  the  golden-eye.  The 
weight  of  this  species  varies  from  twenty- 
six  ounces  to  two  pounds.  The  length  is 
nineteen  inches,  and  the  breadth  thirty- 
one.  These  birds  do  not  congregate  in 
large  flocks,  they  are  vai-ied  with  black 
and  white ;  head  tumid,  violet;  at  each 
corner  of  the  mouth  a  white  spot  They 
are  frequent  in  the  waters  of  the  United 
States  during  the  winter,  and  take  their 
departure  northward  in  the  spring.  In 
their  flight  they  make  the  air  whistle  with 
the  vigorous  quick  strokes  of  their  wings; 
they  are  excellent  divers,  and  seldom  set 
foot  on  the  shore,  upon  which,  it  is  said, 
they  walk  with  great  apparent  difficulty, 
and,  except  in  the  breeding  season,  only 
repair  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  taking  their 
repose.  The  attempts  which  were  made 
by  M.Baillon  to  doir.esticate  these  b;rds, 
he  informs  the  Count  de  Buffo n,  quite 
failed  of  success.  See  Plate  III.  Aves, 
fig.  1  to  5. 

ANAS  ARC  A,  in  medicine,  a  species  of 
dropsy,  wherein  the  skin  appears  puffed 


ANA 

up  and  swelled,  and  yields  to  the  impres- 
sion of  the  fingers,  like  dough.  See  ME- 
DICINE. 

ANASTATICA,  the  rose  of  Jericho,  in 
botany,  a  genus  of  the  Tetradynamia  Sili- 
culosa  class  of  plants,  the  calyx  of  which 
is  a  deciduous  perianthium,  consisting  of 
four  oval,  oblong,  concave,  erect,  and  de- 
ciduous leaves  :  its  flowers  consist  of  four 
roundish  petals,  disposed  in  the  form  of  a 
cross ;  and  its  fruit  is  a  short  bilocular  pod, 
containing  in  each  cell  a  single  roundish 
seed.  There  are  two  species;  one  is 
found  growing  naturally  on  the  coast  of 
the  Red  sea,  in  Palestine,  and  near  Cairo, 
in  sandy  places.  The  stalks  are  ligneous, 
though  the  plant  is  annual.  It  is  preser- 
ved in  botanic  gardens  for  the  variety, 
and  in  some  curious  gardens  for  the  odd- 
ness  of  the  plant,  which,  if  taken  up  before 
it  is  withered,  and  kept  entire  in  a  dry 
room,  may  be  long  preserved,  and  after 
being  many  years  in  this  situation,  if  the 
root  is  placed  in  a  glass  of  water  a  few 
hours,  the  buds  of  the  flowers  will  swell, 
open,  and  appear  as  if  newly  taken  out  of 
the  ground.  The  second  species,  called 
the  A.  syriaca,  is  a  native  of  Austria,  Ste- 
ria,  Carniola,  Syria,  and  Sumatra.  These 
plants,  being  annual,  can  be  propagated 
only  by  seeds,  which  rarely  ripen  in  Eng- 
land. 

ANATOMY  is  the  art  of  examining  ani- 
mal bodies  by  dissection.  It  teaches  the 
structure  and  functions  of  these  bodies, 
and  shews  nearly  on  what  life  and  health 
depend.  When  these  are  well  understood, 
a  great  step  is  made  towards  the  know- 
ledge and  cure  of  diseases. 

It  is  derived  from  the  Greek  verb, 
etvccTEf&va,  I  cut  up  :  yet  do  we  not  com- 
prehend under  it  the  mere  cutting  of  dead 
bodies ;  but  every  operation,  by  which 
we  endeavour  to  discover  the  structure 
and  use  of  any  part  of  the  body. 

As  every  animal  body  is  the  subject  of 
anatomy,  we  divide  it  into  the  human  and 
comparative.  The  first  of  these,  which  is 
confined  to  the  human  body,  forms  the 
subject  of  the  present  article;  the  last, 
which  is  extended  to  the  whole  animal 
creation,  will  be  considered  under  the 
head  of  COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.  The 
offices  or  functions  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  body  are  the  objects  of  the  science  of 
PHYSIOLOGY  :  to  which  article  the  reader 
is  referred  for  those  subjects. 

The  limits  to  which  we  are  confined, 
by  the  nature  of  the  present  work,  will 
prevent  us  from  entering  much  into  the  de- 
tails of  the  structure  and  composition  of 
the  human  body.  We  shall  present  the 

VOL.  I. 


ANA 

reader  with  a  general  sketch  of  the  sub- 
ject, as  being  more  suited  to  the  space 
which  this  article  is  allowed  to  occupy. 
After  a  cursory  view  of  the  origin  and 
progress  of  anatomical  science,  we  shall 
give  a  general  description  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  the  human  body,  and  their 
functions  ;  and  proceed  in  the  last  place 
to  the  more  particular  enumeration  and 
description  of  the  various  organs. 

HISTORY    OF    ANATOMY. 

The  want  of  records  leaves  us  in  the 
dark  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  this  art; 
yet  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude,  that,  like 
most  other  arts,  it  had  no  precise  begin- 
ning. The  nature  of  the  thing  would  not 
admit  of  its  lying  for  a  time  altogether 
concealed,  and  of  being  suddenly  brought 
to  light,  either  by  chance,  or  genius,  or 
industry. 

All  the  studies  and  arts  which  are  ne- 
cessary in  human  life  are  so  interesting 
and  obvious,  that  man  in  every  situation 
has  always  by  instinct  and  common  sense 
turned  his  thoughts  to  them,  and  made 
some  progress  in  the  cultivation  of  them. 
To  talk  seriously  of  the  invention  of  agri- 
culture, architecture,  astronomy,  naviga- 
tion, mechanics,  physic,  surgery,  or  ana- 
tomy, by  some  particular  man,  or  in  one 
particular  country,  or  at  a  time  subsequent 
to  some  prior  aera,  would  be  to  discover 
great  ignorance  of  human  nature.  We 
might  just  as  well  suppose,  that,  till  a  cer- 
tain period  of  time,  man  was  without  in- 
stinctive appetites,  and  without  observa- 
tion and  reflection,  and  that  in  a  happy 
hour  he  found  out  the  art  of  supporting 
life  by  taking  food.  All  such  arts,  in  a 
less  or  more  cultivated  state,  were,  from 
the  beginning,  and  ever  will  be,  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  inhabited  world. 

The  first  men  who  lived  must  soon  have 
acquired  some  notions  of  the  structure  of 
their  own  bodies,  particularly  of  the  ex- 
ternal parts,  and  of  some  even  of  the  in- 
ternal, such  as  bones,  joints,  and  sinews  ; 
which  are  exposed  to  the  examination  of 
the  senses  in  the  living  body. 

This  rude  knowledge  was  indeed  gra- 
dually improved  by  the  accidents  to  which 
the  body  is  exposed,  by  the  necessities  of 
life,  and  by  the  various  customs,  ceremo- 
nies, and  superstitions  of  different  nations. 
Thus,  the  observance  of  bodies  killed  by 
violence,  attention  to  wounded  men,  and 
to  many  diseases,  the  various  ways  of  put- 
ting criminals  to  death,  the  funeral  cere- 
monies, and  a  variety  of  such  things,  must 
have  shewn  men,  every  day,  more  and 


ANATOMY. 


more  of  themselves ;  especially  as  curiosi- 
ty and  self-love  would  urge  them  power- 
fully to  observation  and  reflection. 

The  brute  creation  having1  such  an  af- 
finity to  man,  in  outward  form,  motions, 
senses,  and  ways  of  life,  the  generation  of 
the  species,  and  the  effect  of  death  upon 
the  body,  being  observed  to  be  so  nearly 
the  same  in  both,  the  conclusion  was  not 
only  obvious,  but  unavoidable,  that  their 
bodies  were  formed  nearly  upon  the  same 
model.     The  opportunities  of  examining 
the  bodies  of  brutes  were  so  easily  procu- 
red, indeed  so  necessarily  occurred  in  the 
common  business  of  life,  that  the  hunts- 
man in  making  use  of  his  prey,  the  priest 
in  sacrificing,  the    augur  in    divination, 
and,  above  all,  the  butcher,  or  those  who 
might  out  of  curiosity  attend  his  opera- 
tions, would  have  been  daily  adding  to 
the  little  stock  of  anatomical  knowledge. 
Accordingly  we  find,   in  fact,  that  the 
South-sea  islanders,  who  have  been  left  to 
their  own  observation  and  reasoning,  with- 
out the  assistance  of  letters,  have  yet  a 
considerable  share  of  rude  or  wild  anato- 
mical and  physiological  knowledge  When 
Omai  was  in   Dr.   Hunter's  museum,  al- 
though he  could  not  explain  himself  intel- 
ligibly, it  appeared  plainly  that  he  knew 
the   principal  parts  of   the  body,    and 
something  likewise  of  their  uses,  and  ma- 
nifested a  great  curiosity,  or  desire,  of 
naving  the  functions  of  the  internal  parts 
of  the  body  explained  to  him  ;  particular- 
ly the  relative  functions  of  the  two  sexes, 
which,  with  him,  seemed  to  be  the  most 
interesting  object  of  the  human  mind. 
The  poems  of  Homer  likewise  shew  us 
that  many  facts  were  popularly  known  in 
his  time ;  he  probably  possessed  the  gene- 
ral information  on  the  subject.     The  fol- 
lowing passages  display  a  knowledge  of 
some  of  the  internal  parts  of  the  body : 

"  Antilochus,  as  Thoon  turn'd  him  round, 

Transpierc'd  his  back  with  a  dishonest 
wound. 

The  hollow  vein  that  to  the  neck  ex- 
tends, 

Along  the  chine,  his  eager  jav'lin  rends." 
Iliad,  b.  13. 

The  stone,  which  Diomed  threw  at  JEneas, 
is  said  to  have  broken  the  acetabulum,  and 
to  have  torn  both  the  ligaments  which 
connect  the  thigh  in  its  situation.  These 
particulars  are  not  mentioned  in  Mr.Pope's 
translation,  we  therefore  cite  the  original : 


'  xorvv    JV   re 


£  01 
revovrg 


II.  5.  1.  305. 


From  the  sources  which  have  been  just 
enumerated  was  derived  the  anatomical 
knowledge  of  early  times.  This  know- 
ledge was  general  or  popular.  Anatomy, 
properly  so  called,  viz.  the  knowledge 
of  the  structure  of  the  body,  obtained  by 
dissections  expressly  instituted  for  that 
purpose,  is  of  much  more  recent  origin. 

Civilization  and  improvement  of  every 
kind  would  naturally  begin  in  fertile  coun- 
tries and  healthful  climates,  where  there 
would  be  leisure  for  reflection,  and  an  ap- 
petite for  amusement.  It  seems  now  to 
be  clearly  made  out,  that  writing,  and  ma- 
ny other  useful  and  ornamental  inventions 
and  arts,  were  cultivated  in  the  eastern 
parts  of  Asia,long  before  the  earliest  times 
that  are  treated  of  by  the  Greek  or  other 
European  writers  ;  and  that  the  arts  and 
learning  of  those  eastern  people  were,  in 
subsequent  times,  gradually  communica- 
ted to  adjacent  countries,  especially  by 
the  medium  of  traffic.  The  customs,  su- 
perstitions, and  climates  of  eastern  coun- 
tries, appear,  however,  to  have  been  as 
unfavourable  to  practical  anatomy,  as  they 
were  inviting  to  the  study  of  astronomy, 
geometry,  poetry,  and  all  the  softer  arts 
of  peace.  In  those  warm  climates,  animal 
bodies  run  so  quickly  into  nauseous  putre- 
faction, that  the  early  inhabitants  must 
have  avoided  such  offensive  employments 
as  anatomical  inquiries,  like  their  posteri- 
ty at  this  day.  And,  in  fact,  it  does  not  ap- 
pear, by  the  writings  of  the  Grecians,  Jews, 
or  Phoenicians,  that  anatomy  was  particu- 
larly cultivated  by  any  of  those  nations. 

The  progress  of  anatomy  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  world  was  more  particularly 
prevented  by  a  very  generally  prevalent 
opinion,  that  the  touch  of  a  dead  body 
communicated  a  moral  pollution.  When 
we  consider  the  extent  and  inveteracy  of 
this  prejudice,  we  shall  cease  to  wonder 
at  the  imperfect  state  of  anatomical  know- 
ledge in  the  periods  now  under  review. 
The  practice  of  embalming  the  bodies  of 
the  dead  did  not  at  all  reconcile  the  Egyp- 
tians to  dissections.  The  person  who  made 
the  incision,  through  which  the  viscera 
were  removed,  immediately  ran  away,  fol- 
lowed by  the  imprecations  and  even  vio- 
lence of  the  bye-standers,  who  considered 
hjm  to  have  violated  the  body  of  a  friend. 
The  ceremonial  law  of  the  Jews  was  very 
rigorous  in  this  respect.  To  touch  seve 


ANATOMY. 


v'al  animals  which  they  accounted  unclean, 
subjected  the  person  to  the  necessity  of 
purifications,  &c.  To  touch  a  dead  body 
made  a  person  unclean  for  seven  days. 
"  Whosoever  (says  the  Jewish  lawgiver) 
toucheth  the  body  of  any  man  that  is  dead 
and  purifieth  not  himself,  defileth  the  ta- 
bernacle of  the  Lord ;  and  that  soul  shall 
be  cut  off  from  Israel." 

In  tracing  it  backwards  in  its  infancy, 
we  cannot  go  farther  into  antiquity  than 
the  times  of  the  Grecian  philosophers. 
As  an  art  in  the  state  of  some  cultivation, 
it  may  be  said  to  have  been  brought  forth 
and  bred  up  among  them,  as  a  branch  of 
natural  knowledge.  We  discover  in  the 
writings  of  Plato,  that  he  had  paid  atten- 
tion to  the  organization  and  functions  of 
the  human  body. 

Hippocrates,  who  lived  about  four  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ,  and  was  reckon- 
ed the  eighteenth  in  descent  from  JEscu- 
lapius,  was  the  first  who  separated  the 
professions  of  philosophy  and  physic,  and 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  latter 
pursuit.  He  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
the  first  who  wrote  upon  anatomy.  After 
the  restoration  of  Greek  learning,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  it  was  so  fashionable  for 
two  hundred  years  together,  to  extol  the 
knowledge  of  the  ancients  in  anatomy,  as 
in  other  things,  that  anatomists  seem  to 
have  made  it  a  point  of  emulation,  who 
should  be  most  lavish  in  their  praise  ; 
some  from  a  diffidence  in  themselves; 
others  through  the  love  of  detracting  from 
the  merit  of  contemporaries  ;  many  from 
having  laboriously  studied  ancient  learn- 
ing, and  having  become  enthusiasts  in 
Greek  literature ;  but  more,  perhaps,  be- 
cause it  was  the  fashionable  turn  of  the 
times,  and  was  held  up  as  the  mark  of 
good  education  and  fine  taste.  If,  how- 
ever, we  read  the  works  of  Hippacrates 
with  impartiality,  and  apply  his  accounts 
of  the  parts  to  what  we  now  know  of  the 
human  body,  we  must  allow  his  dc"°rip- 
tions  to  be  imperfect,  incorrect,  some- 
times extravagant,  and  often  unintelli- 
gible, that  of  the  bones  only  excepted. 

From  Hippocrates  to  Galen,  who  flou- 
rished towards  the  end  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, in  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire, 
that  is,  in  the  space  of  six  hundred  years, 
anatomy  was  greatly  improved  ;  the  phi- 
losophers still  considering  it  as  a  most  cu- 
rious and  interesting  branch  of  natural 
knowledge,  and  the  physicians  as  a  prin- 
cipal foundation  of  their  art.  Both  of  them 
in  that  interval  of  time,  contributed  daily 
to  the  common  stock,  by  more  accurate 
and  extended  observations,  and  by  the 
lights  of  improving  philosophy. 


Aristotle,  a  disciple  of  Plato,  and  pre- 
ceptor of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  no  less 
entitled  to  immortality  for  his  immense 
labours  in  natural  history,  and  compara- 
tive anatomy,  than  as  the  founder  of  the 
Peripatetic  philosophy,  which  for  two 
thousand  years  held  undisputed  sway  over 
the  whole  learned  world.  He  had  formed 
the  most  enlarged  design  which  perhaps 
was  ever  conceived  by  any  man  ;  no  less 
than  that  of  a  general  and  detailed  history 
of  all  nature,  a  plan  by  far  too  vast  for  the 
short  life  of  an  individual.  The  love  of 
science  which  distinguished  Alexander  no 
less  than  his  ambition  and  thirst  for  glory, 
led  him  to  encourage  and  assist  the  plans 
of  Aristotle  in  a  manner  worthy  of  so  great 
a  prince,  of  so  exalted  a  genius,  and  of 
such  magnificent  designs.  The  sum  of 
money  which  he  was  thereby  enabled  to 
devote  to  his  works  on  natural  history 
would  be  almost  incredible,  did  we  not 
consider  the  traits  of  greatness  which 
mark  every  action  of  Alexander,  and  were 
not  the  circumstance  stated  by  writers 
of  unexceptionable  authority.  Athenaeus, 
Pliny,  and  .Elian,  concur  in  representing 
it  at  between  one  and  two  hundred  thou- 
sand pounds. 

Shortly  after  the  foundation  of  Alexan- 
dria, a  celebrated  school  was  established 
there,  to  which  the  Greeks  and  other  for- 
eigners resorted  for  instruction,  and 
where  physic  and  every  branch  of  natural 
knowledge  were  taught  in  the  greatest 
perfection.  Herophilus  and  Erasistratus, 
two  anatomists  of  this  school,  are  particu- 
larly celebrated  in  the  history  of  anato- 
my. They  seem  to  be  the  first  who  dis- 
sected the  human  body.  At  least  in  the 
time  of  Aristotle,  who  precededthese  ana- 
tomists by  a  very  short  interval,  brutes 
only  had  been  anatomised.  It  might  have 
bee'n  expected  that  the  practice  of  em- 
balming would  afford  favourable  opportu- 
nities of  anatomical  investigation,  but  the 
rude  manner  in  which  the  body  was  pre- 
pared, and  the  dread  of  pollution,  pre- 
vented all  instructive  examination.  The 
progress  of  the  science  required  that  ana- 
tomists should  have  subjects,  on  which 
careful  anddeliberate  dissection  might  be 
prosecuted  without  fear  of  interruption. 
This  benefit  was  obtained  through  the 
taste  which  the  princes  of  that  time  dis- 
played for  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  PtOr 
lomies  inherited,  with  their  share  of  the 
empire  of  Alexander,  the  love  of  science, 
which  shone  so  conspicuously  in  that  mon- 
arch. Ptolemy  Philadelphus  invited  to 
his  capital  the  greatest  men  of  the  age  ; 
and  by  collecting  books  from  all  parts,  at 
an  immense  expense,  laid  the  foundation 


ANATOMY. 


of  the  magnificent  Alexandrian  library. 
This  king  and  his  predecessor  seem  to 
have  overcome  the  religious  scruples 
which  forbade  the  touch  of  the  dead  body, 
and  gave  up  to  the  physicians  the  bodies 
of  those  who  had  forfeited  their  lives  to  the 
law.  Nay,  if  the  testimony  of  several  au- 
thors may  be  believed,  Herophilus  and 
Erasistratus  dissected  several  unfortunate 
criminals  alive.  There  is,  however,  some- 
thing in  this  practice  so  repuguant  to 
every  feeling  of  humanity,  that  we  ought 
probably  to  consider  it  only  as  an  exagge- 
rated report  of  the  novel  practice  of  dis- 
secting the  human  subject.  The  writings 
of  these  anatomists  have  not  descended  to 
us :  our  knowledge  of  their  progress  in 
anatomy  is  derived  only  from  a  few  ex- 
tracts and  notices  which  occur  in  the 
works  of  Galen  ;  but  these  prove  them  to 
have  made  great  advances  in  the  know- 
ledge of  the  structure  of  the  human  body. 
The  Romans,  in  prosecuting  their 
schemes  of  universal  conquest  and  domi- 
nion, soon  became  acquainted  with  the 
Greeks,  and  the  intercourse  of  the  two  na- 
tions was  constantly  increasing.  Thus  the 
arts,  the  philosophy,  and  the  manners  of 
the  Greeks  were  introduced  into  Italy. 
Military  glory  and  patriotism,  which  had 
formerly  been  the  ruling  passion  of  the 
Roman  people,  now  gave  way  in  some  de- 
gree to  the  soft  arts  of  peace.  The  lead- 
ing men  of  the  Roman  rebublic  sought  the 
company  and  conversation  of  the  learned 
Greeks  ;  thus  literature  and  philosophy 
were  transported  from  the  Greeks  to  the 
Romans,  and  gave  rise  to  the  taste  and  ele- 
gance of  the  Augustan  age.  In  this  way 
did  conquered  Greece  triumph  over  the 
unpolished  roughness  of  her  conquerors. 

Graecia  captaferum  victorem  cepit,  et  artes 
Intulit  agresti  Latio 

Although  Rome  produced  orators,  poets, 
philosophers,  and  historians  which  may  be 
brought  into  competition  with  those  of  the 
Greeks,  to  the  eternal  disgrace  of  their 
empire,  it  must  be  allowed  that  their  his- 
tory is  hardly  embellished  with  the  name 
of  a  single  Roman  who  was  great  in  science 
or  art,  in  painting  or  sculpture,  in  physic, 
or  in  any  branch  of  natural  knowledge. 
We  cannot  therefore  introduce  one  Rom- 
an into  the  history  of  anatomy.  Pliny  and 
Celsus  were  mere  compilers  from  the 
Greeks.  We  may  account  for  this  appa- 
rent neglect  of  anatomy  among  the  Ro- 
mans, as  well  indeed  as  for  its  slow  pro- 
gress among  the  Greeks,  from  some  of 
their  religious  tenets,  as  well  as  from  the 
notion  already  mentioned,  of  pollution  be- 
ing communicated  by  touching  a  dead  bo- 


dy. It  was  believed,  that  the  souls  of  the  mt~ 
buried  were  not  admitted  into  the  abodes 
of  the  dead,  or,  at  least,  that  they  wander- 
ed for  a  hundred  years  along  the  river 
Styx,  before  they  were  allowed  to  cross 
it.  Whoever  saw  a  dead  body  was  oblig- 
ed to  throw  some  earth  upon  it,  and  if  he 
neglected  to  do  so,  he  was  obliged  to  ex- 
piate his  crime  by  sacrificing  to  Ceres. 
It  was  unlawful  for  the  pontifex  maximus 
not  only  to  touch  a  dead  body,  but  even 
to  look  at  it ;  and  the  flamen  of  Jupiter 
might  not  even  go  where  there  was  a 
grave.  Persons  who  had  attended  a  fu- 
neral were  purified  by  a  sprinkling  of  wa- 
ter from  the  hands  of  the  priest,  and  the 
house  was  purified  in  the  same  manner. 
If  any  one  (says  Euripides,  in  Iphigenia) 
pollutes  his  hands  by  a  murder,  by  touch- 
ing a  corpse,  or  a  woman  who  has  lain  in, 
the  altars  of  God  are  interdicted  to  him. 

There  was  no  anatomist  or  physiologist, 
of  sufficient  reputation  to  attract  our  no- 
tice, from  the  times  of  Herophilus  and 
Erasistratus  to  the  age  of  Galen.  This  il- 
lustrious character  was  born  at  Pergamus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  about  the  130th  year  of  the 
Christian  aera.  No  expense  was  spared  in 
his  education ;  after  the  completion  of 
which,  he  visited  all  the  most  famous 
schools  of  philosophy  which  then  existed ; 
and  afterwards  resided  chiefly  at  Rome, 
in  the  service  of  the  emperors  of  that  time. 

To  all  the  knowledge  which  could  be 
derived  from  the  writings  of  Hippocrates, 
and  the  philosophical  schools  of  the  time, 
Galen  added  the  results  of  his  own  labours 
and  observations,and  compiled  from  these 
sources  a  voluminous  system  of  medicine. 
It  is  generally  considered  that  the  subjects 
of  his  anatomical  labours  were  chiefly 
brutes ;  and  it  is  manifest  from  several 
passages  that  his  descriptions  are  drawn 
from  monkeys.  Indeed,  he  never  expres- 
ly  states  that  he  has  dissected  the  human 
subject,  although  he  says  he  has  seen  hu- 
man skeletons.  He  must  be  accounted 
the  first  who  placed  anatomical  science  on 
a  respectable  footing  ;  and  deserves  our 
gratitude  for  this,  that  he  was  the  only 
source  of  anatomical  knowledge  for  about 
ten  centuries.  The  science  declined  with 
Galen;  his  successors  were  contented  with 
copying  him  ;  and  there  is  no  proof  of  a 
dissection  of  any  human  body  from  Galen 
to  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  We  may 
observe,  that  when  any  man  arrives  at  the 
reputation  of  having  carried  his  art  far  be- 
yond all  others,  it  seems  to  throw  the  rest 
of  the  world  into  a  kind  of  despair.  Hope- 
less of  being  able  to  improve  their  art  still 
further,  they  do  nothing.  The  great  man, 
who  was  at  first  only  respectable,  grows 


ANATOMY. 


everyday  into  higher  credit,  till  at  length 
he  is  deified,  and  every  page  of  his  wri- 
tings becomes  sacred  and  infallible.  This 
was  actually  the  fortune  of  Aristotle  in 
philosophy,  and  of  Galen  in  anatomy,  for 
many  ages ;  and  such  respect  shewn  to 
any  man  in  any  age  must  always  be  a  mark 
of  declining  science. 

Anatomy  experienced  the  same  fate  as 
learning  in  general  on  the  decline  and  fall 
of  the  Roman  empire.  The  moral  and 
intellectual  character  of  the  Romans  had 
been  much  debased  in  the  later  ages  of 
the  empire.  Philosophy  and  science  were 
manifestly  degenerating,  and  their  place 
was  supplied  by  a  debased  and  corrupted 
theology.  The  successive  irruptions  of 
the  northern  barbarians  accelerated  the 
approaching  ruin.  The  great  inundation 
of  the  Goths  into  Italy,  in  the  fifth  centu- 
ry, extinguished  with  the  Roman  empire, 
its  laws,  manners,  and  learning,  and  plun- 
ged the  world  into  the  depths  of  ignorance 
and  superstition.  The  succeeding  ten 
centuries,  which  have  received  the  appel- 
lation of  the  dark  ages  of  the  world,  pre- 
sent a  melancholy  picture  to  the  philoso- 
phic observer  of  human  nature  ;  a  barren 
and  dreary  waste,  not  enlivened  by  a  sin- 
gle  trace  of  cultivation. 

The  followers  of  the  Arabian  prophet 
dissipated  the  little  remains  of  learning 
that  were  left  in  Asia  and  Egypt.  A  con- 
tempt of  all  human  knowledge,  and  the 
religious  obligation  of  extending  the  Ma- 
hometan faith  by  means  of  the  sword,  made 
these  ignorant  barbarians  the  most  danger- 
ous and  destructive  foes  to  science  and  the 
arts.  The  city  of  Alexandria,  the  school 
of  which  had  been  the  resort  of  the  learn- 
ed for  centuries,  wns  taken  in  the  year 
640,  by  Amrou,  the  general  of  the  Caliph 
Omar ;  the  celebrated  library  was  burnt, 
with  the  exception  of  those  books  which 
related  to  medicine,  which  the  love  of  life 
induced  the  Arabians  to  spare. 

When  the  Saracens  were  established  in 
their  new  conquests,  they  began  to  dis- 
cern the  utility  of  learning  in  the  arts  and 
sciences,  and  particularly  in  physic.  Ma- 
homet had  made  it  death  for  any  Mussul- 
man to  learn  the  liberal  arts :  this  prohi- 
bition was  gradually  neglected,  and  many 
of  the  caliphs  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  love  of  letters,  and  the  munificent 
institations  which  they  founded  for  the 
propagation  of  learning.  The  Greek  au- 
thors were  collected,  translated,  and  com- 
mented on ;  but  there  was  no  improve- 
ment nor  extension  of  science  made.  In 
anatomy,  the  Arabians  went  no  further 
than  Galen,  the  perusal  of  whose  works 
suppliedthe  place  of  dissection.  Theywere 


preventedfromtouchingthedeadbytheiiT 
tenets  respecting  uncleanness  and  pollu- 
tion,which  theyhad  derived  from  the  Jews. 

The  Arabian  empire  in  the  east  was 
overturned  by  the  Turks,  who,  still  more 
barbarous  and  illiterate  than  the  Sara- 
cens, carried  ignorance  and  oppression 
wherever  they  directed  their  footsteps. 
They  soon  destroyed  all  the  institutions 
which  the  Saracens  had  formed  for  the 
propagation  of  science,  and  threatened 
Constantinople  itself,  which  still  retained 
the  faint  and  almost  dying  embers  of 
Greek  knowledge.  This  city  was  taken 
and  sacked  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century ;  and  the  learned  Greeks  fled  for 
safety  to  the  western  nations  of  Eu- 
rope bringing  with  them  the  Grecian  au- 
thors on  medicine,  and  translating  them  ; 
which  works,  the  invention  of  printing, 
that  happened  about  the  same  time, 
greatlycontnbuted  to  disperse  throughout 
Europe.  People  had  now  an  opportunity 
of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  writings 
of  Galen  and  the  ancients,  and,  by  these 
means,  of  arriving  at  the  source  of  that 
knowledge  which  they  had  hitherto  ob- 
tained only  through  the  channel  of  the 
Arabian  physicians.  The  superiority  of 
the  former  was  soon  discovered,  and  the 
opinions  of  the  Grecian  writers  were  consi- 
dered even  in  anatomy,  as  unimpeachable. 

For  the  restoration  of  anatomy,  as  well 
as  that  of  science  in  general,  we  are  in- 
debted to  the  Italians.  But  the  first  men 
who  signalized  themselves  in  this  path 
partook  of  that  blind  reverence  for  the 
words  of  Galen,  which  had  reigned  uni- 
versally in  medicine  since  his  death,  and 
which  concurred  with  the  universally  pre- 
vailing prejudices  of  those  times,  con- 
cerning the  violation  of  the  dead,  to  ob- 
struct all  advancement  of  the  science.  As 
an  instance  of  the  latter  circumstance,  we 
may  mention  a  decree  of  Pope  Boniface 
Vlll.prohibiting  the  boiling  and  preparing 
of  bones,  which  put  a  stop  to  the  research- 
es of  Mundinus. 

Among  the  circumstances  which  contri- 
buted to  the  restoration  of  anatomy  is  to 
be  reckoned,  the  assistance  which  it  deri- 
ved from  the  great  painters  and  sculptors 
of  this  age.  A  knowledge  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  surface  of  the  body,  at  least,  is  es- 
sential to  the  prosecution  of  these  arts. 
Michael  Angelo  dissected  men  and  ani- 
mals, in  order  to  learn  the  muscleswhich 
lie  under  the  skin.  A  collection  of  anato- 
mical drawings  made  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
at  this  period,  is  still  extant,  and,  with 
subjoined  explanations,  are  found  in  the 
library  of  the  king.  Dr.  Hunter  bears 
witness  to  the  minute  and  accurate  know- 


ANATOMY. 


ledge  which  these  sketches  discover,  and 
does  -not  hesitate  in  considering1  Leonardo 
as  the  best  anatomist  of  that  time. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury the  great  Vesalius appeared.  He  was 
born  at  Brussels,  and  studied  successive- 
ly at  the  different  universities  of  France 
and  Italy.  Thus  he  acquired  all  the  know- 
ledge of  antiquity.     Not  contented  with 
this,  he  took  every  opportunity  of  examin- 
ing the  human  body,  and  followed  the 
army   of  the  emperor  Charles   V.  into 
France  for  that  purpose.     Vesalius  was 
the  first  who  maintained  that  dissection 
was  the  proper  way  of  learning  anatomy, 
in  opposition  to  the  study  of  the  works  of 
Galen.    His  extensive  researches  into  the 
structure  of  man  and  animals  led  him  to 
detect  the  errors  of  Galen,  which  he  freely 
exposed,  shewing  from  many  parts  of  his 
works,  that  this  great  man  had  described 
the  human  body  from  the  dissection   of 
brutes.   This  conduct,  which  should  have 
excited  the  admiration  and  esteem  of  his 
contemporaries,  served  only  to  rouse  in 
their  minds  the  base  and  sordid  passions  of 
jealousy  and  envy.     Galen  had  held  an 
undisputed  sway  over  the  minds  of  men 
for  many  centuries.     His  works  were  re- 
garded as  the  only  source  of  anatomical 
knowledge,  and  his  opinion  on  medical 
subjects,  like  that  of  Aristotle  in  philoso- 
phy, was  resorted  to  in  all  disputes  as  final 
and  decisive  proof.     The  first  man  who 
penetrated    this   intellectual   mist,    and 
erected  the  standard  of  reason  and  truth, 
in  opposition  to  that  of  prejudice  and  au- 
thority, might  naturally  expect  to  encoun- 
ter the  opposition  of  those  who  had  been 
contented  to  go  on  in  the  beaten  track. 
The  anatomists,  who  had  always  held  up 
Galen  in  their  lectures  as  the  source  of 
all  information,  were  indignant  that  his 
faults  should  be  discovered  and  laid  open 
by  so  young  a  man  as  Vesalius.  The  con- 
troversies which  arose  from   this  cause 
were  favourable  to  the  progress  of  anato- 
my, as  the  several  disputants  were  obliged 
to  confirm  their  own  opinions,  or  invali- 
date those  of  their  opponents,  by  argu- 
ments drawn  from  dissection 

Vesalius  published,  at  the  age  of  25,  his 
grand  work  on  the  structure  of  the  human 
body,  with  numerous  elegant  figures,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  draw  n  by  the  celebra- 
ted Titian.  This  work  contains  such  a 
mass  of  new  information,  that  it  muy  justly 
be  considered  as  forming  an  aera  in  the 
history  of  anatomy.  We  cannot  help  being 
surprised  that  so  young  a  man  could  have 
investigated  the  subject  so  deeply,  at  a 
time  when  dissection  was  esteemed  sacri- 
legious, and  was  therefore  carried  on  se- 


cretly, with  greater  danger  and  difficulty 
The  great  reputation  of  Vesalius  procur- 
ed for  him  the  esteem  and  confidence  of 
Charles  V.  who  made  him  his  physician, 
and  kept  him  about  his  person  in  all  his 
expeditions.  His  zeal  for  science  proved 
the  cause  of  his  death :  for  having  opened 
a  person  too  soon,  the  heart  was  seen  to 
palpitate.  He  was  condemned  to  perform 
a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  as  he  was 
returning  to  take  the  place  of  anatomical 
professor  at  Venice,  he  was  shipwrecked 
on  the  island  of  Zante,  and  perished  of 
hunger.  It  would  be  unjust  to  pass  over 
unnoticed  the  names  of  Fallopius  and  of 
Eustachius,  who  were  contemporary  with 
Vesalius,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
advancement  of  anatomy.  The  anatomical 
plates  drawn  and  engraved  by  the  latter 
are  executed  with  an  accuracy  which  can- 
not fail  to  excite  surprise,  even  in  an  ana- 
tomist of  the  present  day. 

From  the  time  of  Vesalius,  the  study  of 
anatomy  gradually  diffused  itself  over  Eu- 
rope; insomuch,  that  for  the  last  hundred 
and  fifty  years  it  has  been  daily  improving 
by  the  labour  of  many  professed  anato- 
mists in  almost  every  country  of  Europe. 
In  the  year  1628,  our  immortal  country- 
man, Harvey,  published  his  discovery  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  It  was  by  far 
the  most  important  step  that  has  been 
made  in  the  knowledge  of  animal  bodies 
in  any  age.  It  not  only  reflected  useful 
lights  upon  what  had  been  already  found 
out  in  anatomy,  but  also  pointed  out  the 
means  of  furtherinvestigation;  andaccord- 
ingly  we  see  that,  from  Harvey  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  anatomy  has  been  so  much  im- 
proved, that  we  may  reasonably  question 
if  the  ancients  have  been  farther  outdone 
by  the  moderns  in  any  other  branch  of 
knowledge.  From  one  day  to  another 
there  has  been  a  constant  succession  of 
discoveries,  relating  either  to  the  struc- 
ture orfunctions  of  our  body;  and  new  ana- 
tomical processes,  both  of  investigation 
anddemonstration,have  been  dailyinvent- 
ed.  Many  parts  of  the  body,  which  were  not 
known  in  Harvey's  time,  have  since  then 
been  brought  to  light ;  and  of  those  which 
were  known,  the  internal  composition  and 
functions  remained  unexplained ;  and  in- 
deed must  have  remained  inexplicable, 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  circulation. 
The  principal  facts  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject were  known  before  the  time  of  Har- 
vey: it  remained  for  him  to  reject  the  spe- 
cious conjectures  then  maintained  con- 
cerning the  blood's  motion,  and  to  exam, 
ine  thetruthof  those  facts  which  werethen 
known,  and  by  experiments  to  discover 
those  which  remained  to  be  detected. 


ANATOMY. 


This  he   did,  and  thereby  rendered  his 
name  immortal. 

It  seems  proper  in  this  place  to  review 
the  several  steps  which  were  made  in  the 
investigation  of  this  important  subject. 
Hippocrates  believed  that  all  the  vessels 
communicated  with  each  other,  and  that 
the  blood  underwent  a  kind  of  flux  and  re- 
flux from  and  to  the  heart,  like  the  ebbing 
and  flowing  of  the  sea.  The  anatomists  at 
Alexandria  adopted  a  wrong  but  ingenious 
opinion ;  as  they  found  the  arteries  empty, 
and  the  veins  containing  blood,  in  their 
dissections,  they  imagined  that  the  former 
were  tubes  for  the  distribution  of  air,  and 
gave  them  that  name,  which  they  have  re- 
tained ever  since  ;  and  that  the  veins  were 
the  only  channels  for  the  blood.  Galen 
ascertained  that  the  blood  flowed  both  by 
the  arteries  and  veins,  though  he  knew  not 
then  its  natural  course.  On  the  revival  of 
anatomy  in  Europe,  the  pulmonary  circu- 
lation was  known  to  many  eminent  men. 
This  was  certainly  the  case  with  Servetus, 
who  fell  a  sacrifice,  on  account  of  his  reli- 
gious opinions,  to  the  savage  bigotry  and 
intolerance  of  Calvin.  Fabricius  ab  Aqua- 
pendente,  the  preceptor  of  our  famous 
Harvey,  particularly  described  the  valves 
of  the  veins,  the  mechanism  of  which 
would  absolutely  prevent  the  blood  from 
flowing  in  those  vessels  towards  the  ex- 
tremities. When  Harvey  returned  from 
his  studies  in  Italy,  his  attention  being  ex- 
cited to  the  subject,  he  began  those  expe- 
riments, by  which  he  learned  and  demon- 
strated the  fact  of  the  circulation.  Har- 
vey's first  proposition  of  the  subject  im- 
presses conviction  so  strongly  on  the  mind, 
that  we  are  left  in  perfect  astonishment, 
how  a  circumstance  so  luminously  evident 
should  have  remained  so  long  unobserved. 
It  must  be  granted,  that  the  heart  projects 
about  two  ounces  of  blood  into  the  arte- 
ries at  every  pulse  ;  what  then,  it  may  be 
asked,  becomes  of  this  large  quantity  of 
blood,  unless  it  circulates  ?  It  must  be 
granted  that  the  heart  receives  that  quan- 
tity prior  to  every  pulse.  From  whence  is 
it  received,  unless  the  blood  circulates  ? 
Harvey  tied  an  artery,  and  the  correspond- 
ing vein  received  no  blood ;  he  tied  a  vein, 
and  all  its  branches,  and  those  of  the  cor- 
responding artery  were  choaked  with 
blood,  even  to  the  entire  obstruction  of 
circulation  and  motion.  But  Harvey  was 
not  acquainted  with  the  direct  communi- 
cation that  exists  between  these  vessels. 
He  imagined  that  the  blood  transuded 
from  the  arteries  into  the  veins  through  a 
spongy  substance.  Much  yet  remained  to 
be  ascertained  by  microscopical  observa- 


tions, and  subtle  anatomical  injections 
and  dissections. 

As  opportunities  of  dissection  became 
more  numerous,  the  defects  of  the  old  wri- 
ters in  anatomy  were  discovered.  Ingeni- 
ous men,  having  gone  through  their  edu- 
cation, determined  to  consult  nature  for 
themselves.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
that  errors  and  deficiencies  in  anatomy 
were  found  in  every  page  of  the  works  of 
Galen,  to  say  nothing  of  Hippocrates,  since 
the  human  body,  in  his  time,  could  not  be 
consulted  for  information.  The  authority 
of  the  Greek  writers  on  these  subjects  was 
quickly  demolished,  and  anatomy  began 
to  be  taught  from  the  subject  itself.  We 
must  not  omit  the  influence,  which  the 
writings  of  our  immortal  countryman,  Ba- 
con, had  on  the  prosecution  of  natural 
knowledge,  and  in  every  species  of  rea- 
soning. The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was 
driven  from  the  pre-eminent  station  which 
it  had  so  long  occupied,  to  make'room  for 
the  only  solid  and  secure  method  of  obser- 
vation, experiment,  and  induction.  At  this 
time  the  Academy  del  Cimento  arose  in 
Italy,  the  Royal  Society  in  London,  and  the 
Royal  Academy  in  Paris.  From  this  peri- 
od, the  important  doctrine  of  rejecting  all 
hypothesis,  or  general  knowledge,  till  a 
sufficient  number  of  facts  shall  have  been, 
ascertained,  by  careful  observation  and  ju- 
dicious experiments,  has  been  every  day 
growing  into  more  credit.  The  anatomists 
and  phisiologists  of  these  times  distin- 
guished themselves  by  a  patient  observa- 
tion of  nature  itself,  and  an  accurate  ac- 
count of  the  phenomena  which  they  ob- 
served. 

After  the  discovery  and  knowledge  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the  next  ques- 
tion would  naturally  be  about  the  passage 
and  route  of  the  nutritious  part  of  the  food, 
or  chyle,  from  the  bowels  to  the  blood- 
vessels. The  name  of  Aselli,  an  Italian 
physician,  is  rendered  illustrious  by  the 
discovery  of  the  vessels  which  carry  the 
chyle  from  the  intestines.  He  observed 
them  full  of  a  white  liquor  on  the  mysen- 
tery  of  living  animals,  and  from  this  cir- 
cumstance called  them  milky  or  lacteal 
vessels.  For  many  years  the  anatomists 
in  all  parts  of  Europe  were  daily  opening 
living  animals,  either  to  see  the  lacteals,  or 
to  observe  the  phenomena  of  the  circula- 
tion. In  makingan  experiment  of  this  kind, 
Pecquet,in  France,  was  fortunate  enough 
to  discover  the  thoracic  duct,  or  common 
trunk  of  all  the  lacteals,  which  conveys  the 
chyle  into  the  subclavian  vein.  And  now, 
the  lacteals  having  been  traced  from  the 
intestines  to  the  thoracic  duct,  and  that. 


ANATOMY. 


«fuct  having  been  traced  to  its  termination 
In  a  blood-vessel,  the  passage  of  the  chyle 
was  completely  made  out.  The  discovery 
of  the  absorbent  vessels  in  other  parts  of 
the  body,  where  they  are  known  by  the 
name  of  lymphatics,  from  the  transparent 
colour  of  their  contents,  very  soon  follow- 
ed that  of  the  lacteal  and  thoracic  duct. 
Rudbeck,  a  Swede,  is  generally  allowed  to 
have  been  the  first  who  discovered  these 
vessels;  but  this  honour  was  disputed  with 
him  by  Bartholin,  a  learned  Dane.  By  these 
vessels  the  old  particles  of  our  bodies, 
which  are  no  longer  fit  to  remain  in  it,  are 
removed  and  conveyed  into  the  blood,  to 
be  eliminated  by  the  excretory  organs. 

Leeuenhoeck  took  up  the  subject  of 
anatomical  inquiry,  where  others  had  left 
it.  He  investigated  the  minute  structure 
of  the  body  by  the  help  of  magnifying 
glasses ;  and  was  thereby  enabled  to  de- 
monstrate the  circulation  of  the  blood  in 
the  pellucid  part  of  living  animals  ;  the 
red  globules  of  the  blood,  and  the  animal- 
cula  of  the  semen,  were  first  observed  by 
this  anatomist.  Malpighi  also  directed  his 
attention  chiefly  to  the  developement  of 
minute  structure  ;  as  that  of  the  glands  or 
secretory  organs  of  the  body. 

About  this  time  anatomy  made  two 
great  steps,  by  the  invention  of  injections, 
and  the  method  of  making  anatomical  pre- 
parations. For  these  we  are  indebted  to 
the  Dutch,  particularly  Swammerdamand 
Ruysch.  The  anatomists  of  former  ages 
had  no  other  knowledge  of  the  blood-ves- 
sels than  what  they  could  collect  from  la- 
borious dissections,  and  from  examining 
the  smaller  branches  of  them  upon  some 
lucky  occasion,  when  they  were  found 
more  than  commonly  loaded  with  red 
blood.  But  filling  the  vascular  system  with 
a  white  coloured  wax,  enables  us  to  trace 
the  large  vessels  with  great  ease,  renders 
the  smaller  much  more  conspicuous,  and 
makes  thousands  of  the  very  minute  ones 
visible,  which,  from  their  delicacy  and  the 
transparency  of  their  natural  contents,  are 
otherwise  imperceptible.  The  modern 
art  of  corroding  the  fleshy  parts  with  a 
menstruum,  and  of  leaving  the  moulded 
wax  entire,  is  so  exceedingly  useful,  and 
at  the  same  time  so  ornamental,  that  it  does 
great  honour  to  the  ingenious  inventor, 
Dr.  Nichols.  The  method  of  casting  figures 
in  wax,  plaister,  or  lead,  is  also  a  great  ac- 
quisition to  anatomy,  as  it  enables  us  to 
preserve  a  very  perfect  likeness  of  such 
subjects  as  we  but  seldom  meet  with,  or 
cannot  well  preserve  in  a  natural  state. 
The  modern  improved  methods  of  pre- 
serving animal  bodies,  or  parts  of  them,  in 
•spirits,  has  been  of  the  greatest  service  to 


anatomy  ;  especially  in  saving  the  time 
and  labour  of  the  anatomist,  in  the  nicer 
dissections  of  the  small  parts  of  the  body, 
For  now,  whatever  he  has  prepared  with 
care,  he  can  preserve,  and  the  object  is 
ready  to  be  seen  at  any  time.  And,  in  the 
same  manner,  he  can  preserve  anatomical 
curiosities  and  rarities  of  every  kind; 
such  as  parts  that  are  uncommonly  form- 
ed ;  parts  that  are  diseased ;  the  parts  of 
the  pregnant  uterus,  and  its  contents. 
Large  collections  of  such  curiosities, 
which  modern  anatomists  are  striving 
every  where  to  procure,  are  of  infinite 
service  to  the  art ;  especially  in  the  hands 
of  teachers.  They  give  students  clear 
ideas  about  many  things,  which  it  is  very 
essential  to  know,  and  yet  which  it  is  im- 
possible that  a  teacher  should  be  able  to 
shew  otherwise,  were  he  ever  so  well 
supplied  with  fresh  subjects. 

When  anatomy  had  thus  become  a  clear 
and  distinct  science,  it  was  inculcated  and 
taught,  in  the  different  nations  of  Europe, 
by  numerous  professors,,  with  a  zeal  and 
industry  highly  honourable  to  themselves, 
and  useful  to  mankind.  As  the  prejudices 
of  mankind  respecting  dissection  nave  in 
a  great  measure  subsided,  the  difficulties, 
which  formerly  obstructed  anatomical  re- 
searches, have  mostly  disappeared,  and  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  subjects  for  anatomi- 
cal purposes  can  generally  be  procured, 
In  most,  perhaps  in  all,  the  countries  of 
the  continent  of  Europe,  the  government 
has  provided  for  the  want  of  anatomists 
in  this  particular.  In  England,  however, 
it  still  remains  a  matter  of  considerable 
difficulty  and  expense  to  procure  the 
means  of  instruction  in  practical  anatomy; 
and,  accordingly,  while  foreigners  have 
been  enriching  science  with  many  splen- 
did works,  the  name  of  one  Englishman 
cannot  for  many  years  past  be  recorded 
in  the  annals  of  anatomy.  We  wish  we 
could  announce  to  our  readers  any  pros- 
pect of  a  change  in  this  respect :  but 
here  literature  and  science  are  left  to 
themselves,  and  must  advance  unaided 
by  the  patronage  of  government,  or  not 
advance  at  all. 

It  would  occupy  us  too  long  to  detail 
the  labours  and  discoveries  of  all  the  emi- 
nent men,  who  have  immortalized  them- 
selves in  anatomy  during  the  last  century. 
We  may  state  generally,  that  every  part  of 
the  human  body  has  been  most  thoroughly 
and  minutely  examined  and  described; 
and  accurate  and  elegant  engravings  have 
appeared  of  every  part.  So  that  a  student, 
in  these  days,  possesses  every  facility  for 
the  prosecution  of  his  anatomical  labours. 
The  bones  and  muscles  have  been  most 


ANATOMY. 


represented  and  described  by 
Albinus,  Cheselden,  Sue,  and  Cowper. 
The  vascular  system  has  been  illustrated 
by  a  splendid  work  of  the  immortal  Haller. 
Walker  and  Meckel  of  Berlin,  and  Scarpa 
at  Pavia,  have  bestowed  equal,  or  eyi-n  su- 
perior, diligence  in  tracing"  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  most  important  nerves,  and  re- 
presenting1 them  in  faithful  engravings. 
Mr.  Cruikshank  distinguished  himself  by 
an  excellent  book  on  the  absorbing  sys- 
tem ;  and  Mascagni  has  lately  given  to  the 
public  a  most  elaborate  account  of  the  ab- 
sorbing vessels,  with  very  splendid  plates. 
Dr.  Hunter,  to  whom  anatomy  owes  more 
in  this  country  than  to  any  individual,  has 

Kublished  a  complete  history  with  beauti- 
il  explanatory  engravings,  of  the  growth 
of  the  human  ovum,  and  of  the  changes 
which  the  uterus  undergoes,  after  the 
ovum  has  been  received  into  its  cavity. 
His  brother,  Mr.  John  Hunter,  also  de- 
mands mention  in  this  place,  as  an  accu- 
rate and  minute  dissector,  and  a  patient 
experimentalist.  He  surveyed,  in  his  re- 
searches, the  whole  field  of  animated  na- 
ture, and  greatly  promoted  the  science 
of  phisiology.  He  formed  also  the  grand- 
est and  mos't  beautiful  anatomical  cabinet 
in  Europe;  and  this  precious  treasure  has 
now  passed  into  the  bauds  of  the  Royal 
College  cff  Surgeons  in  London.  The 
structure  of  the  brain  has  been  represent- 
ed with  unrivalled  elegance,  by  Viccj 
D'Azyr,  a  French  anatomist,  in  a  folio 
volume  of  coloured  plates,  which  we  hesi- 
tate not  to  applaud  as  a  chef  d'ceuvre  of 
anatomical  science,  and  a  most  splendid 
monument  of  the  arts.  Some  parts  of 
this  most  important  organ  have  also  been 
illustrated  by  the  labours  of  Soemmering1, 
who  still  prosecutes  the  study  of  anatomy 
with  unwearied  industry.  We  have  late- 
ly, from  his  hands,  two  most  finished  pro- 
ductions, in  every  respect,  on  the  anatomy 
of  the  eye  and  ear.  It  would  be  unjust 
not  to  enumerate,  with  a  due  tribute  of 
applause,  the  labours  of  Zinn,  Cassebohm, 
and  Scurpa,  on  the  same  subjects. 

Morgagni,  who  taught  anatomy  in  Pa- 
dua, published  a  work  of  great  utility  on 
morbid  anatomy.  Dr.  Bailie  has  of  late  in 
this  country  prosecuted  the  same  subject, 
though  in  a  different  manner.  He  has 
published  a  book  on  the  morbid  anatomy 
of  the  body,  and  has  illustrated  his  descrip- 
tions by  a  collection  of  the  most  elegant, 
expressive,  and  accurate  plates. 

Winslow,  Sabatier,  and  Bichat,  are  the 
authors  of  the  most  approved  anatomical 
systems  in  France,  and  Soemmering  and 
Ilildebrant  in  Germany.  We  regret  that 
it  is  not  in  our  power  to  mention  am*  cor- 

VOL.  r 


rect  and  complete  system  by  an  English 
writer.  The  imperfect  and  contemptible 
ephemeral  productions,  published  under 
the  auspices  of  booksellers,  cannot  have  a 
place  in  this  enumeration. 

UTILITY  OF  ANATOMY. 

Astronomy  and  anatomy,  as  Fontenelle 
observes,  are  the  studies  which  present 
us  with  the  most  striking  view  of  the  two 
greatest  at  tributes  of  the  Supreme  Being. 
The  first  of  these  fills  the  mind  with  the 
idr.i  of  his  immensity,  in  the  largeness, 
distances,  and  number  of  the  heavenly 
bodies ;  the  last  astonishes,  with  his  intel- 
ligence and  art  in  the  variety  and  delicacy 
of  animal  mechanism. 

The  human  body  has  been  commonly 
enough  known  by  the  name  of  microcos- 
mus  ;  as  if  it  did  -not  differ  so  much  from 
the  universal  system  of  nature,  in  the  sym- 
metry and  number  of  its  parts,  as  in  their 
size. 

Galen's  excellent  treatise  on  the  use  of 
the  parts  was  composed  as  a  prose  hymti 
to  the  Creator,  and  abounds  with  as  irre- 
sistible proofs  of  a  Supreme  Cause,  and 
governing  Providence,  as  we  find  in  mo- 
dern phisico-theology.  And  Cicero  dwells 
more  on  the'  structure  and  economy  of 
animals,  than  on  all  the  productions  of  na- 
ture besides,  when  he  wants  to  prove  the 
existence  of  the  Gods,  from  the  order  and 
beauty  of  the  universe.  He  there  takes  a 
survey  of  the  body  of  man,  in  a  most  ele- 
gant synopsis  of  anatomy,  and  concludes 
thus  :  '•'  Quibus  rebus  expositis,  satis  do- 
cuisse  videor,  hominis  natura  quanto  cm- 
lies  antoiret  animales.  Ex  quo  debet  in-- 
telligi,  necfiguramsitumque  membrorum, 
nee  ingenii  mentisque,vim  talem  efficipo- 
tnisse  fortuna."  The  satisfaction  of  mind 
which  arises  from  the  study  of  anatomy, 
and  the  influence  which  it  must  naturally 
have  on  our  minds  as  philosophers,  cannot 
be  better  conveyed  than  by  the  following 
passage  from  the  same  author:  "  Quse  con- 
tuens  animus,  accepit  ab  his  cognitionem 
deorum,  ex  qua  oritur  pietas  :  cui  con- 
juncta  justitia  est,  reliquxque  virtutes ; 
ex  quibus  vita  beata  ercsistit,  par  et  similis 
deorum,  nulla  a^a  re  nisi  immortalitate, 
qux  nihil  ad  bene  vivendum  pertinet, 
cedens  coclestibus." 

It  would  be  endless  to  quote  the  ani- 
mated passages  of  this  sort,  which  are  to 
be  found  in  the  physicians,  philosophers, 
and  theologists,  who  have  considered  the 
structure  and  functions  of  animals,  with  a 
view  towards  the  Creator.  It  is  a  view 
that  must  strike  us  with  the  most  awful 
conviction.  "Who  can  kf.ow  and  eonsidir 
Y 


ANATOMY. 


fhe  thousand  evident  proofs  of  the  aston- 
ishing art  of  the  Creator,  in  forming  and 
sustaining  an  animal  body  such  as  ours, 
without  feeling  the  most  pleasing  enthu- 
siasm ?  Can  we  seriously  reflect  upon  this 
awful  subject,  without  being  almost  lost  in 
adoration  !  Without  longing  for  another 
life  after  this,  in  which  we  may  be  grati- 
fied with  the  highest  enjoyment  which  our 
faculties  and  nature  seem  capable  of,  the 
seeingandcomprehendingthe  whole  plan 
of  the  Creator,  in  forming  the  universe, 
and  directing  its  operations. 

In  the  excellent  work  of  Archdeacon 
Paley,  on  natural  theology,  this  view  of 
the  subject  is  most  ably  explained  and 
illustrated;  and  the  subject  is  pursued 
through  all  its  details.  We  strongly  re- 
commend tins  work,  as  exhibiting,  in  a 
popular  form,  a  very  interesting  view  of 
the  structure  and  functions  of  animal  bo- 
dies; and  we  subjoin  the  following  ex- 
tract, as  a  very  successful  application  of 
the  argument. 

"  It  has  been  said,  that  a  man  cannot 
lift  his  hand  to  his  head,  without  finding 
enough  to  convince  him  of  the  existence 
of  a  God.  And  it  is  well  said  ;  for  he  has 
only  to  reflect,  familiar  as  this  action  is, 
and  simple  as  it  seems  to  be,  how  many 
things  are  requisite  for  the  performing  of 
it;  how  many  things  which  we  understand, 
to  say  nothing  of  many  more,  probably, 
which  we  do  not ;  viz  first,  a  long,  hard, 
strong  cylinder,  to  give  to  the  arm  its  firm- 
ness and  tension  ;  but  which,  being  rigid, 
and,  in  its  substance,  inflexible,  can  only 
turn  upon  joints :  secondly,  therefore, 
joints  for  this  purpose,  one  at  the  shoulder 
to  raise  the  arm,  another  at  the  elbow  to 
bend  it ;  these  joints  continually  fed  with 
a  soft  mucilage,  to  make  the  parts  slide 
easily  upon  one  another,  and  holden  to- 
gether by  strong  braces,  to  keep  them  in 
their  position  :  then,  thirdly,  strings  and 
wires,  i.e.  muscles  and  tendons,  artificially 
inserted,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the 
bones  in  the  directions  in  which  the  joints 
allow  them  to  move.  Hitherto,  we  seem 
to  understand  the  mechanism  pretty  well ; 
and,understandingthis,we  possess  enough 
for  our  conclusion  :  nevertheless,  we  have 
hitherto  cnly  a  machine  standing  still ;  a 
dead  organization — an  apparatus.  To  put 
the  system  iu  a  state  of  activity;  to  set  it 
nt  work  ;  a  further  provision  is  necessary, 
r/3.  a  communication  with  the  brain  by 
means  of  nerves.  We  know  the  existence 
of  this  communication,  because  we  can  see 
the  communicating  threads,  and  can  trace 
them  to  the  brain  ;  its  necessity  we  also 
irnow,  because,  if  the  thread  be  cut,  if  the 
-nmmunieation  be  faterr epted,  the  muscle 


becomes  paralytic  ;  but  beyond  tins  We 
know  little  ;  the  organization  being  too 
minute  and  subtle  for  our  inspection. 

"  To  what  has  been  enumerated,  as  offi- 
ciating in  the  single  act  of  a  man's  raising 
his  hand  to  his  head,  must  be  added,  like- 
wise, ail  that  is  necessary,  and  all  that  con- 
tributes to  the  growth,  nourishment,  and 
sustentation  of  the  limb,  the  repair  of  it» 
waste,  the  preservation  of  its  health  ;  such 
as  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through 
every  part  of  it;  its  lymphatics,  exhalants, 
absorbents ;  its  execretions  and  integu- 
ments. All  these  share  in  the  result ;  join 
in  the  effect :  and  how  all  these,  or  any  of 
them,  come  together,  without  a  design- 
ing, disposing  intelligence,  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  conceive." 

But  the  more  immediate  purposes  of 
anatomy  concern  those  who  are  to  be  the 
guardians  of  health,  as  this  study  is  ne- 
cessary to  lay  a  foundation  for  all  the 
branches  of  medicine. 

The  more  we  know  of  our  fabric,  the 
more  reason  we  have  to  believe,  that,  if 
our  senses  were  more  acute,  and  our  judg- 
ment more  enlarged,  we  should  be  able  to 
trace  many  springs  of  life,  which  are  now 
hidden  from  us  ;  by  the  same  sagacity  we 
should  discover  the  true  causes  and  na- 
ture of  diseases,  and  thereby  be  enabled 
to  restore  the  health  of  many,  who  are 
now,  from  our  more  confined  knowledge, 
said  to  labour  under  incurable  disorders. 
By  such  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
economy  of  our  bodies,  we  should  disco- 
ver even  the  seeds  of  diseases,  and  de- 
stroy them  before  they  hud  taken  root  in 
the  constitution. 

This,  indeed,  is  a  pitch  of  knowledge 
which  we  must  not  expect  to  attain.  But, 
surely,  we  may  go  some  way;  and,  there- 
fore, let  us  endeavour  to  go  as  far  as  we 
can.  And  if  we  consider  that  health  and 
disease  are  the  opposites  of  each  other, 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  the 'study  of 
the  natural  state  of  the  body,  which  con- 
stitutes the  one,  must  be  the  direct  road 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  other.  What 
has  been  said,  of  the  usefulness  of  anatomy 
in  phyaic,  will  only  be  called  in  question 
by  the  more  illiterate  empirics  among 

Ehysicians.  They  would  discourage  others 
•om  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  which 
they  have  not  themselves,  and  which, 
therefore,  they  cannot  know  the  value  of, 
and  tell  us  that  a  little  of  anatomy  is 
enough  for  a  physician. 

That  anatomy  is  the  very  basis  of  sur- 
gery every  body  allows.  Tt  is  dissection 
alone  that  can  teach  us  where  we  may  cut 
the  living  body  with  freedom  and  dis- 
patch; where  we  may  venture  with 


AN  ATOM!. 


circumspection  and  delicacy  ;  and  where 
we  must  not,  upon  any  account,  attempt 
it  This  informs  the  "head,  gives  dexte- 
rity to  the  hand,  and  familiarizes  the  heart 
with  a  sort  of  necessary  inhumanity,  the 
use  of  cutting  instruments  upon  our  fel- 
low-creatures. 

Were  it  possible  to  doubt  of  the  advan- 
tages which  arise  in  surgery,  from  a  know- 
ledge of  anatomy,  we  might  have  ample 
conviction,  by  comparing1  the  present 
practice  with  that  of  the  ancients:  and 
upon  tracing  the  improvements  which 
havebeenmade  inlater  times,  they  would 
be  found,  generally,  to  have  sprung  from 
a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  parts 
concerned.  In  the  hands  of  a  good  anato- 
mist, surgery  is  a  salutary,  a  divine  art  ; 
but  when  practised  by  men  who  know 
not  the  structure  of  the  human  body,  it 
often  becomes  barbarous  and  criminal. 

The  comparison  of  a  physician  to  a  ge- 
neral is  both  rational  and  instructive.  The 
human  body,  under  a  disease,  is  the  coun- 
try which  labours  under  a  civil  war  or  an 
invasion.  The  physician  is,  or  should  be, 
the  dictator  or  general,  who  is  to  take  the 
command,  and  to  direct  all  the  necessary 
operations.  To  do  his  duty  with  full  ad- 
vantage, a  general,  besides  other  acquire- 
ments, useful  in  his  profession,  must  make 
himself  master  of  the  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology, as  we  may  call  it,  of  the  country. 
He  may  be  said  to  be  master  of  the  ana- 
tomy of  the  country,  when  he  knows  the 
figure,  dimension,  situation,  and  connec- 
tion, of  all  the  principal  constituent  parts; 
such  as  the  lakes,  rivers,  marshes,  moun- 
tains, precipices,  plains,  woods,  roads, 
passes,  fords,  towns,  fortifications,  8cc.  By 
the  physiology  of  the  country,  which  he 
ought  likewise  to  understand,  is  meant 
all  the  variety  of  active  influence  which 
is  produced  by  the  inhabitants.  If  the 
general  be  well  instructed  in  all  these 
points,  he  will  find  a  hundred  occasions 
of  drawing  advantages  from  them  ;  and 
without  such  knowledge,  he  will  be  for- 
ever exposed  to  some  fatal  blunder. 

GENERAL    ACCOUNT     OF     THE    COMPOSITION 
OF    THE    BODY. 

After  having  considered  the  rise  and 
progress  of  anatomy  ;  the  various  disco- 
veries that  have  been  made  in  it  from 
time  to  time  ;  the  great  number  of  dili- 
gent observers  who  have  applied  them- 
selves to  this  art ;  and  the  importance  of 
the  study,  not  only  for  the  prevention  and 
cure  of  diseases,  but  in  furnishing  the 
liveliest  proofs  of  divine  wisdom  ;  the 
following  questions  seem  naturally  to 
arise.  For  what  purpose  is  there  such  a 


variety  of  parts  in  the  human  body?  Why 
such  a  complication  of  nice  and  tendep 
machinery?  Why  was  there  not  rather  a 
more  simple,  less  delicate,  and  less  ex- 
pensive frame? 

That  beginners  in  the  study  of  anatomy 
may  acquire  a  satisfactory,  general,  idea 
of  these  subjects,  we  shall  furnish  them 
with  clear  answers  to  all  such  questions. 
Let  us  then,  in  our  imagination,  make  a 
man  :  in  other  words,  let  us  suppose  that 
the  mind,  or  immaterial  part,  is  to  be  pla- 
ced in  a  corporeal  fabric,  to  hold  a  corres- 
pondence with  other  material  beings,  by 
the  intervention  of  the  body  ;  and  then 
consider,  a  prieri,  what  will  be  wanted  for 
her  accommodation.  In  this  inquiry  we 
shall  plainly  see  the  necessity,  or  advan- 
tage, and  therefore  the  final  cause,  of 
most  of  the  parts,  which  we  actually  find 
in  the  human  body.  And  if  we  consider, 
that,  in  oi-der  to  answer  some  of  the  requi- 
sites, human  art  and  invention  would  be 
very  insufficient,  we  need  not  be  surpris- 
ed if  we  meet  with  some  parts  of  the  body, 
the  use  of  which  we  cannot  yetmake  out; 
and  with  some  operations  or  functions 
which  we  cannot  explain.  We  can  see 
and  comprehend  that  the  whole  bears  the 
strongest  marks  of  excelling  wisdom  and 
ingenuity  ;  but  the  imperfect  senses  and 
capacity  of  man  cannot  pretend  to  reach 
every  part  of  a  machine,  which  nothingless 
than  the  intelligence  and  power  of  the  Su- 
preme Being  could  contrive  and  execute. 

To  proceed  then ;  in  the  first  place,  the 
mind,  the  thinking  immaterial  agent, 
must  be  provided  with  a  place  of  imme- 
diate residence,  which  shall  have  all  the 
requisites  for  the  union  of  spirit  and  body; 
accordingly,  she  is  provided  with  the 
brain,  where  she  dwells  as  governor  and 
superintendant  of  the  whole  fabric. 

In  the  second  place,  as  she  is  to  hold  a 
correspondence  with  all  the  material  be- 
ings which  surround  her,  she  mtistbe  sup- 
plied with  organs  fitted  to  receive  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  impressions  that  they  will 
make.  In  fact,  therefore,  we  see  that  she 
is  provided  with  the  organs  of  sense,  as 
we  call  them  ;  the  eye  is  adapted  to  light, 
the  ear  to  sound,  the  nose  to  smell,  the 
mouth  to  taste,  and  the  skin  to  touch. 

In  the  third  place,  she  must  be  provid- 
ed with  organs  of  communication  be- 
tween herself,  in  the  brain,  and  those  or- 
gans of  sense,  to  give  her  information  of  all 
the  impressions  that  are  made  upon  them: 
and  she  must  have  organs  between  her- 
self, in  the  brain,  and  every  other  part  of 
the  body,  fitted  to  convey  her  commands 
and  influence  over  the  whole.  For  these 
purposes  the  nerves  are  actually  given. 


ANATOMY. 


They  are  chords,  which  rise  from  the 
brain,  the  immediate  residence  of  the 
mind,  and  disperse  themselves  in  branches 
through  all  parts  of  the  body.  They  are 
intended  to  be  occasional  monitors  against 
all  such  impressions  as  might  endanger  the 
well-being  of  the  whole,  or  of  any  parti- 
cular part,  which  vindicates  the  Creator 
of  all  things  in  having  actually  subjected 
us  to  those  many  disagreeable  and  pain- 
ful sensations,  which  we  are  exposed  to 
from  a  thousand  accidents  in  life. 

Further,  the  mind,  in  this  corporeal 
system,  must  be  endued  with  the  power 
of  moving  from  place  to  place,  that  she 
may  have  intercourse  with  a  variety  of 
objects ;  that  she  may  fly  from  such  as 
are  disagreeable,  dangerous,  or  hurtful, 
and  pursue  such  as  are  pleasant  or  use- 
ful to  her.  And  accordingly  she  is  fur- 
nished with  limbs,  and  with  muscles  and 
tendons,  the  instruments  ofmotion,  which 
are  found  in  every  part  of  the  fabric 
Avhere  motion  is  necessary. 

But  to  support,  to  gite  firmness  and 
shape  to  the  fabric,  to  keep  the  softer 
parts  in  their  proper  places,  to  give  fixed 
points  and  the  proper  direction  to  its  mo- 
tions, as  well  as  to  protect  some  of  the 
more  important  and  tender  organs  from 
external  injuries,  there  must  be  some 
firm  prop-work  interwoven  through  the 
•whole.  And,  in  fact,  for  such  purposes 
the  bones  are  given. 

The  prop-work  must  not  be  made  into 
one  rigid  fabric,  for  that  would  prevent 
motion.  Therefore  there  are  a  number  of 
bones.  These  pieces  must  all  be  firmly 
bound  together,  to  prevent  their  disloca- 
tion, and  this  end  is  perfectly  well  an- 
swered by  the  ligaments.  The  extremi- 
ties of  these  bony  pieces,  where  they 
move  and  rub  upon  one  another,  must 
have  smooth  and  slippery  surfaces,  for 
easy  motion.  This  is  most  happily  pro- 
vided for  by  the  cartilages  and  mucus  of 
the  joints. 

The  interstices  of  all  these  parts  must 
be  filled  up  with  some  soft  and  ductile 
matter,  which  shall  keep  them  in  their 
places,  unite  them,  and  at  the  same  time 
allow  them  to  move  a  little  upon  one  an- 
other. This  end  is  accordingly  answered 
by  the  cellular  membrane  or  adipous 
substance. 

There  must  be  an  outward  covering 
over  the  whole  apparatus,  both  to  give  it 
ft  firm  compactness  and  to  defend  it  from 
a,  thousand  injuries,  which,  in  fact,  are  the 
very  purposes  of  the  skin,  and  other  in- 
teguments. 

As  she  is  made  ibr  society  and  inter- 
course with  beings  of  her  own  kind,  she 


must  be  endued  with  powers  of  expres- 
sing and  communicating  her  thoughts  by 
some  sensible  marks  or  signs,  which  shall 
be  both  easy  to  herself,  and  admit  of  great 
variety.  Hence  she  is  provided  with  the 
organs  and  faculty  of  speech,  by  which 
she  can  throw  out  signs  with  amazing  fa- 
cility, and  vary  them  without  end. 

Thus  we  have  built  up  an  animal  body, 
which  would  seem  to  be  pretty  complete ; 
but  we  have  not  yet  made  any  provision 
for  its  duration  :  and,  as  it  is  the  nature 
of  matter  to  be  altered  and  worked  upon 
by  matter,  so  in  a  very  little  time  such  a 
living  creaturemustbe  destroyed,  if  there 
is  no  provision  for  repairing  the  injuries 
which  she  must  commit  upon  herself,  and 
the  injuries  which  she  must  be  exposed 
to  from  without.  Therefore  a  treasure  of 
blood  is  actually  provided  in  the  heart 
and  vascular  system,  full  of  nutritious  and 
healing  particles,  fluid  enough  to  pene- 
trate into  the  minutest  parts  of  the  animal. 
Impelled  by  the  heart,  and  conveyed  by 
the  arteries,  it  washes  every  part,  builds 
up  what  was  broken  down,  and  sweeps 
away  the  old  and  useless  materials. 

Hence  we  see  the  necessity  or  advan- 
tage of  the  heart  and  arterial  system :  the 
overplus  of  this  blood,  beyond  what  was 
required  to  repair  the  present  damages 
of  the  machine,  must  not  be  lost,  but 
should  be  returned  again  to  the  heart ; 
and  for  this  purpose  the  venal  system  is 
actually  provided.  These  requisites  in 
the  animal  explain,  a  priori,  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood. 

The  old  materials,  which  are  become 
useless,  and  are  swept  off'  by  the  current 
of  blood,  must  be  separated  and  thrown 
out  of  the  system.  Therefore  glands,  the 
organs  of  secretion,  are  given,  for  strain- 
ing whatever  is  redundant,  vapid,  or  noxi- 
ous, from  the  mass  of  blood:  and,  when 
strained,  it  is  thrown  out  by  excre- 
tories. 

Now,  as  the  fabric  must  be  constantly 
wearing,  the  reparation  must  be  carried 
on  without  intermission,  and  the  strainers 
must  always  be  employed  :  therefore 
there  is  actually  a  perpetual  circulation 
of  the  blood,  and  the  secretions  are  al- 
ways going  on. 

But  even  all  this  provision  would  not  be 
sufficient;  for  that  store  of  blood  would 
soon  be  consumed,  and  the  fabric  would 
break  down,  if  there  were  not  a  provision 
made  for  fresh  supplies.  These  we  ob- 
serve, in  fact,  are  profusely  scattered 
round  her  n.  Lhe  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms;  and  she  is  provided  with  hands, 
the  finest  instruments  that  could  have 
been  contrived  for  gathering  them,  and 


ANATOMY. 


for  preparing  them  in  a  variety  of  differ- 
ent ways  for  the  mouth.  These  supplies, 
which  we  call  food,  must  be  considerably 
changed;  they  must  be  converted  into 
hlood :  therefore  she  is  provided  with 
teeth  for  cutting  and  bruising  the  food, 
and  with  a  stomach  for  melting  it  down  ; 
in  short,  with  all  the  organs  subservient  to 
digestion.  The  finer  parts  of  the  aliments 
only  can  be  useful  in  the  constitution : 
these  must  be  taken  up,  and  conveyed  in- 
to the  blood,  and  tne  dregs  must  be  thrown 
off.  With  this  view  the  intestinal  canal  is 
constructed.  It  separates  the  nutritious 
part,  which  we  call  chyle,  to  be  conveyed 
into  the  blood  by  the  system  of  absorbent 
vessels  ;  and  the  feces  pass  downwards, 
to  be  conducted  out  of  the  body. 

Now  we  have  got  our  animal,  not  only 
furnished  with  what  is  wanted  for  its  im- 
mediate existence,  but  also  with  the  pow- 
er of  spinning  out  that  existence  to  an  in- 
definite length  of  time.  But  its  duration, 
we  may  presume,must  necessarily  be  limi- 
ted :  for  as  it  is  nourished,  grows,  and  is 
raised  up  to  its  full  strength  and  perfec- 
tion, so  it  must,  in  time,  in  common  with 
all  material  things,  begin  to  decay,  and 
then  hurry  on  to  final  ruin.  Hence  we 
see  the  necessity  of  a  scheme  for  renova- 
tion. Accordingly,  a  wise  Providence,  to 
perpetuate,  as  well  as  to  preserve  his 
work,  besides  giving  a  strong  appetite  for 
life  and  self-preservation,  has  made  ani- 
mals male  and  female,  and  given  them 
such  organs  and  pasjiions  as  will  secure 
the  propagation  of  the  species  to  the  end 
of  the  world. 

Thus  we  see,  that  by  the  very  imper- 
fect survey  which  human  reason  is  able 
to  take  of  this  subject,  the  animal  man 
must  necessarily  be  complex  in  his  cor- 
poreal system,  and  in  its  operations.  He 
must  have  one  great  and  general  system, 
the  vascular,branching  through  the  whole 
for  circulation:  another,  the  nervous,  with 
its  appendages,  the  organs  of  sense,  for 
every  kind  of  feeling :  and  a  third,  for  the 
union  and  connection  of  all  those  parts. 

Besides  these  primary  and  general  sys- 
tems, he  requires  others,  which  may  be 
more  local  or  confined :  one  for  strength, 
support,  and  protection  ;  the  bony  corn- 
pages  :  another  for  the  requisite  motions 
of  the  parts  among  themselves,  as  well  as 
for  moving  from  place  to  place  ;  the  mus- 
cular part  of  the  body  :  another  to  pre- 
pare nourishment  for  the  daily,  recruit  of 
the  body  ;  the  digestive  organs :  and  one 
for  propagating  the  species  ;  the  organs 
of  generation. 

In  taking  this  general  survey  of  what 
would  appear,  a  priori,  to  be  necssaryfor 


adapting  an  animal  to  the  situations  of 
humanity,  we  observe,  with  great  satis- 
faction, that  man  is  in  fact  made  of  such 
systems,  and  for  such  purposes.  He  has 
them  all,  and  he  has  nothing  more,  except 
the  organs  of  respiration.  Breathing  we 
cannot  account  for  a  priori,  we  only  know 
that  it  is  in  fact  essential  to  life.  Not- 
withstanding this,  when  we  see  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  body,  and  their  func- 
tions, so  well  accounted  for,  and  so  wisely 
adapted  to  their  several  purposes,  we  can. 
not  doubt  that  respiration  is  so  likewise. 
We  find,  in  fact,  that  the  blood  in  its  cir- 
culation becomes  altered  in  its  properties, 
and  that  these  are  renewed  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  oxygenous  or  pure  part  of 
the  atmosphere  in  the  lungs ;  we  find,  al- 
so, that  this  function  is  the  means  of  sup- 
porting the  temperature  of  the  animal. 

The  use  and  necessity  of  all  the  differ- 
ent systems  in  a  man's  body  is  not  more 
apparent,thanthe  wisdom  and  contrivance 
which  has  been  exerted  in  putting  them 
all  into  the  most  compact  and  convenient 
form,  and  in  disposing  them  so,  that  they 
shall  mutually  receive  and  give  helps  to 
one  another,  and  that  all,  or  many  of  the 
parts,  shall  not  only  answer  their  princi- 
pal end  or  purpose,  but  operate  success- 
fully and  usefully  in  many  secondary 
ways. 

If  we  understand  and  consider  the 
whole  animal  machine  in  this  light,  and 
compare  it  with  any  machine,  in  which  hu- 
man art  has  done  its  utmost,  suppose  the 
best  constructed  ship  that  ever  was  built, 
we  shall  be  convinced,  beyond  the  possi- 
bility of  doubt,  that  there  is  intelligence 
and  power  far  surpassing  what  humanity- 
can  boast  of. 

In  making*  such  a  comparison,  there  is 
a  peculiarity  and  superiority  in  the  natu- 
ral machine,  which  cannot  escape  obser- 
vation. Itisthis;  in  machines  of  human 
contrivance  or  art,  there  is  no  internal 
power,  no  principle  in  the  machine  itself, 
by  which  it  can  alter  or  accommodate  it- 
self to  any  injury  which  it  may  suffer,  Cr 
make  up  any  injury  which  is  reparable. 
But  in  the  natural  machine,  the  animal 
body,  this  is  most  wonderfully  provided 
for  by  internal  powers  in  the  machine  it- 
self, many  of  which  are  not  more  certain 
or  obvious  in  their  effects,  than  they  arc- 
above  all  human  comprehension  as  to  the 
manner  and  means  of  their  operation. 
Thus,  a  wound  heals  up  of  itself ;  a  bro- 
ken bone  is  made  firm  again  by  callus ;  a 
dead  part  is  separated  and  thrown  off; 
noxious  juices  are  driven  out  by  some  of 
the  emunctories  ;  a  redundancy  is  remo- 
ved by  some  spontaneous  bleeding ;  a 


ANATOMY. 


bleeding  naturally  stops  of  itself;  and  a 
great  loss  of  blood,  from  any  cause,  is  in 
.some  measure  compensated  by  a  contract- 
ing power  in  the  vascular  system,  which 
accommodates  the  capacity  of  the  vessels 
to  the  quantity  contained.  The  stomach 
gives  information  when  the  supplies  have 
been  expended,  represents  with  great  ex- 
actness the  quantity  and  quality  of  what 
is  wanted  in  the  present  state  of  the  ma- 
chine, and  in  proportion  as  she  meets  with 
neglect,  rises  in  her  demand,  urges  her 
petition  in  a  louder  voice,  and  with  more 
forcible  arguments.  For  its  protection,  an 
animal  bocfy  resists  heat  and  cold  in  a  very 
wonderful  nianner,  and  preserves  an 
equal  temperature  in  a  burning  and  in  a 
freezing  atmosphere. 

There  is  a  farther  excellence?  or  supe- 
riority in  the  natural  machine,  if  possible, 
still  more  astonishing,  more  beyond  all 
human  comprehension,  than  what  we 
Lave  been  speaking  of.  Besides  those 
internal  powers  of  self-preservation  in 
each  individual,  when  two  of  them  co- 
operate, or  act  in  concert,  they  are  en- 
dued with  powers  of  making  other  ani- 
mals or  machines  like  themselves,  which 
again  are  possessed  of  the  same  powers 
of  producing  others,  and  so  of  multiply- 
ing the  species  without  end.  These  are 
powers  which  mock  all  human  invention 
or  imitation,  they  are  characteristics  of 
the  Divine  Architect. 

As  the  body  is  a  compound  of  solids  and 
fluids,  anatomy  is  divided  into, 

1.  The  anatomy  of  the  solids,  and 

2.  The  anatomy  of  the  fluids. 

The  solids  of  the  human  body  consist 
of, 

1.  Bones,  which  give  support  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  body ; 

2.  Cartilages,  or  gristles,    which    are 
much  softer  than  the  bones,  and  also  flexi- 
ble and  elastic  ; 

3.  Ligaments,  which  are  more  flexible 
•still,  and  connect  the  ends  of  the  bones  to 
each  other  ; 

4.  Membranes,  or  planes  of  minutely 
interwoven  and  condensed  cellular  sub- 
-.unce  ; 

5.  Cellular  substance,  which  is  formed 
of  fibres  and  plates  of  animal  matter  more 
loosely  connected,   and  which  forms  the 
general  uniting  medium  of  all  the  struc- 
tures of  the  body ; 

6.  Fat,  or  adipous  substance,  an  animal 
oil  contained  in  the  cells  of  the  cellular 
-jmembrane  ; 

7.  Muscles,  which  are  bundles  of  fibres, 
endued  with  a  power  of  contraction  ;  in 
popular  language,  they  form  the  flesh  of 
nn  animal ; 


8.  Tendons,  hard  inelastic  cords,  which 
connect  the  muscles  or  moving  powers  to 
the  bones  or  instruments  of  motion  ; 

9.  Viscera,  .which  are  various  parts, 
adapted  for  different  purposes  in  the  ani- 
mal economy,  and  contained  in  the  cavi- 
ties of  the  body,  as  the  head,  chest,  abdo- 
men, and  pelvis ; 

10.  Glands,  organs  which  secrete  or  se- 
parate various  fluids  from  the  blood ; 

11.  Vessels,  which  are  membranous  ca- 
nals,  dividing  into  branches,    and  trans- 
mitting blood  and  other  fluids  ; 

12.  Cerebral  substance,  or  that  which 
composes  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow, 
which  is  a  peculiar  soft  kind  of  animal 
matter : 

13.  Nerves,  which  are  bundles  of  white 
fibrous  cords,  connected  by  one  end  to 
the  brain,  or  spinal  marrow,  and  thence 
expanded  over  every  part  of  the  body,  in 
order  to  receive  impressions  from  exter- 
nal objects,  or  to  convey  the  commands 
Oi' the  will,  and  thereby  produce  muscu- 
lar motion. 

The  fluids  of  the  human  body  are, 

1.  Blood,  which  circulates  through  the 
vessels,  and  nourishes  the  whole  fabric ; 

2.  Perspirable  matter,  excreted  by  the 
vessels  of  the  skin  ; 

3.  Sebaceous  matter,  by  the  glands  of 
the  skin ; 

4.  Urine,  by  the  kidneys  ; 

5.  Ceruminous  matter,  secreted  by  the 
glands  of  the  external  ear; 

6.  Tears,  by  the  lachrymal  glands  ; 

7.  Saliva,  by  the  salivary  glands  ; 

8.  Mucus,  by  glands  in  various  parts  of 
the  body,  and  by  various  membranes ; 

9.  Serous  fluid,  by  membranes  lining- 
circumscribed  cavities  ; 

10.  Pancreatic  juice,  by  the  pancreas  ; 

11.  Bile,  by  the  liver  ; 

12.  Gastric  juice,  by  the  stomach  ; 

13.  Oil,  by  the  vessels  of  the  adipose 
membrane ; 

14.  Synovia,  by  the  internal  surfaces  of 
the  joints,  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating 
them ; 

15.  Seminal  fluids,  by  the  testes ; 

16.  Milk,  by  the  mammary  glands. 
The  account  of  these  animal  fluids  will 

be  found  chiefly  under  the  article  PHYSI- 
OLOGY . 

The  anatomical  description  of  the  body 
is  technically  arranged  under  the  follow- 
ing heads  : 

1.  Osteology,  or  the  description  of  the 
structure,  shape,  and  uses  of  the  bones. 

2.  Syndesmology,  or  a  description  of 
the  connection  of  bones  by  ligaments,  and 
of  the  structure  of  the  joints. 


ANATOMY. 


S.  Myology,  or  doctrine  of  the  moving 
powers  or  muscles. 

4.  Angeiology,  or  description  of  the 
vessels  engaged  in  nourishing  the  body,  in 
absorption,  and  in  the  removal  of  super- 
fluous parts. 

5.  Adenology,  or  account  of  the  glands, 
in  which  various  liquors  are  separated  or 
prepared  from  the  blood. 

6.  Splanchnology,  or  a  description  of 
the  different  bowels,  which  serve  various 
and  dissimilar  purposes  in  the  animal  eco- 
nomy. 

7.  Neurology,  under  which  title  the 
brain,  the  nerves,  and  the  organs  of  sense, 
must  be  comp  rehended. 

The  functions  carried  on  in  animals,  in 
the  explanation  of  which  physiology  con- 
sists, and  for  the  detailed  account  of  which 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  article  PHYSIO- 
LOGY, may  be  thus  arranged. 

1.  Digestion,  or  the  conversion  of  extra- 
neous matter  into  a  substance  fit  for  the 
nourishment  of  their  own  bodies. 

2.  Absorption,  by  which  the  nutritive 
fluid  is  taken  up  and  conveyed  into  the 
vascular  system,  and  by  which  the  old 
parts  of  our  body  are  removed. 

3.  Respiration,  or  the  exposure  of  the 
nutritive  fluid  to  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

4.  Circulation,   or  the  distribution  of 
the  converted  matter  to  every  part  of  the 
animal,  for  its  repair  and  augmentation. 
The  process  is  named  circulation, from  the 
mode  in  which  it  is  carried  on  in  the  gene- 
rality of  animals. 

5.  Secretion,  or  the  separation  and  de- 
position of  the  particles  composing  the 
structure  of  animals  and  vegetables,  as 
well  as  the  formation  of  various  substan- 
ces which  they  produce  from  the  cir<iu- 
lating  fluids. 

6.  Irritability,  or  the  principle  by  which 
living  fibres  contract,  by  means  of  which 
absorption  and  circulation  are  carried  on, 
and  which  is  more  strikingly  manifested 
by  the  occasional  exertions  of  the  muscu- 
lar powers. 

7.  Sensation,  by  which  animals  become 
conscious  of  their  own  existence,  and  of 
that  of  external  bodies. 

8.  Generation,  by  which  new  beings,  si- 
milar to  the  parents,  are  formed  and  pro- 
duced. 

PAHT1CULAII    AXATOMICAL    BESCttlPTIOlf    OF 
THE    HUMAJf    BODY. 


Bl 


After  a  cursory  notice  of  the  cellular  sub- 
stance, which  forms  the  grand  uniting  me- 
dium of  the  various  structures  isj  the  body, 
and  of  membranes,  which  are  formed  of 


that  substance,  we  shall  proceed  to  de- 
scribe the  other  parts,  chiefly  according 
to  the  technical  arrangement  above  men- 
tioned. 

Cellular  substance,  or  cellular  membrane, 
tela  cellulosa  or  mucosa  of  Latin  writers, 
is  the  medium  which  connects  and  sup- 
ports all  the  various  parts  and  structures 
of  the  body.  Any  person  may  gain  a  gene- 
ral notion  of  this  substance,  by  observing 
it  in  joints  of  veal,  where  it  is  always  in- 
flated by  the  butchers.  It  consists  of  an 
assemblage  of  fibres  and  laminae  of  animal 
matter,  connected  to  each  other  so  as  to 
form  innumerable  cells  or  small  cavities, 
from  which  its  name  of  cellular  is  derived. 
It  pervades  every  part  of  the  animal  struc- 
ture. By  joining  together  the  minute  fi- 
brils of  muscle,  tendon,  or  nerve,  it  forms 
obvious  and  visible  fibres ;  it  collects  these 
fibres  into  large  fasciculi ;  and  by  joining 
such  fasciculi  or  bundles  to  each  other, 
constitutes  an  entire  muscle,  tendon,  or 
nerve.  It  joins  together  the  individual 
muscles,  and  is  collected  in  their  intervals. 
It  surrounds  each  vessel  and  nerve  in  the 
body  ;  often  connecting  these  parts  to- 
gether by  a  firm  kind  of  capsule,  and  in  a 
looser  form  joining  them  to  the  neigh- 
bouring muscles,  &c.  When  condensed 
into  a  firm  and  compact  structure,  it  con- 
stitutes the  various  membranes  of  the  bo- 
dy, which,  by  long  maceration  in  water, 
may  be  resolved  into  a  loose  cellular  tex- 
ture. In  the  bones  it  forms  the  basis  or 
ground  work  of  their  fabric,  a  receptacle, 
in  the  interstices  of  which  the  earth  of 
bone  is  deposited.  As  cellular  substance  is 
entirely  soluble  in  boiling  water,  it  is  as- 
cribed by  chemists  to  that  peculiar  modi- 
fication of  animal  matter  termed  gelatine. 
In  consequence  of  its  solution  by  the  unit- 
ed agencies  of  heat  and  moisture,  the 
muscular  fibres  separate  from  each  other, 
and  form  the  other  structures  of  the  body. 
This  effect  is  seen  in  meat  which  is  sub- 
jected to  long  boiling  or  stewing  for  the 
table,  or  indeed  in  a  joint  which  is  mere- 
ly over-boiled. 

Its  watery  solution  assumes,  when  cold, 
the  appearance  of  jelly;  and,  after  a  par- 
ticular mode  of  preparation,  constitutes 
glue. 

The  interstices  of  the  cellular  substance 
are  lubricated  and  moistened  by  a  serous 
or  watery  fluid,  poured  out  by  the  exha- 
lant  arteries,  and  again  taken  in  by  the 
lymphatics.  It  thus  acquires  a  pliancy 
and  softness,  which  adapt  it  particularly 
to  serve  as  a  connecting  medium  for  parts 
which  have  motion  on  each  other.  The 
importance  of  this  property  will  be  best 
understood  by  observing  the  effects  of 


ANATOMY. 


its  loss.  Inflammation  or  abscess  often 
causes  an  induration  or  consolidation  of 
the  cellular  texture,  by  which  the  integu- 
ments are  fixed  to  the  muscles,  the  mus- 
cles are  firmly  united  to  each  other,  and 
to  the  surrounding1  parts,  and  the  mo- 
tions of  the  whole  are  considerably  im- 
paired. 

From  the  universal  extent  of  this  cellu- 
lar texture,  two  conclusions  may  be  draw  n: 
1st,  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  whole  animal 
fabric,  in  such  a  way,  that  if  we  conceive 
every  part  removed  but  this,  the  form  of 
the  whole  would  still  be  expressed  in  cel- 
lular substance  ;  2dly,  it  forms  a  connec- 
tion and  passage  between  all  parts  of  the 
body,  however  remote  in  situation,  or  dis- 
similar in  structure.  For  the  cells  of  this 
substance  every  where  communicate  ;  as 
we  may  collect  from  facts  of  the  most 
common  and  familiar  occurrence.  In  em- 
physema, where  air  escapes  from  the  lung- 
wounded  by  a  broken  rib  into  the  cellu- 
lar substance,  it  spreads  rapidly  from  the 
chest  into  the  most  remote  parts  of  the 
body  ;  and  lias  even  been  known  to  gain 
admission  into  the  eye-ball.  A  similar 
diffusion  of  this  fluid  may  be  effected  by 
artificial  inflation,  which  is  commonly 
practised  by  butchers  on  the  carcases  of 
calves.  In  anasarca,  or  preternatural  ac- 
cumulation of  fluid  in  the  cellular  sub- 
stance, the  most  depending  parts  are  the 
most  loaded;  and  punctures  in  these  drain 
the  water  off  from  the  whole  body. 

Jldipous  substance,  or  fat. — The  cells  of 
the  cellular  substance,  in  many  parts  of 
the  body,  are  destined  for  the  reception  of 
a  fluid,  termed  fat.  This  is  of  an  unctuous 
nature,  inflammable,  lighter  than  water, 
usually  inodorous,  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, similar  to  the  vegetable  oils.  It  is 
white  in  young  animals,  and  becomesyel- 
lower  as  they  advance  in  age :  this  differ- 
ence may  be  seen  in  the  carcases  of  a  calf 
and  cow.  It  is  always  more  or  less  fluid 
in  the  living  subject ;  in  carnivorous  ani- 
mals, and  in  man,  it  retains  much  of  its 
oily  appearance  after  death;  but  in  herbi- 
vorous animals  it  constantly  assumes  a  con- 
crete form.  Dr.  Hunter  called  those  parts 
of  the  cellular  substance  which  contain  fat, 
adipous  cellutar  substance,-  and  distinguish- 
ed the  other  by  the  epithet  recticular. 

As  the  fat  is  deposited  in  cells,  it  as- 
sumes in  general  a  kind  of  granular  form. 
It  varies  considerably  in  consistence.  That 
of  the  orbit  is  the  softest  in  the  body,  and 
forms  a  well-known  epicurean  bonne 
bouche,  in  a  boiled  calf  s  head.  The  fat 
about  the  kidneys  becomes  particularly 
bard  after  death,  and  is  called  suet.  The 


globules  or  portions  of  this  are  very  large, 
and  it  contains  on  the  whole  less  cellular 
substance  than  any  fat  in  the  body.  There 
is  generally  a  layer  of  fat  under  the  skin  ; 
whence  a  membrana  adiposa  has  been 
sometimes  enumerated  as  one  of  the  com- 
mon integuments  of  the  body. 

Some  parts  of  the  body  never  contain 
fat,  even  in  subjects  who  have  the  greatest 
accumulation  of  this  fluid.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  scrotum,  the  integuments  of  the 
penis,  and  the  eye-lids:  it  is  obvious  that 
the  functions  of  these  parts  would  be 
completely  destroyed,if  they  were  subject 
to  the  enormous  accumulations  of  fat, 
which  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 
Several  of  the  viscera  also  never  contain 
any  fat,  probably  for  the  same  reason;  this 
is  the  case  with  the  brain  and  lungs. 

The  quantity  of  fat  varies  according  to 
the  age,  the  state  of  health,  and  the  pecu- 
liar habit  or  disposition  of  the  individual. 
It  is  not  found  in  the  early  periods  of  foetal 
existence ;  and  cannot  be  distinguished 
with  any  certainty  cooner  than  the  fifth 
month  after  conception. 

In  the  foetus,  and  for  some  time  after 
birth,  the  fat  is  confined  to  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  is  only  found  in  a  stratum 
under  the  skin.  It  begins,  however,  gra- 
dually to  be  deposited  in  the  intervals  of 
the  muscles,  and  on  the  surface  of  some 
viscera.  In  old  subjects,  however  thin 
they  may  seem  on  an  external  view,  there 
is  always  much  fat,  penetrating  even  the 
substance  of  the  muscles  ;  the  bones  are 
greasy  throughout;  the  heart  is  more  or 
less  loaded,  as  are  also  the  parts  in  the 
abdomen. 

There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
quantity  of  fat  in  different  individuals,  and 
in  some  there  is  a  propensity  or  disposi- 
tion to  its  accumulation  ;  a  sedentary  life, 
copious  food,  and  tranquil  state  of  the 
mind  are  particularly  favourable  to  the  in- 
crease of  fat,  which  sometimes  proceeds  to 
such  a  pitch,  from  the  continuance  of  these 
causes,  that  it  must  be  considered  as  a  dis- 
ease, and  is  attended  with  the  greatest  in- 
convenience to  the  individual.  General 
diseases  of  the  frame  are  commonly  at- 
tended with  an  absorption  of  the  fat  from 
the  cellular  substance  :  acute  disorders 
cause  a  very  rapid  emaciation.  In  no  case 
is  the  adipous  substance  more  completely 
removed  from  the  whole  body  than  in 
anasarca,  where  its  place  is  supplied  by  a 
serous  fluid. 

The  uses  of  the  fat  seem  to  be,  in  part, 
common  to  it  with  the  cellular  substance: 
it  connects  contiguous  parts,  and  at  the 
same  time  prevents  their  coalition.  It  ad- 


ANATOMY. 


suits,  of  their  moving  on  each  other  with 
Freedom  and  facility.  Its  deposition  under 
the  integuments  gives  a  roundness  and 
convexity  to  the  surface,  on  which  the 
beauty  of  the  human  form  principally  de- 
pends. Indeed,  its  accumulation  in  par- 
ticular situations  immediately  influences 
the  outline  of  the  part;  as  in  the  orbit, 
the  cheek,  and  the  buttocks.  The  effects 
of  its  loss  is  most  disagreeably  manifested 
in  the  lank  cheek  and  hollow  eye  of  an 
emaciated  patient. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  fat  ab- 
sorbed under  certain  circumstances  is 
applied  to  the  nutrition  of  the  body  ;  as 
in  hybernating  animals. 

JMembranes. — In  the  foregoing  observa- 
tions on  cellular  substance,  we  have  stated 
that  membranes  are  formed  by  a  conden- 
sation of  that  substance.  They  consist  of 
thin  sheets  of  compacted  and  close  cellu- 
lar texture.  This  is  proved  by  long  ma- 
ceration in  water.  The  fluid  gradually 
penetrates  the  interstices,  and  resolves 
the  membrane  into  a  loose  and  flocculent 
substance.  They  are  found  in  every  va- 
riety of  density  and  softness. 

A  grand  use  of  membranes  is,  to  line 
what  anatomists  call  the  circumscribed  ca- 
vities of  the  body.  These  are  hollow 
spaces,  containing  the  different  viscera, 
and  in  every  instance  complete!}'  and  ac- 
curately filled  by  such  viscera;  so  that 
the  term  cavity,  when  used  by  anato- 
mists, does  not,  as  in  common  language, 
denote  a  void  or  empty  space. 

Membranes  have  a  smooth  internal  po- 
lished surface,  turned  towards  the  con- 
tained viscera.  This  is  constantly  moist- 
ened by  a  lubricating  fluid  exhaled  by  the 
minute  arteries  of  the  part,  and  bestows 
on  the  surface  of  the  membrane  the 
greatest  softness  and  smoothness.  Hence 
the  motions  of  the  viscera  are  performed 
with  perfect  facility,  and  they  are  pre- 
vented from  adhering  to  each  other,  or  to 
the  sides  of  the  containing  cavity.  The  ex- 
tent of  such  cavities  is  bounded  and  de- 
fined by  the  lining  membranes,  and  hence 
arises  the  epithet  circumscribed.  To  in- 
crease the  facility  of  motion,  the  surface 
of  the  contained  viscera  is  covered  by  a 
continuation  of  the  same  membrane,  and 
always  therefore  possesses  the  same 
smoothness  and  polish  with  the  sides  of 
the  cavity.  The  membrane  lining  a  cir- 
cumscribed cavity  is  a  complete  and  en- 
tire sac,  which  is  reflected  over  all  the  vis- 
cera contained  in  the  cavity.  In  the  carcase 
of  an  animal  just  slaughtered,  the  lubricat- 
ing secretion  flies  off  in  the  form  of  a  fine 
vapour  when  the  cavity  of  the  belly  or 

VOL.  I. 


chest  is  laid  open.  It  is  nothing  mor.e 
than  an  increase  of  this  natural  secretion, 
combined  perhaps  with  a  deficient  ab- 
sorption, that  gives  rise  to  dropsies  of  the 
different  cavities. 

The  opposite  or  external  surface  of  the 
membrane  is  rough  and  cellular;  and  ad- 
heres to  the  various  parts  which  form  the 
sides  of  the  cavity. 

Another  use  of  membranes  is,  to  form 
blood-vessels,  or  tubes  for  conveying  the 
nutritious  fluid  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 
The  bore  or  hollow  of  the  tube  is  per- 
factly  smooth  and  polished,  so  that  the 
blood  experiences  no  obstruction  in  its 
course  ;  and  the  external  surface  is  rough, 
to  connect  it  with  the  surrounding  parts. 
In  a  similar  manner  are  formed  the  sto- 
mach and  intestines,  which  receive  the 
food ;  the  urinary  bladder,  which  holds 
the  urine,  &c. 

It  must  be  obvious,  that  for  all  the  pur- 
poses which  we  have  enumerated,  whe- 
ther for  lining  circumscribed"  cavities,  for 
conveying  the  blood,  for  receiving  the 
food,  or  holding  any  other  liquors,  it  is 
essentially  necessary  that  membranes 
should  be  impermeable  to  fluids  in  the 
living  state. 

OSTEOLOGY. 

The  bones  are  the  most  solid  parts  of 
the  body.  They  are  composed  of  a  vas- 
cular substance,  not  differing  materially 
in  structure  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
body,  except  that  there  is  deposited  in 
its  insterstices  an  earthy  matter,  which 
gives  to  the  whole  mass  rigidity,  strength, 
and  a  permanent  figure.  The  nutrient 
vessels  of  arteries,  membranes,  and  liga- 
ments, occasionally  deposit  lime,  and 
cause  the  ossification  of  those  parts. 

The  account  of  the  original  formation 
of  the  bones  in  the  foetus,  is  technically 
termed  osteogeny.  The  parts  of  the  young 
fostus,  which  are  afterwards  to  become 
bones,  are  at  first  cartilaginous  ;  and  their 
substance  is  rendered  white  and  firm,  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  lime  depo- 
sited in  it.  The  quantity  at  the  time  of 
birth  is  only  sufficient  to  give  firmness  to 
the  whole  mass,  not  to  prevent  its  flexibi- 
lity. 

The  extremities  of  all  the  long  bones 
consist  of  large  portions  of  cartilage,  and 
these  by  degrees  become  bony.  The  for- 
mation of  bone  begins  in  the  centre  of 
the  cartilage,  and  gradually  extends  from 
thence  to  the  remote  parts,  so  that  the 
separate  piece  of  bone,  formed  at  the  ex- 
tremity, remains  till  near  the  time  of  pu- 
berty, conjoined  to  the  body  of  the  bone 

7 


ANATOMY. 


by  a  crust  of  cartilage.  In  this  state  it 
is  technically  termed  an  epiphysis.  The 
body,  or  middle  part  of  the  bone,  is  call- 
ed the  diaphysls.  The  projecting  parts, 
or  processes  of  bones,  are  also  in  many 
instances  originally  epiphyses.  The  time 
by  which  these  epiphyses  are  consolidat- 
ed by  a  bony  union  with  the  diaphysis,  va- 
ries in  different  bones,  but  it  is  not  pro- 
longed in  any  much  beyond  the  age  of 
puberty. 

We  perceive  an  evident  advantage  in 
the  bones  of  the  foetus  being  formed  as 
they  are.  Their  flexibility  admits  of  the 
form  of  the  limbs  becoming  adapted  to 
the  varying  figure  of  the  pelvis,  through 
which  they  must  pass  ;  and  their  elastici- 
ty, which  is  powerful,  restores  them  af- 
terwards to  their  natural  shape. 

The  animal  substance  contained  in 
bones  is  demonstrated  by  immersion  in 
weak  acids,  which  dissolve  the  earth,  and 
leave  a  kind  of  cartilage  similar  to  that 
in  which  the  bone  was  originally  formed. 
Long  boiling  in  a  close  vessel  removes 
the  gelatinous  substance,  which  is  dis- 
solved in  the  water.  The  earth  of  bones 
is  demonstrated  by  calculation,  which 
drives  oft'  the  animal  matter,  and  leaves 
the  earth  alone  behind.  This  earth  con- 
sists chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime  ;  but 
there  is  also  a  smali  proportion  of  carbo- 
nate of  lime.  In  young  subjects  the  ani- 
mal substance  predominates,  and  the 
bone  appears  redder,  in  consequence  of 
the  arteries  being  larger  and  more  nume- 
rous. The  bones  ef  old  persons  contain 
more  earth,  and  are  consequently  whiter 
and  less  vascular. 

Some  recent  experiments  have  shewn 
the  quantity  of  jelly  contained  in  bones  to 
be  much  larger  than  was  supposed,  and 
as  it  forms  a  very  good  soup  when  dis- 
solved in  water,  the  circumstance  is  of 
considerable  importance,  as  furnishing  an 
article  capable  of  supplying  much  whole- 
some nutriment.  The  quantity  of  soup 
furnished  from  a  given  bulk  of  bruised  or 
pounded  bones,  boiled  in  a  vessel  with  a 
closed  lid,  considerably  exceeds  that 
wh  i-'i  can  be  extracted  from  the  same 
quan  i  -y  of  meat.  Of  course  the  articular 
he-.i.s  ,.•;-'  bones,  and  the  reticular  texture, 
in  genera)  furnish  the.  greatest  quantity 

It  has  been  generally  taught,  that  bones 
are  composed  of  fibres  and  laminae  :  the 
fact  is,  thai  they  consist  of  a  reticulated 
texture,  very  similar  io  cellular  substance 
in  other  parts  of  the  bv>cly 

According  (o  tfie  obvious  differences 
in  their  forms,  bones  are  divided  into  the 
long  and  flat. 


Two  kinds  of  structure  may  be  obserr 
ed  in  all  bones ;  in  the  one,  the  bony 
substance  is  condensed,  and  leaves  no  in- 
terstices ;  in  the  other,  there  is  a  mere 
net-work  of  bony  fibres  and  plates,  leav- 
ing numerous  intervals.  The  latter  is 
termed  the  cancellous  substance  of  bones, 

The  cylinder  of  a  long  bone  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  the  firmer  substance, 
and  in  its  centre  is  hollowed  out  to  con- 
tain the  marrow.  In  those  extremities  of 
the  bones,  \vhich  form  the  joints,  which 
are  greatly  expanded,  in  order  to  increase 
the  extent  of  surface,  there  is  a  thin  layer 
of  the  compact  substance,  but  all  the  in- 
terior is  cancellous.  In  broad  or  flat 
bones,  the  firmer  substance  is  formed  into 
two  plates  or  tables,  and  the  interval  be- 
tween these  is  occupied  by  cancelli. 

Many  advantages  arise  from  this  ar- 
rangement of  the  earth  of  bones.  The 
long  bones  are  made  slender  in  the  mid- 
dle, to  allow  of  the  convenient  collocation 
of  the  large  muscles  around  them  ;  they 
become  expanded  at  their  extremities,  to 
afford  an  extent  of  surface  for  the  forma- 
tion of  joints,  and  the  support  of  the 
weight  of  the  body.  A  cavity  is  left  in 
the  middle ;  for  if  all  the  earthy  matter 
had  been  compacted  into  the  smallest 
possible  space,  the  bones  would  have 
been  such  slender  stems,  as  to  be  very 
unsuitable  to  their  offices ;  and  if  they 
had  been  of  their  present  dimensions,  and 
solid  throughout,  they  would  have  been 
unnecessarily  strong  and  weighty. 

The  phenomena,  which  result  from 
feeding  an  animal  with  madder,  sufficient- 
ly demonstrate  the  existence  of  blood- 
vessels and  absorbents  in  the  bones. 
There  is  a  strong  attraction  between  the 
earth  of  bone  and  the  colouring  matter  ; 
by  means  of  which  they  unite  and  form  a 
beautiful  red  substance.  The  whole  of 
the  bones  of  an  animal  assume  this  colour 
soon  after  an  animal  has  been  taking  the 
madder.  If  it  be  left  off,  the  bones  in  a 
short  time  resume  their  natural  white  ap- 
pearance, from  the  absorption  of  the  red 
colouring  substance.  The  shv;rt  tune  in 
which  growing  bones  become  thoroughly 
dyed,  and  in  which  again  the  preternatu- 
ral tint  is  lost,  prove  that  even  in  these, 
the  hardest  parts  of  our  frames,  there  is  a 
process  of  removal  of  old  parts,  and  de- 
position of  new  ones,  constantly  going  on. 

That  bones  possess  IK  r/es,  as  well  as 
arteries,  veins,  and  absorbents,  rannot  be 
doubted.  Although  in  the  natural  state 
they  seem  to  oe  insensible,  they  become 
extremely  painful  when  diseased;  and 
again,  a  fungus,  which  is  sensible,  some- 


ANATOMY. 


times  grows  out  of  a  bone,  though  it  may 
have  no  connexion  whatever  with  the  sur- 
rounding1 soft  parts ;  of  course  it  must 
have  derived  its  nerves,  by  means  of 
which  it  possesses  sensation,  from  the 
bone  out  of  which  it  arose. 

Bones  are  covered  by  a  strong"  and  firm 
membrane,  termed  periosteum,  on  which 
the  vessels  are  first  distributed ;  from  this 
they  descend  into  the  substance  of  the 
bone.  The  vessels  enter  through  holes 
which  are  evident  on  the  surface,  and 
which  are  larger  and  more  numerous  in 
the  extremities  of  the  long  bones  than  in 
the  middle. 

OF  THE  MARROW. 

This  is  of  an  oily  nature.  It  hardens, 
when  cold,  in  herbaceous  animals;  but 
it  remains  fluid  in  those  which  are  carni- 
vorous. It  has  a  reddish  and  bloody  ap- 
pearance in  young  animals ;  but  this  soon 
goes  off.  It  is  contained  in  fine  membra- 
nous cells,  which  do  not  communicate 
with  each  other.  The  marrow  occupies 
the  tube  left  in  the  middle  of  the  long 
bones,  and  also  fills  the  cancelli  of  their 
extremities. 

The  cellular  substance,  which  contains 
the  marrow,  being  condensed  upon  the 
inside  of  the  walls  of  the  bone,  and  adhe- 
ring to  them,  has  been  termed  the  perios- 
teum internum. 

We  observe  in  the  principal  bones  arte- 
ries, much  larger  than  those  which  nou- 
rish the  bone,  penetrating  these  bodies 
obliquely,  and  spreading  their  branches 
upon  the  medullary  cells. 

Various  unsatisfactory  opinions  have 
been  proposed  concerning  the  use  of  the 
marrow.  The  utility  of  the  bones  be- 
ing- formed  as  they  are,  small  and  tubular 
in  the  middle,  expanded  and  spongy  at 
their  extremities,  has  been  already  ex- 
plained. If  then  spaces  are  necessarily 
left  in  their  interior  parts,  those  spaces 
must  be  filled  with  something;  for  they 
cannot  be  left  void,  or  the  immense  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  would  crush  their 
sides,  and  destroy  the  vacuum.  There  is 
no  matter  in  the  animal  body  more  suit- 
at^e  to  fill  their  spaces  than  the  marrow  ; 
and  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the 
adipous  system  of  the  animal. 

From  the  circumstances  which  have 
been  detailed  in  the  foregoing  account, 
viz.  the  great  and  general  vascularity  of 
bones;  the  quantity  of  soft  substance  ex- 
isting in  every  part  of  them  ;  their  growth 
and  mutation  of  form  in  disease,  &c.  it  is 
natural  to  conclude,  that  there  exist  in 


the  composition  of  every  bony  fibre,  arte- 
ries for  its  formation,  absorbents  for  its 
removal,  cellular  substance  for  the  con- 
nexion of  its  parts,  and  nerves  to  give  ani- 
mation to  the  whole.  In  this  view  of  the 
subject,  we  see  no  essential  difference  of 
structure  between  bones  and  other  parts 
of  the  body  ;  nor  do  we  expect  any  essen- 
nal  difference  in  the  functions  of  their 
nutrient  and  other  vessels.  We  naturally 
conclude  that  bony  fibres  are  formed  and 
repaired,  and  that  they  undergo  mutuation 
and  removal,  in  the  same  manner,  and 
from  the  same  causes,  that  soft  parts  do. 

CARTILAGE 

Is  a  semi  pellucid  substance,  of  a  milk- 
Wiiite  or  pearly  colour,  entering  into  the 
composition  of  several  parts  of  the  body. 
It  holds  a  middle  rank,  in  point  of  firm- 
ness, between  bones,  or  hard  parts,  and 
the  softer  constituents  of  the  human 
frame.  It  appears,  on  a  superficial  ex- 
amination, to  be  homogeneous  in  its  tex- 
ture ;  for,  when  cut,  the  surface  is  uni- 
form, and  contains  no  visible  cells,  cavi- 
ties, nor  pores  ;  but  resembles  the  section 
of  a  piece  of  glue.  It  possesses  a  very 
high  degree  of  elasticity  ;  which  property 
distinguishes  it  from  all  other  parts  of  the 
body.  Hence  it  enters  into  the  compo- 
sition of  parts,  whose  functions  require 
the  combination  of  firmness  with  pliancy 
and  flexibility  :  the  preservation  of  a  cer- 
tain external  form,  with  the  power  of 
yielding  to  external  force  or  pressure. 

Cartilages  are  covered  by  a  membrane, 
resembling,  in  texture  and  appearance, 
as  well  as  in  its  office,  the  periosteum  of 
bones;  this  is  termed  the  perichondrium. 
They  receive  arteries  and  veins  from  this 
membrane  :  these  vessels,  however,  have 
never  been  demonstrated  in  the  cartila- 
ginous crusts  of  articular  surfaces.  Ab- 
sorbent vessels  cannot  be  actually  shewn, 
but  their  existence  is  abundantly  proved 
by  many  phenomena.  The  conversion  of 
cartilage  into  bone  is  alone  sufficient  for 
this  purpose.  The  cartilaginous  sub- 
stance is  gradually  removed,  as  the  for- 
mation of  the  bone  advances.  In  affec- 
tions of  the  joints,  their  cartilaginous  co- 
verings are  often  both  entirely  destroyed, 
or  partially  removed  :  which  appearances 
can  only  be  ascribed  to  the  action  of  ab- 
sorbent vessels. 

It  does  not  seem  to  possess  nerves,  as 
it  is  entirely  destitute  of  sensibility. 

The  thinner  cartilages  of  the  body  are 
resolved  by  maceration  into  a  kind  of 
fibrous  substance  :  e,  ^.  those  of  the  or- 


ANATOMY. 


gans  of  sense.  Those  of  the  ribs  are 
found  by  long  maceration  to  consist  of 
concentric  oval  laminae.  In  some  there 
are  tendinous  fibres  intermixed ;  as  in 
those  of  the  vertebrae. 

Anatomists  divide  cartilages  into  two 
kinds  ;  the  temporary  and  the  permanent. 
The  former  are  confined  to  the  earlier 
stages  of  existence  :  the  latter  common- 
ly retain  their  cartilaginous  structure 
throughout  every  period  of  life. 

The  temporary  cartilages  are  those  in 
which  the  bones  of  the  body  are  formed. 
They  are  hence  called  by  the  Latin  wri- 
ters ossescentes.  All  the  bones  of  the  body, 
except  the  teeth,  are  formed  in  a  ivdus  of 
cartilage.  The  form  of  the  bone,  with  its 
various  processes,  is  accurately  repre- 
sented in  these  cartilaginous  primordia ; 
and  it  is  the  substance  alone  which 
changes. 

The  permanent  cartilages  are  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  We  find  them  composing  the 
external  ear,  external  aperture  of  the  nos- 
trils ?.'vl  eye-lids.  The  larynx  is  entirely 
composed  of  this  substance  ;  and  the  tra- 
chea, with  its  branches,  is  furnished  with 
cartilaginous  hoops,  by  which  these  tubes 
fire  kept  permanently  open,  for  the  ready 
passage  of  air  to  and  from  the  lungs. 

The  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  joined 
by  large  masses  of  a  peculiar  substance ; 
p'artaking  of  the  properties  and  appear- 
ance of  cartilage  and  ligament,  which 
allow  of  the  motions  of  these  parts  on  each 
other,  without  weakening  the  support  that 
is  afforded  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body 
in  general,  and  to  the  head  in  particular, 
by  the  vertebral  column.  These  carti- 
lages impart  a  great  elasticity  to  the  spine; 
by  which  the  effects  of  concussion  from 
jumping,  from  falls,  &c.  are  weakened, 
and  destroyed,  before  they  can  be  propa- 
gated to  the  head.  When  the  body  has 
been  long  in  an  erect  position,  the  com- 
pression of  these  cartilages,  by  the  supe- 
rior parts,  diminishes  the  height  of  the 
person.  They  recover  theirformer  length, 
•when  freed  from  this  pressure :  hence  a 
person  is  taller  when  he  rises  in  the  morn- 
ing, than  after  sustaining  the  fatigues  of 
the  day,  and  the  difference  has  sometimes 
amounted  to  an  inch. 

Cartilages  are  sometimes  interposed  be- 
tween the  articular  surfaces  of  bones, 
where  they  fill  up  irregularities,  that 
might  otherwise  impede  the  motions  of 
the  part;  and  increase  the  security  of  the 
joint,  by  adapting  the  articular  surfaces 
to  each  other. 

The  articular  surfaces  of  bones  are,  in 
.very  instance,  covered  by  a  thin  crust  of 


cartilage,  having  its  surface  most  exqui~ 
sitely  polished,  by  which  all  friction  in  the 
motions  of  the  joint  is  avoided,  and  the 
ends  of  the  bones  glide  over  each  other 
with  the  most  perfect  facility. 

Nomenclature  of  bones. — The  processes 
or  apophyses  of  bones  bear  different 
names,  according  to  their  figures.  Hence 
we  find  them  described  under  the  terms* 
of  head  (roundish  ball;)  condyle  (a  flat- 
tened head;)  neck;  tuberosity  ;  spine; 
&c.  others  have  particular  names  from 
supposed  resemblances. 

The  cavities  or  depressions  of  bones 
are  called  cotyloid,  when  deep ;  glenoid, 
when  shallow.  Again,  we  have  pits,  iur- 
rows,  notches,  sinuosities,  fossae,  sinuses, 
foramina,  and  canals. 

Connection  of  bones. — Anatomists  have 
divided  these  into  three  classes:  Symphy- 
sis,  Synarthrosis,  and  Diarthrosis. 

The  term  symphysis  merely  denotes 
the  union  of  the  conjoined  bones,  without 
any  reference  to  peculiar  form  or  motion; 
hence  it  is  divided,  accordingto  the  means 
by  which  it  is  affected,  into. 

1.  Synchondrosis,  where   cartilage   is 
the  connecting  medium  :  this  is  exempli- 
fied in  the  junction  of  the  ribs  and  ster- 
num ;  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae ;  and 
of  the  ossapubis: 

2.  Synneurosis  or  syndesmosis  ;  where 
ligaments  are  the  connecting  bodies,  as 
in  all  the  moveable  articulations: 

3.  Syssarcosis ;    where   muscles    are 
stretched  from  one  bone  to  another. 

The  synarthrosis,  or  immoveable  con- 
junction of  bones,  consists  of, 

1.  Suture ;  where  the  bones  are  mutu- 
ally indented,  as  if  sewn  together  : 

2.  Harmonia ;  where  the  conjunction  is 
effected  by  plane  surfaces  : 

3.  Gomphosis;  where  one  bone  is  fixed 
in  another,  as  a  nail  is  in  a  board.     The 
teeth  afford  the  only  specimen  : 

4.  Schindylesis  ;  where  the  edge  of  one 
bone  is  received  into  a  groove  in  another: 
as  the  nasal  plate  of  the  ethmoid,  in  the 
vomer. 

Diarthrosis,  or  moveable  conjunction  of 
bones.  The  conjoined  parts  of  the  bones 
are  covered  with  a  smooth  cartilage,  and 
connected  by  one  or  more  ligaments.  It 
has  three  subdivisions  j  viz. 

1.  Enarthrosis,  or    ball    and    socket; 
where  a  round  head  of  one  bone   is  re- 
ceived into  a  cavity  of  another,   and  con- 
sequently is  capable  of  motions  in  all  di- 
rections; 

2.  Arthrodia ;  where  the  cavity  is  more 
superficial,  and  much  motion  not  allowed: 

3.  Ginglymus  ;  where  the  motions  arc 


ANATOMY. 


restricted  to  two  directions,  as  in  the  hinge 
of  a  door. 

The  skeleton  consists  of  an  assemblage 
of  all  the  bones  in  the  body,  excepting  the 
os  hyoides.  It  is  said  to  be  a  natural  ske- 
leton, when  the  bones  are  connected  by 
means  of  their  own  ligaments  or  cartila- 
ges ;  an  artificial  one,  when  wire  or 
other  extraneous  substances  are  employ- 
ed. 

It  is  divided  into  the  head,  trunk,  and 
extremities. 

The  head  consists  of  the  cranium  and 
the  face.  The  former  of  these  parts  con- 
sists of  1  or  2  ossa  frontis;  2  bssa  parieta- 
lia;  1  os  sphenobasilare ;  2  ossa  tempo- 
rum  ;  2  mallei ;  2  incudes  ;  2  orbicularia  ; 
2  stapedes ;  and  1  os  jethmoideum  :  on 
the  whole,  of  15  or  16  bones. 

The  face  has  2  ossa  maxillaria  superi- 
ora;  2  ossa  palati ;  2  ossa  malae  ;  2  ossa 
nasi  ;  2  ossa  lacrymalia  or  uncuis  ;  2  ossa 
tiirbinata  inferiora ;  1  osvomer;  1  max- 
illa inferior ;  32  teeth;  on  the  whole,  46 
bones. 

The  os  hyoides  consists  of  a  body,  2  la- 
teral portions  called  cornua,  and  2  sural 
processes  called  appendices. 

The  bones  of  the  head  are  therefore  61 
©r  62  ;  with  the  os  hyoides  66  or  67. 

In  the  neck  there  are  7  cervical  verte- 
brce  :  in  the  chest  12  dorsal  vertebrae ;  24 
ribs ;  2  or  3  bones  of  the  sternum  ;  in  the 
loins  5  lumbar  vertebra  ;  in  the  pelvis  1 
sacrum,  4  ossa  coccygis,  2  ossa  innomi- 
nata. 

Therefore  the  whole  trunk  has  57  or  58 
bones. 

The  shoulders  have  two  clavicles,  and 
2  scapulae ;  the  arms  2  humeri ;  the  fore- 
arms 2  ulnae  and  2  radii ;  the  wrists  2  os- 
sa  scaphoidea ;  2  ossa  lunaria ;  2  ossa 
cuneiformia  ;  2  ossa  pisiformia;  2  ossa  tra- 
pezia :  2  ossa  trapezioidea  ;  2  ossa  magna; 
2  ossa  unciformia  ;  the  metacarpi  10  meta- 
carpal  bones;  the  fingers  10  posterior 
phalanges,  8  middle  phalanges,  10  ante- 
rior phalanges,  and  8  sesamoid  bones. 

The  bones  of  the  upper  extremities  are 
in  the  whole  72. 

The  thighs  have  2  femora;  the  legs  2 
tibise,  2  patellae,  and  2  fibulae;  the  tarsi  2 
astragali,  2  ossa  calcis,  2  ossa  navicularia, 
6  cuneiform  bones,  2  ossa  cuboidea;  the 
metatarsi  10  metatarsal  bones ;  the  toes 
10  posterior  phalanges,  8  middle  phalan- 
ges, 10  anterior  phalanges,  and  6  sesamoid 
bones. 

The  bones  of  the  lower  extremities 
are  66. 

The  whole  skeleton  contains  259  or  261 
bones. 


Of  the  bones  just  enumerated,  the  os 
frontis,  spheno-occipitale,  ethmoideum, 
vomer,  inferior  maxilla,  the  vertebrae,  sa- 
crum, and  os  coccygis,  the  bones  of  the 
sternum,  and  the  os  linguale  medium,  or 
body  of  the  os  hyoides,  are  single  bones ; 
and  being  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  bo- 
dy, are  consequently  symmetrical.  Of  all 
the  other  bones,  there  is  a  pair,  consisting1 
of  a  bone  for  the  right,  and  another  for 
the  left  side. 

The  structure  of  the  whole  skeleton  is 
therefore  symmetrical ;  since  an  imagina- 
ry perpendicular  line  drawn  through  the 
whole  would  divide  even  the  single  bones 
into  a  right  and  a  left  half,  exactly  resem- 
bling each  other.  This  observation  must 
however  be  taken  with  some  allowance  ; 
since  the  corresponding  bones  of  one  side 
are  not  always  perfectly  similar  to  those 
of  the  opposite  ;  nor  do  the  two  halves  of 
the  single  bones  always  exactly  agree  in 
form,  &c. 

The  entire  natural  skeleton  of  a  man  of 
middle  stature,  in  a  dried  state,  weighs 
from  150  to  200  ounces  ;  that  of  a  woman 
from  100  to  160  ounces. 

Jiones  of  the  head. — The  cranium  is  the 
oval  bony  cavity  containing  the  brain  ; 
the  face  is  placed  at  the  anterior  and  low- 
er part  of  this  cavity,  and  holds  some  of 
the  organs  of  sense,  and  the  instruments 
of  mastication. 

The  bones  of  the  head  are  joined  by- 
sutures,  a  mode  of  union  nearly  peculiar 
to  themselves  ;  hence,  when  all  the  soft 
parts  are  destroyed  by  maceration,  they 
still  remain  most  firmly  connected  to  each 
other,  excepting  the  front  teeth  and  the 
lower  jaw.  The  sutures  are  formed  by 
numerous  sharp  and  ramified  processes 
of  the  opposed  edges  of  the  different 
bones,  shooting  into  corresponding  vacui- 
ties of  each  other.  In  some  instances, 
however,  the  bones  seem  to  be  joined  by 
the  opposition  of  plane  surfaces,  and  here 
the  union  appears  externally  like  a  mere 
line,  instead  of  the  irregular  zigz.ig  course 
which  it  takes  in  the  former  case.  The 
last  mentioned  junction  is  called  liar- 
mo  nia. 

In  the  fcetal  state,  the  bones  of  the  cra- 
nium do  not  touch  each  other,  but  are 
separated  by  considerable  intervals  of 
membrane,  and  have  thin  extenuated 
margins,  which  allow  them  to  ride  over 
each  other  when  subjected  to  pressure. 
The  larger  and  more  conspicuous  of  these 
intervals  are  called  fontanelles,  and  allow 
of  the  pulsation  of  the  brain  being  felt  in 
a  young  subject.  The  importance  of  this 
structure,  in  allowing  the  head  to  accom- 


ANATOMY. 


modate  itself  to  the  varying1  figure  of  the 
parts  through  which  it  passes,  in  the  act 
of  parturition,  and  to  sustain  the  violent 
pressure  which  it  experiences  in  the  same 
act,  is  sufficiently  obvious.  In  the  pro- 
gress of  ossification  the  edges  of  the 
bones  meet  each  other,  and  become  uni- 
ted by  the  sutures.  The  use  of  these  in 
the  adult  cranium  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
assigned,  nor  do  we  see  any  difference 
that  would  arise,  if  the  head  had  been 
composed  of  one  piece  only,  without  any 
suture.  In  old  persons  the  sutures  often 
become  more  or  less  generally  obliterated. 

The  individual  bones  are  very  firmly 
connected  by  this  mode  of  union.  The 
edges  of  the  different  bones  overlap  each 
other  at  different  parts,  so  that  they  are 
mechanically  locked  together,  and  can- 
not be  driven  in  by  any  force  ab  externo. 

The  bones  of  the  cranium  are  compo- 
sed of  two  plates  of  compact  bony  sub- 
stance, called  the  external,  and  internal 
or  vitreous  tables;  and  an  intervening 
more  or  less  obvious  reticular  texture, 
termed  diploe.  The  proportion  of  these 
constituent  parts  varies  very  considerably; 
the  diploe  is  in  no  case  of  a  very  loose  or 
open  tt-xture.  The  thickness  of  indivi- 
dual skulls  i's  subject  to  great  variety; 
iind  there  is  much  difference  in  the  va- 
rious pai-ts  of  the  same  skull.  For  the 
internal  surface  is  every  where  exactly 
moulded  to  the  form  of  its  contents,  in- 
stead of  influencing  them,  as  we  might 
have  expected  a  priori.  Hence  the  con- 
volutions  of  the  brain,  the  vessels  which 
ramify  on  its  surface,  &c.  all  leave  prints 
on  the  inner  table.  The  ordinary  thick- 
?iess  varies  from  about  the  fifth  of  an 
inch  to  almost  a  mere  line. 

The  common  number  of  the  bones  of 
the  cranium  is,  as  we  have  already  stated, 
7  :  but  this  is  often  increased  by  small 
portions  formed  between  the  others,  and 
surrounded  by  distinct  sutures.  These 
are  called  ossa  triquetra,  or  wormiana. 

The  form  of  the  cranium  is  elliptical, 
and  pretty  regularly  so,  particularly  on 
the  front,  upper  and  back  part,  and  sides. 
The  smaller  circle  of  the  ellipse  is  in 
front,  and  the  larger  behind.  It  is  tolera- 
bly smooth,  externally,  except  its  basis, 
and  it  is  almost  entire  or  unperfbrated, 
except  at  the  same  part.  In  this  situation, 
however,  it  possesses  numerous  holes,  or, 
as  they  are  technically  named,  foramina, 
which  transmit  blood-vessels  to  the  brain, 
and  the  nine  pairs  of  nerves  which  arise 
from  that  organ. 

The  upper  and  lateral  parts  of  the  era- 
mum  constitute  a  bony  vault  or  arch,  for 


protecting  the  brain  :  this  part  is  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  the  skull  cap. 

Individual  bones  of  the  head. — The  os 
frontis  forms  the  upper  and  anterior  part 
of  the  skull,  the  eyebrow,  and  the  roof 
of  the  orbit. 

The  ossa  parietalia  are  called  also  ossa 
bregmatis,  since  the  fontanelles  or  breg- 
mata  are  formed  between  their  edges. 
They  compose  the  whole  upper  and  most 
of  the  lateral  parts  of  the  skull,  and  pos- 
sess an  irregularly  quadrangular  figure. 

The  ossaternporum  compose  the  lower 
part  of  the  sides,  and  the  middle  of  the 
basis  of  the  cranium.  They  are  divided 
into  a  squamous  portion,  a  mamillary,  and 
a  petrous  portion.  The  former  of  these 
has  a  process  contributing  to  the  zygoma, 
or  bony  arch,  at  the  side  of  the  cranium, 
under  which  the  temporal  muscle  passes. 
The  second  is  also  remarkable,  by  forming 
a  large  nipple-like  protuberance  towards 
the  basis  cranii.  The  third,  which  pro- 
jects into  the  cavity  of  the  skull,  con- 
tains the  organ  of  hearing. 

The  os  spheno-occipitale  has  generally 
been  described  as  two  bones.  The  occi- 
pital portion  forms  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  basis  cranii,  and  a  part  also  of  ;he 
back  of  the  bony  ca.se. 

Tlu  sphenoid  portion  is  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  ex- 
tends across  it  from  one  temple  to  another. 
Jt  is  extremely  irregular  in  its  figure,  and 
divided  into  a  body  placed  in  the  middle, 
two  alae  on  the  sides,  and  two  pterygoid 
processes  projecting  downwards. 

The  os  ethmoides ;  occupies  the  middle 
of  the  forepart  of  the  basis  cranii.  It  lies 
in  the  interval  between  the  two  orbits,  and 
contributes  to  the  cavity  of  the  nose.  It 
consists  of  an  irregular  assemblage  of 
bony  cells  and  processes,  of  a  very  thin 
and  delicate  formation.  It  has  a  cribri- 
form or  horizontal  plate  towards  the  brain : 
a  nasal  or  perpendicular  plate  ;  two  turbi- 
nated bones;  cells;  and  two  orbital  plates. 

The  stutures  joining  these  are  the  co- 
ronal, between  the  os  frontis  and  the 
two  ossa  parietalia;  the  sagittal,  be- 
tween the  two  ossa  parietalia;  the  lamb- 
doidal,  joining  the  ossa  parietalia  to  the 
os  occipitis  ;  the  squamous,  between  the 
temporal  and  parietal  bones. 

The  foramina  occurring  in  the  cranium, 
for  the  transmission  of  nerves,  are;  1, 
those  of  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  eth- 
moid bone :  2,  f.  optica  :  3,  f.  lacera  or 
bitalia  :  4,  f.  rotunda  :  5,  f.  ovalia :  6, 
meatus  auditorii  interni  :  7,  f.  lacera  in 
basi  cranii  :  8,  f.  condyloidea  anteriora  : 
9,  foramen  magnum. 


ANATOMY. 


Those  which  transmit  blood  vessels 
are  :  1,  canales  caroctici :  2,  f.  spinosa  : 
'1,  f.  lacera  in  basi  cranii :  4,  f.  magnum. 

JSones  of  the  face. — The  ossa  nusi  con- 
stitute the  arch  of  the  nose.  The  ossa 
lacrymaliaorunguisare  placed  at  the  fore- 
part of  the  inner  edge  of  the  orbits,  and 
contain  an  excavation  which  holds  the 
lacrymal  bag1. 

The  ossa  malarum  form  the  prominen- 
ces of  the  cheeks. 

The  ossa  maxillavia  superiora  form  the 
largest  portion  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  most 
of  the  bony  palate,  or  roof  of  the  mouth  ; 
they  contain  also  the  upper  teeth. 

The  ossa  palati  form  the  back  part  of 
the  bony  palate. 

The  ossa  turbinata  inferiora  are  situat- 
ed in  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 

The  former  completes,  with  the  nasal 
portion  of  the  ethmoid,  the  septum  that 
divides  the  two  nostrils. 

The  maxilla  inferior  is  articulated  to 
the  basis  cranii,  and  holds  the  lower  teeth. 

The  bones  of  the  cranium  and  face 
compose  the  two  orbits,  or  pyramidal  bo- 
ny cavities,  holding  the  organs  of  vision  ; 
to  each  of  these,  seven  bones  contribute. 
They  also  form  the  cavity  of  the  nose, 
which  is  very  extensive,  and  includes 
portions  of  nearly  all  the  bones  of  the 
face,  and  some  of  the  skull.  It  has  va- 
rious cells,  formed  in  the  bones  of  the 
skull  and  face,  opening  into  it. 

The  teeth. — These  organs  are  composed 
internally  of  a  very  hard  bony  substance  ; 
and  are  covered  externally  by  a  still  hard- 
er matter,  called  the  cortex  or  enamel. 
Each  tooth  has  a  body  or  crown,  which 
is  the  part  seen  in  the  mouth ;  a  neck, 
round  which  the  gum  adheres  ;  and  one 
or  more  fangs  or  roots,  which  are  sunk  in 
a  process  of  the  jaw,  called  the  alveolar. 
These  bodies  are  not  formed  in  a  nidus 
of  cartilage,  like  bones,  but  on  a  soft 
vascular  body  called  a  pulp,  which  may 
be  compared  to  the  core,  on  which  a  horn 
is  formed.  This  is  surrounded  by  a  deli- 
cute  membrane,  called  the  capsule  of  the 
tooth.  When  the  teeth  are  being  formed, 
these  pulps  and  capsules,  with  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  teeth,  are  lodged  in  cavities 
hollowed  out  of  the  jaw  bone.  They  af- 
terwards rise,  and,  piercing  the  gum,  ap- 
pear in  the  mouth. 

Teeth  differ  from  other  bones  in  pos- 
sessing no  vessels  nor  nerves  in  their  sub- 
stance. As  they  are  destined  for  the 
merely  mechanical  functions  of  triturating 
the  food,  such  parts  would  not  have  been 
suitable  to  tin's  office.  The  pain  of  tooth- 
ach  arises  from  a  nerve,  which,  with  a 


vessel,  resides  in  a  hollow,  formed  in  the 
centre  of  the  fang  and  body  of  each  tooth. 
These  parts  are  exposed  by  the  decay. 
The  teeth,  in  consequence  of  possessing 
no  vessels,  are  only  affected  by  chemical 
and  mechanical  causes.  They  do  not 
repair  the  effects  of  trituration,  nor  of 
accidental  injury  ;  nor  do  they  suffer  from 
any  of  the  diseases  which  affect  other 
bones. 

There  are  two  sets  of  teeth ;  the  first 
are  fewer  in  number  and  smaller  in  size  ; 
as  they  fall  out  at  a  certain  age,  to  make 
room  for  other  larger  ones,  they  are  call- 
ed deciduous  or  temporary.  The  second 
set  lasts  throughout  life,  and  are  called 
the  adult  or  permanent  set. 

The  latter  consists  of  32  teeth  ;  16  in 
each  jaw.  There  are  four  incisores  or 
cutting  teeth  in  front ;  2  canini  or  cuspi- 
dati,  or  dog  teeth,  placed  one  on  each 
side  of  the  former ;  4  bicuspides  behind 
the  last;  and  6  molares  behind  these. 
From  the  late  period  at  which  the  last 
moluris  appears,  it  is  called  the  dens  sa- 
pientiae,  or  wise  tooth. 

The  temporary  set  consists  of  twenty 
teeth  ;  ten  in  each  jaw.  There  are  4  in- 
cisores ;  2  cuspidati ;  and  4  molares. 

The  permanent  teeth  are  lodged  at 
first  in  cavities  of  the  jaw,  near  the  roots 
of  the  temporary  ones;  and,  as  these  last 
are  shed,  rise  up  to  supply  their  places. 

The  bone  of  the  tongue  is  called  os 
hyoideS;  from  its  very  accurate  resem- 
blance to  the  Greek  y.  It  consists  of  a  body, 
two  cornua,  and  two  appendices,  which 
are  in  fact  so  many  separate  bits  of  bone. 

The  bones  of  the  trunk  consist  of  those 
of  the  spine,  thorax,  and  pelvis. 

The  spine  consists  of  twenty-four  true 
or  moveable  vertebra; ;  an  os  sacrum,  and 
an  os  coccygis  (which  indeed  is  compo- 
sed of  four  pieces) ;  these  last  bones, 
bearing  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
vertebrae,  are  called  sometimes  the  false 
vertebrae. 

Each  vertebra  has  a  body,  which  is 
situated  anteriorly,  and  consists  of  a  cy- 
lindrical piece  of  bone  ;  a  perforation  be- 
hind this,  in  which  the  spinal  marrow 
runs ;  two  superior  and  two  inferior  arti- 
culating processes,  by  which  it  is  joined 
to  the  bone  immediately  above  and  below 
it ;  two  transverse  processes,  and  one  spi- 
nous  process,  which,  projecting  behind, 
forms  a  sharp  ridge,  from  which  the  name 
of  spine  has  been  applied  to  the  whole 
column. 

The  vertebrae  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  according  to  their  situation  :  the 
seven  upper  ones  are  called  cervical :  of 


ANATOMY. 


these,  the  first,  that  immediately  supports 
the  head,  is  called  the  atlas ;  and  the 
second,  from  a  remarkable  bony  process 
which  it  possesses,  the  vertebrae  clentata. 
The  twelve  next  are  called  dorsal  verte- 
bra, and  are  distinguished  by  having  the 
ribs  articulated  to  them.  The  five  last 
are  called  lumbar.  These  all  differ  from 
each  other  in  some  circumstances.  The 
most  obvious  distinction  arises  from  the 
size  :  the  upper  ones  are  the  smallest,  and 
there  is  a  gradual  increase  as  we  descend. 

The  column  of  the  spine,  when  viewed 
altogether,  is  not  perpendicular ;  it  stands 
Forward  in  the  neck,  recedes  in  the  up- 
per part  of  the  back,  and  projects  again 
in  the  loins.  Holes  are  left  between  the 
bones,  for  the  transmission  of  the  nerves 
which  arise  from  the  spinal  marrow. 

The  sacrum  forms  the  back  of  the  pel- 
vis, and  is  followed  out  in  front.  In  form 
it  is  triangular,  and  the  base  is  joined  to 
the  last  vertebra.  It  is  perforated  by  a 
canal,  in  which  the  termination  of  the  me- 
dulla spinalis  is  lodged.  Its  apex  has 
connected  to  it  the  os  coccygis. 

The  thorax  is  formed  by  the  twelve 
dorsal  vertebrae,  the  ribs,  and  sternum. 
The  ribs  are  long,  curved,  flattened,  and 
narrow  bones,  attached  behind  to  the 
dorsal  vertebrae,  both  in  their  bodies  and 
transverse  processes,  and  joined  in  front 
to  a  piece  of  cartilage.  They  are  twelve 
in  number,  and  the  seven  upper  ones, 
whose  cartilages  are  affixed  to  the  sides 
of  the  sternum,  are  called  true  ribs;  the 
five  lower  ones,  the  cartilages  of  which  do 
not  reach  so  far,  are  called  the  false  ribs. 

The  sternum  is  a  broad  and  fiat  bone, 
placed  in  the  front  of  the  chest  It  con- 
sists of  two  pieces  of  bone,  and  of  a  carti- 
lage called  the  ensiform.  The  clavicles 
are  articulated  towards  its  upper  parts, 
and  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  are  joined 
to  its  sides. 

The  pelvis  is  formed  by  the  two  ossa 
innominata,  or  haunch  bones,  the  sacrum, 
and  os  coccygis.  The  former  are  very 
large  and  flat  bones,  expanded  into  a 
broad  surface  above  for  the  support  of 
the  abdominal  viscera,  and  the  attachment 
of  the  abdominal  muscles,  and  furnished 
with  large  tuberoshies  below,  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  body  in  the  sitting  position. 
Each  os  innominatum  is  divided  into  the 
ilium,  ischium,  and  pubes.  It  is  firmly 
joined  to  the  sacrum  behind,  and  to  the 
'opposite  bone  in  front,  by  the  symphisis 
pubis.  The  conjoined  portions  form  an 
arch,  called  the  arch  of  the  pubes.  The 
cavity  of  the  pelvis  is  much  larger  in  the 
female  than  in  the  male,  as  it  holds  the 


uterus  and  vagina,  in  addition  to  what  it 
contains  in  the  male,  and  as  the  foetus 
passes  through  it  in  parturition. 

The  bones  of  the  upper  extremity  are 
distributed  into  those  of  the  shoulder, 
arm,  fore-arm,  and  hand. 

The  shoulder  contains  two  ;  the  scapula 
and  clavicle.  The  former  is  situated  at 
the  upper  and  outer  part  of  the  chest, 
and  is  joined  to  the  end  of  the  clavicle. 

The  humerus  is  a  long  and  nearly  cy- 
lindrical bone,  joined  by  a  round  head  to 
the  scapula  above,  and  articulated  with 
the  radius  and  ulna  below. 

The  fore-arm  has  two  bones  ;  the  ulna, 
which  is  joined  by  a  hinge  or  ginglymus 
to  the  humerus ;  and  the  radius,  which 
has  a  cavity  playing  upon  a  rounded  head 
of  that  bone.  The  prominent  extremity 
of  the  ulna,  which  forms  the  elbow,  is 
called  the  olecranon.  The  hand  is  divided 
into  the  carpus,  or  wrist,  the  metacarpus, 
and  the  fingers  and  thumb. 

The  carpus  contains  eight  bones,  dis- 
posed in  two  phalanges,  of  which  the  first 
forms,  with  the  radius,  the  joint  of  the 
wrist,  and  the  second  is  articulated  to  the 
metacarpus. 

The  bones  of  the  first  phalanx  are  the 
os  scaphoides,  lunare,  cuneiforme,  and 
pisiforme  :  those  of  the  second,  os  tra- 
pezium, trapezioides  magnum,  and  unci- 
forme. 

The  metacarpus  has  five  bones,  and 
each  of  the  fingers  three  ;  the  thumb  only 
two. 

In  the  lower  extremity  we  have  the  fe- 
mur, the  largest  of  the  cylindrical  bones 
in  the  body.  This  has  a  round  head,  con- 
tained in  a  socket  of  the  os  innominatum; 
the  great  trochanter  forms  a  conspicuous 
process  at  the  upper  and  outer  part  of 
the  bone.  Below  it  has  two  condyles, 
which  form  part  of  the  knee. 

The  leg  has  two  bones  ;  the  tibia  and 
fibula.  A  large  flat  portion  of  the  former, 
covered  only  by  skin,  is  called  the  shin. 
The  foot  is  composed  of  the  tarsus,  meta- 
tarsus, and  toes.  The  tarsus  has  seven 
bones: — 1.  Astragalus,  composing  the 
ankle,  with  the  lower  portion  of  the  tibia 
and  fibula.  2.  Os  calcis.  3.  Os  navicu- 
lare.  4.  Os  cuboides.  5,  6,  7.  Ossa  cu- 
neiformia.  The  metatarsal  bones  are  five 
in  number,  and  the  bones  of  each  toe  are 
three,  except  the  great  toe,  which  has 
only  two. 

SYSTDESMOLOGY,  OR  DOCTRINE  OF  THE 
JOINTS. 

Construction  of  a  joint. — The  opposed 
surfaces  of  bones,  which  form  joints,  are 


ANATOMY. 


Covered  by  a  thin  crust  of  cartilage,  most 
exquisitely  smooth  and  polished.  Hence 
they  move  on  each  other,  in  whatever  di- 
rection their  structure  admits,  without 
any  hindrance  from  friction.  They  are 
tied  together  by  strong  and  unyielding 
cords,  resembling  tendons,  and  known  by 
the  name  of  ligaments.  These  keep  the 
surfaces  of  the  bones  together,  and  re- 
strict their  motions  to  certain  directions. 
In  order  still  further  to  promote  the  fa- 
cility of  motion,  and  to  obviate  every  pos- 
sibility of  friction,  the  cartilaginous  sur- 
faces are  smeared  with  an  unctuous  fluid, 
called  cynovia,  which  makes  them  per- 
fectly slippery.  This  fluid  is  confined  to 
the  surface  of  the  joint  by  means  of  a  thin 
and  delicate  membrane,  called  the  cap- 
sular  ligament,  which  envelopes  the  joint. 
It  is  secreted  from  portionsof  a  fatty  sub- 
stance, called  the  synovial  glands.  The 
ligaments  are  usually  situated  on  the  out- 
side of  the  capsula ;  but  in  many  instances 
they  are  contained  in  the  cavity  of  the 
joint,  passing  from  the  centre  of  one  bone 
to  another.  These  are  called  interarticu- 
lar  ligaments. 

Particular  joints. — Joint  of  the  lower 
jaw.  This  is  formed  between  the  con- 
dyle  of  the  jaw  and  a  hollow  in  the  tem- 
poral bone.  It  contains  a  moveable  car- 
tilage, which  renders  the  articulation 
more  secure,  when  the  jaw  is  brought 
forwards  on  the  bone  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances. 

The  connection  of  the  head  to  the  ver- 
tebrae is  effected  by  means  of  two  promi- 
nences of  the  occiput,  which  are  received 
into  corresponding  cavities  of  the  atlas. 
By  this  joint  the  nodding  motions  of  the 
head  are  performed.  But  the  atlas  itself 
turns  horizontally  round  the  tooth-like 
process  of  the  vertebra  dentata,  and  as 
the  head  is  closely  connected  to  the  atlas, 
it  is  carried  round  at  the  same  time. 
Therefore,  the  lateral  or  rotatory  motions 
of  the  head  are  performed  by  a  different 
joint  from  that  which  performs  the  nod- 
ding motions.  Neither  of  these  articula- 
tions admits  of  very  extensive  motion ; 
but  the  deficiency  is  compensated  by  the 
mobility  of  the  vertebrae,  which  enable 
us  to  carry  the  head  freely  in  any  direc- 
tion we  may  wish.  The  head  rests  near- 
ly in  equilibrio  on  the  spinal  column  ;  yet, 
if  left  to  itself,  it  would  fall  forwards,  as 
the  joint  is  not  precisely  in  the  centre  of 
the  basis  cranii.  To  counteract  this  ten- 
dency, there  is  a  ligamentous  substance 
extended  from  the  spinous  processes  of 
the  cervical  vertebrae  to  the  occiput,  and 

VOL.  1 


called  the  ligamentum  muchx.  In  quad- 
rupeds this  can  be  best  seen,  as  the 
weight  of  the  head  is  there  supported  to 
a  much  greater  disadvantage.  The  mus- 
cles also  contribute  to  keep  the  head  up- 
right ;  and  hence,  when  a  man  drops 
asleep  sitting,  the  relaxation  of -the  ex- 
tensor muscles  causes  the  head  to  nod 
forwards. 

Joints  of  the  spine. — The  spine,  or  back- 
bone, is  a  chain  of  joints  of  very  wonder- 
ful construction.  Various,  difficult,  and 
almost  inconsistent,  offices  were  to  be  ex- 
ecuted by  the  same  instrument.  It  was 
to  be  firm,  yet  flexible  ;  firm,  to  support 
the  erect  position  of  the  body  ;  flexible, 
to  allow  of  the  bending  of  the  trunk  in 
all  degrees  of  curvature.  It  was  further, 
also,  to  become  a  pipe  or  conduit  for  the 
safe  conveyance  ot'a  most  important  part 
of  the  animal  frame,  the  spinal  marrow  : 
a  substance,  not  only  of  the  first  necessity 
to  action,  if  not  to  life,  but  of  a  nature  so 
delicate  and  tender,  so  susceptible,  and  so 
impatient  of  injury,  as  that  any  umisual 
pressure  upon  it,  or  any  considerable  ob- 
struction of  its  course,  is  followed  by 
paralysis  or  death.  It  was  also  to  afford 
a  fulcrum,  stay,  or  basis  for  the  insertion 
of  the  muscles  which  are  spread  over  the 
trunk  of  the  body,  in  which  trunk  there 
are  not,  as  in  the  limbs,  cylindrical  bones, 
to  which  they  can  be  fastened;  and  like- 
wise, which  is  a  similar  use,  to  furnish  a 
support  for  the  ends  of  the  ribs  to  rest 
upon. 

The  breadth  of  the  basis,  upon  which 
the  parts  severally  rest,  and  the  closeness 
of  the  junction,  give  to  the  chain  its  firm- 
ness and  stability  ;  the  number  of  parts, 
and  consequent  frequency  of  joints,  its 
flexibility;  which  flexibility,  we  may  also 
observe,  varies  in  different  parts  of  the 
chain ;  is  least  in  the  back,  where  strength 
more  than  flexure  is  wanted  ;  greater  in 
the  loins,  which  it  was  necessary  should 
be  more  supple  than  the  back;  and  great- 
est of  all  in  the  neck,  for  the  free  motion 
of  the  head.  Then,  secondly,  in  order  to 
afford  a  passage  for  the  descent  of  the 
medullary  substance,  each  of  these  bones 
is  bored  through  in  the  middle  in  such  a 
manner,  as  that,  when  put  together,  the 
hole  in  one  bone  falls  into  a  line,  and  cor- 
responds with  the  holes  in  the  two  bones 
contiguous  to  it;  by  which  means  the 
perforated  pieces,  when  joined,  form  an 
entire,  close,  uninterrupted  channel.  But, 
as  a  settled  posture  is  inconsistent  with 
its  use,  a  great  difficulty  still  remained, 
which  was,  to  prevent  the  vertebrae  from 

A   a 


ANATOMY. 


shifting  upon  one  another,  so  as  to  break 
the  line  of  the  canal  as  often  as  the  body 
moves  or  twists,  or  the  joints  gaping  ex- 
ternally, whenever  the  body  is  bent  for- 
wards, and  the  spine  thereupon  made  to 
take  the  form  of  a  bow.  These  dangers, 
which  are  mechanical,  are  mechanical- 
ly provided  against.  The  vertebrae,  by 
means  of  their  processes  and  projections, 
and  of  the  articulations  which  some  of 
these  form  with  one  another  at  their  ex- 
tremities, are  so  locked  in  and  confined, 
as  to  maintain,  in  what  are  called  the  bo- 
dies or  broad  surfaces  of  the  bones,  the 
relative  position  nearly  unaltered  ;  and  to 
throw  the  change  and  the  pressure  pro- 
duced by  flexion  almost  entirely  upon  the 
intervening  cartilages,  the  springiness 
and  yielding  nature  of  whose  substance 
admits  of  all  the  motion  which  is  necessa- 
ry to  be  performed  upon  them,  without 
any  chasm  being  produced  by  a  separa- 
tion of  the  parts.  I  say  of  all  the  motion 
which  is  necessary;  for,  although  we 
bend  our  backs  to  every  degree  almost  of 
inclination,  the  motion  of  each  vertebrae 
is  very  small :  such  is  the  advantage 
which  we  receive  from  the  chain  being 
composed  of  son;any  links.  Had  it  been 
composed  of  three  or  four  bones  only,  in 
bending  the  body  the  spinal  marrow  must 
have  been  bruised  at  every  angle. 

The  substances  which  connect  the  bo- 
dies of  the  vertebrae  to  each  other,  called 
the  intervertebral  cartilages,  are  thick, 
firm,  and  elastic.  They  are  similar  in 
shape,  and  nearly  so  in  size,  to  the  bones 
which  they  join.  They  are  thicker  before 
than  behind,  so  that,  when  we  stoop  for- 
wards, the  compressible  cartilage,  yield- 
ing to  the  force,  brings  the  surfaces  of  the 
adjoining  vertebrae  nearer  to  a  state  of 
parallelism  than  they  were  before,  instead 
of  increasing  the  inclination  of  their 
planes,  which  must  have  occasioned  a 
fissure  or  opening  between  them  :  and 
their  elasticity  restores  the  body  to  its 
former  state,  when  the  compressing  force 
ceases. 

In  order  still  further  to  increase  the 
strength  of  the  compages,  and  to  add  a 
greater  security  against  luxation,  the  ver- 
tebrae are  articulated  to  each  other  by 
means  of  the  processes  before  mentioned. 
And  these  processes  so  lock  in  with  and 
overwrap  one  another,  as  to  secure  the 
body  of  the  vertebra,  not  only  from  acci- 
dentally slipping,  but  even  from  being 
pushed  out  of  its  place  by  any  violence 
short  of  that  which  would  break  the  bone. 
The  roots  of  the  spinous  processes  are 
also  joined  to  each  other  by  very  strong 


and  highly  elastic  ligamentous  substances 
which  will  tend  powerfully  to  restore  the 
column  after  it  has  been  bent  forwards. 

The  general  result  is,  that  not  only  the 
motions  of  the  human  body,  necessary  for 
the  ordinary  offices  of  life,  are  performed 
with  safety,  but  that  it  is  an  accident 
hardly  ever  heard  of,  that  even  the  ges- 
ticulations of  a  harlequin  distort  his 
spine. 

The  ribs  are  articulated  by  their  pos- 
terior extremities  to  the  bodies  and  to 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  vertebrae, 
and  the  true  ribs  are  also  joined  by  means 
of  their  cartilages  to  the  sternum.  Two 
great  advantages  are  derived  from  the 
ribs  having  this  cartilaginous  portion 
The  effect  of  blows,  or  of  any  accidental 
violence,  is  eluded,  by  the  flexibility 
which  they  thus  obtain  ;  and  the  elastic 
power  of  the  cartilages  restores  the  ribs 
to  their  former  position,  after  they  have 
been  raised  by  the  intercostal  muscles  in 
breathing. 

Joints  of  the  upper  extremity. — The  clavi- 
cle is  articulated  to  the  sternum  at  one 
end,  and  to  the  scapula  at  the  other. 

The  shoulder  is  formed  by  a  round 
head  of  the  humerus,  which  plays  in  a 
cup  of  the  scapula  ;  and  the  ends  of  the 
bones  are  enclosed  by  a  thick  and  strong 
ligamentous  membrane,  called  the  orbi- 
cular ligament.  There  is  here,  therefore, 
every  latitude  of  motion  allowed. 

In  the  elbow,  on  the  contrary,  the  joint 
is  a  mere  hinge  :  lateral  motion  is  restrain- 
ed by  strong  ligaments  placed  at  the  sides 
of  the  joint,  and  the  fore -arm  can  there- 
fore be  moved  only  forwards  and  back- 
wards. This  joint  is  formed  between  the 
ulna  and  the  humerus. 

The  wrist  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  radius  with  the  first  phalanx  of  carpal 
bones.  Its  motion  is  very  little  more  than 
that  of  a  ginglymus.  The  rotation  of  the 
hand  and  wrist,  or  what  anatomists  call 
the  pronation  and  supination,  are  per- 
formed by  the  radius  revolving  round  the 
ulna,  and  carrying  the  hand  with  it.  In 
this  case  the  elbow  joint  is  fixed  ;  neither 
does  the  joint  of  the  wrist  move  ;  but  the 
radius  moves  freely  round  the  ulna,  and 
the  hand  is  included  in  the  motion.  The 
pronation  and  supination  of  the  hand  are 
well  exemplified  in  the  use  of  the  broad- 
sword, and  in  cudgel-playing. 

The  carpal  and  metacarpal  bones  are 
united  by  joints  and  ligaments,  but  have 
no  obvious  motion  on  each  other.  The 
phalanges  of  the  fingers  are  also  articu- 
lated by  ginglymi. 

The  bones  of  the  pelvis  are  inseparably 


ANATOMY. 


connected  by  adhering  cartilaginous  sur- 
faces and  immense  ligaments.  Such  is 
the  streiKVii  of  this  union,  that  it  will  yield 
to  no  force  but  one  that  would  destroy 
and  crush  the  whole  fabric. 

Joints  of  the  lower  extremity. — In  the  hip, 
which  supports  the  whole  body ,and  which 
is  the  centre  of  motion  of  the  whole  in 
moving  from  place  to  place,  we  find  an 
apparatus,  admitting  of  extensive  motion, 
but  at  the  same  time  most  carefully  guard- 
ed and  strengthened.  There  is  a  very 
large  rounded  head  of  the  thigh  received 
into  a  deep  cup  of  the  os  innominatum. 
Here  it  can  revolve  freely,  and  is  prevent- 
ed from  escaping  by  thick  and  strong 
rising  edges,  that  guard  the  brim  of  the 
cavity.  From  these  edges  there  springs 
a  very  tough  and  stout  orbicular  ligament, 
which  is  firmly  stretched  over  the  head  of 
the  bone,  and  implanted  into  a  contracted 
part  called  the  neck.  In  order  to  provide 
still  further  for  the  security  of  so  impor- 
tant a  joint  as  the  hip,  there  is  a  short, 
strong  ligament  arising  from  the  head  of 
the  bull,  and  implanted  in  the  bottom  of 
the  cup.  This  affords  a  very  great  obsta- 
cle to  any  force  tending  to  displace  the 
bone;  but  at  the  same  time  lies  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cavity,  so  as  not  to  interfere 
with  any  of  the  ordinary  motions. 

The  knee-joint  is  formed  by  three 
bones  :  the  head  of  the  tibia,  the  condyles 
of  the  femur,  and' the  patella.  It  is  a  gin- 
glymus,  and  its  motions  are  accordingly 
restrained  by  two  strong  lateral  ligaments, 
and  it  is  secured  still  further  by  two  im- 
mense ligamentous  ropes  within  the  ca- 
vity of  the  joint,  called  the  crucial  liga- 
ments. 

The  ankle  is  a  ginglymoid  joint,  formed 
by  the  tibia  and  fibula,  together  with  the 
astragalus.  This  joint,  which  is  an  im- 
portant one,  as  bearing  the  weight  of  the 
whole  body,  is  strengthened  at  its  sides 
by  two  bony  processes,  called  the  inter- 
nal and  external  malleoii  or  ankles. 

The  bone?,  of  the  tarsus,  metatarsus, 
and  toes,  are  articulated,  like  those  of  the 
hand. 


Muscles  consist  of  bundles  of  red  fi- 
bres ;  but  the  colour  is  not  essential,  since 
it  can  be  removed  by  repeated  washings 
ftiul  maceration. 

The  threads  composing  a  muscle  are 
enveloped  by  cellular  substance,  which 
connects  it  to  the  surrounding  parts. 
Each  bundle  consists  of  numerous  fibres, 
i>o  small,  that  ottr  instruments  of  research 


cannot  arrive  at  the  ultimate  or  original 
fibre  ;  hence,  any  perceivable  fibre,  how- 
ever small,  is  formed  by  the  juxta-position 
of  numerous  fibrillx  ;  and,  as  we  employ 
magnifying  instruments  of  greater  power, 
a  fibre,  which  before  seemed  simple,  re- 
solves itself  into  a  congeries  of  still  more 
minute  threads.  We  pass  over  in  silence 
the  dreams  of  various  investigators,  who 
have  busied  themselves  in  looking  for  the 
ultimate  muscular  fibre  ;  these  researches 
do  not  assist  us  in  explaining  the  pheno- 
mena of  muscular  action.  The  cohesion 
of  the  constituent  particles  of  the  moving 
fibre  is  maintained  by  the  vital  power  : 
hence,  a  dead  muscle  will  be  torn  by  a 
weight  of  a  few  ounces,  which  in  the 
living  body  would  have  supported  many 
pounds.  The  muscular  fibre  receives  a 
copious  supply  of  vessels  and  nerves. 

Tendons  are  formed  by  an  assemblage 
of  logitudinal  parallel  fibres.  They  are 
extremely  dense  and  tough,  of  a  splendid 
white  colour,  which  is  beautifully  con- 
trasted with  the  florid  red  of  a  healthy 
muscle.  The  muscular  fibres  terminate 
in  these  bodies,  and  they  are  connected 
to  the  bones.  They  possess  no  apparent 
nerves,  and  very  few  and  small  blood- 
vessels. 

There  is  always  an  exact  relation  be- 
tween the  joint  and  the  muscles  that  move 
it.  Whatever  motion  the  joint,  by  its  me- 
chanical construction,  is  capable  of  per- 
formingjthat  motion  the  annexed  muscles, 
by  their  position,  are  capable  of  produc- 
ing. For  example,  if  there  be,  as  at  the 
knee  and  elbow,  a  hinge  joint,  capable  of 
motion  only  in  the  same  plane,  the  muscles 
and  tendons  are  placed  in  directions  pa- 
rallel to  the  bone,  so  as  by  their  construc- 
tion to  produce  that  motion,  and  no  other. 
If  these  joints  were  capable  of  freer  mo- 
tion, there  are  no  muscles  to  produce  it. 
Whereas,  at  the  shoulder  and  hip,  where 
the  ball  and  socket  joint  allows  by  its 
construction  a  rotatory  or  sweeping  mo- 
tion, tendons  ^are  placed  in  such  a  posi- 
tion, and  pull  in  such  a  direction,  as  to  pro* 
duce  the  motion  of  which  the  joint  admits. 
In  the  head  and  hand,  there  is  a  specific 
mechanism  in  the  bones  for  rotatory  mo- 
tion ;  and  there  is  accordingly,  in  the  ob- 
lique direction  of  the  muscles  belonging 
to  them,  a  specific  provision  for  putting 
this  mechanism  of  the  bones  into  action. 
The  oblique  muscles  would  have  been  in- 
efficient without  that  particular  articula- 
tion, and  that  particulararticulation  would 
have  been  useless  without  the  muscles. 

As  the  muscles  act  only  by  contraction, 
it  is  evident  that  the  recirocal  e 


ANATOMY. 


jnotion  of  the  limbs,  or  their  motion  with 
force  in  opposite  directions,  can  only  be 
produced  by  the  instrumentality  of  oppo- 
site or  antagonist  muscles,  of  flexors*  and 
extensors  answering  to  each  other.  For 
instance,  the  biceps  and  brachialis  inter- 
nus,  placed  in  the  front  of  the  arm,  by 
their  contraction,  bend  the  elbow,  and 
with  such  degree  of  force  as  the  case  re- 
quires, or  the  strength  admits  of.  The 
relaxation  of  these  muscles  after  the  effort 
would  merely  let  the  fore-arm  drop  down: 
for  the  backstroke,  therefore,  and  that 
the  arm  may  not  only  bend  at  the  elbow, 
but  also  extend  and  straighten  itself  with 
force,  other  muscles,  as  the  triceps  and 
anconeus,  placed  on  the  hinder  part  of 
the  arm,  fetch  back  the  fore-arm  into  a 
straight  line  with  the  humerus,  with  no 
less  force  than  that  with  which  it  was  be  nt 
out  of  it.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the 
animal  functions  require  that  particular 
disposition  of  the  muscles  which  we  call 
antagonist  muscles. 

It  often  happens  that  the  action  of  mus- 
cles is  wanted  where  their  situation  would 
be  inconvenient.  In  which  case,  the  body 
of  the  muscle  is  placed  in  some  commo- 
dious position  at  a  distance,  and  it  com- 
municates with  the  point  of  action  by 
slender  tendons.  If  the  muscles  which 
move  the  fingers  had  been  placed  in  the 
palm  or  back  of  the  hand,  they  would 
have  swelled  that  part  to  an  awkward 
and  clumsy  thickness.  The  beauty,  the 
proportions  of  the  part,  would  have  been 
destroyed.  They  are  therefore  disposed 
in  the  arm,  and  even  up  to  the  elbow,  and 
act  by  long  tendons  strapped  down  at  the 
wrist,  and  passing  under  the  ligament  to 
the  fingers,  and  to  the  joints  of  the  fin- 
gers, which  they  are  severally  to  move. 
In  the  same  manner  the  muscles,  which 
move  the  toes  and  many  of  the  joints  of 
the  foot,  are  gracefully  disposed  in  the 
calf  of  the  leg,  instead  of  forming  an  un- 
wieldy tumefaction  in  the  foot  itself. 

The  great  mechanical  variety  in  the 
figure  of  the  muscles  may  be  thus  stated. 
It  appears  to  be  a  fixed  law,  that  the  con- 
traction of  a  muscle  shall  be  towards  its 
centre.  Therefore  the  subject  for  me- 
chanism on  each  occasion  is,  so  to  modify 
the  figure,  and  adjust  the  position  of  the 
muscle,  as  to  produce  the  motion  requir- 
ed, agreeably  with  this  law.  This  can 
only  be  done  by  giving  to  different  mus- 
cles a  diversity  of  configuration,  suited  to 
their  several  offices,  and  to  their  situation 
with  respect  to  the  work  which  they 
have  to  perform.  On  which  account  \ve 
$nd  them  under  a  multiplicity  of  forms 


and  attitudes  ;  sometimes  with  dot  ft. 
sometimes  with  treble  tendons,  some 
times  with  none  ;  sometimes  one  tendon 
to  several  muscles,  at  other  times  one 
muscle  to  several  tendons.  The  shape  of 
the  organ  is  susceptible  of  an  incalcula- 
ble variety,  whilst  the  original  property 
of  the  muscle,  the  law  and  line  of  its 
contraction,  remains  the  same,  and  is 
simple.  Herein  the  muscular  system  may 
be  said  to  bear  a  perfect  resemblance  to 
our  works  of  art.  An  artist  does  not  alter 
the  native  quality  of  his  materials,  or 
their  laws  of  action.  He  takes  these  as 
he  finds  them.  His  skill  and  ingenuity 
are  employed  in  turning  them,  such  as 
they  are,  to  his  account,  by  giving  to  the 
parts  of  his  machine  a  form  and  relation, 
in  which  these  unalterable  properties 
may  operate  to  the  production  of  the  ef- 
fects intended. 

The  muscular  system  would  afford  us 
numerous  examples  of  what  may  be  call- 
ed mechanical  structure  :  i.  e.  of  such 
contrivances,  employed  to  attain  certain 
objects,  as  a  human  artist  would  adopt  on 
similar  occasions.  One  of  the  muscles  of 
the  eye-ball  presents  us  with  a  very  per- 
fect pully;  by  means  of  which  the  globe 
of  the  eye  is  moved  in  a  direction  exactly 
contrary  to  the  original  application  ot'tlu 
force.  This  muscle,  which  is  called  the 
trochlearis,  arises  from  the  very  back 
part  of  the  orbit :  it  has  a  long  and  slen- 
der tendon,  running  through  a  pulley  in 
the  inner  part  of  the  front  margin  of  the 
orbit,  and  then  going  back  to  be  fixed  in 
the  hind  portion  of  the  eye-ball.  Thus  it 
draws  the  globe  obliquely  upwards  and 
forwards,  although  the  line  of  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscle  is  directly  back- 
ward. 

In  the  toes  and  fingers  the  long  ten- 
don, which  bends  the  first  joint,  passes 
through  the  short  tendon,  which  bend* 
the  second  joint. 

The  foot  is  placed  at  a  considerable- 
angle  with  the  leg.  It  is  manifest,  there- 
fore, that  flexible  strings,  passing  along 
the  interior  of  the  angle,  if  left  to  them- 
selves, would,  when  stretched,  start  from 
it.  The  obvious  preventive  is  to  tie  them 
down,  and  this  is  done  in  fact.  Across 
the  instep,  or  rather  just  above  it,  the 
anatomist  finds  a  strong  ligament,  under 
which  the  tendons  pass  to  the  foot.  The 
effect  of  the  ligament,  as  a  bandage,  can 
be  made  evident  to  the  senses  ;  for  if  it 
be  cut,  the  tendons  start  up.  The  sim- 
plicity, yet  the  clearness  of  this  contri 
vance,  its  exact  resemblance  to  establish- 
ed resources  of  art,  place  it  among  tfie- 


ANATOMY. 


most  indubitable  manifestations  of  design 
with  which  we  are  acquainted. 

The  number  of  the  muscles  of  the 
human  body  is  so  great,  and  the  circum- 
stances which  demand  attention  in  every 
muscle  are  likewise  so  numerous,  that  a 
particular  description  of  each  would  ex- 
tend this  article  beyond  its  prescribed 
limits.  We  shall  therefore  merely  give 
a  catalogue  of  the  muscles ;  which,  toge- 
ther with  the  references  to  the  annexed 
plates,  will  give  the  reader  a  sufficiently 
clear  notion  of  the  subject. 

Muscles  of  the  scalp. — 1.  Fronto-occipi- 
talis,  or  epicranius. 

Muscles  of  the  ear. — 1.  Attollens  auricu- 
lam  ;  2.  anterior  aurus ;  3,  4.  retrahentes 
auriculura  ;  5.  major  helicis  ;  6.  minor  he- 
licis ;  7.  tragicus  ;  8.  antitragicus ;  9. 
transversus  auriculae ;  10.  laxator  tympa- 
ni  major  ;  11.  laxator  tympani  minor  ;  12. 
tensor  tympani ;  13.  stapedeus. 

Muscles  of  the  eye. — 1.  Orbicularis  pal- 
pebrarum  ;  2.  corrugator  supercilii;  3. 
levator  palpebrae  superioris  ;  4  attollens 
oculi;  5.  abductor  oculi ;  6.  depressor 
oculi ;  7.  abductor  oculi:  these  are  also 
called  recti  :  viz.  rectus  superior,  exter- 
nus  inferior,  and  internus;  8.  obliquus 
superior  oculi,  ortrochlearis;  9.  obliquus 
inferior  oculi. 

Muscles  of  the  nose.—l.  Compressor  na- 
rium  ;  2.  levator labii  superioris  et  alse  na- 
si ;  3.  nasalis  labii  superioris  ;  4.  depres- 
sor al?e  nasi. 

Muscles  of  the  lips.— I.  Levator  labii  su- 
perioris ;  2.  zygomaticus  major ;  3.  zygo- 
maticus  minor  ;  4.  levator  anguli  oris ;  5. 
depressor  anguli  oris;  6.  depressor  labii 
inferioris;  7.  buccinator;  8.  orbicularis 
oris ;  9.  anomalus  maxilla:  superioris  ;  10. 
levator  menti. 

Lower  jaw. — 1.  Biventer  maxillx,  or  di- 
gastricus  ;  2.  masseter  ;  3.  temporalis  ;  4. 
pterygoideus  externus;5.  pterygoideus 
internus. 

Neck. — 1.  Latissimus  colli,  or  platysma 
myoides ;  2  sterno-cleido-mastoideus. 

Tongue  and  thyroid  cartilage. — 1.  Omo- 
hyoideus  ;  2.  sternohyoideus  ;  3.  sterno- 
thyreoideus  ;  4.  hyothyreoideus  ;  5.  mus- 
culus  glandulse  thyreoidea; ;  6.  stylohy- 
oidens  ;  7.  styloglossus  ;  8.  mylohyoideus; 
9.  geniohyoideus  ;  lO.hyoglossus;  11. ge- 
nioglossns  ;  12.  lingualis. 

Muscles  of  the  pharynx  and  palate. — 1. 
Stylopharyngeus  ;  2.  constrictor  pharyn- 
gis  superior ;  3.  constrictor  medius ;  4. 
constrictor  inferior;  5.  salpingo-pharyn- 
geus  ;  6.  palato-pharyngeus  ;  7.  constric- 
tor isthmi  f'uirium  :  8.  levator  palat?  mol- 


Us  ;  9.  circumflexus  palati ;   10.    a2ygus 
uvul?e. 

Muscles  of  the  larynor. — 1.  Cricothireoi- 
deus  ;  2.  crico-arytenoideus  posticus  ;  3. 
crico-arytenoideus  lateralis ;  4.  arytenoi- 
deus  obliquus ;  5.  arytenoideus  trunsver- 
sus  ;  6.  thyreo-arytenoideus  ;  7.  thyreo- 
epiglotticus. 

The  whole  number  of  muscles  about 
the  head,  neck,  and  throat,  is  therefore  72, 
Muscles  of  the  abdomen.— I.  Obliquus 
externusabdominus  ;  2.  obliquus  intermix 
abdominis ;  3.  transversalis  abdominis  ;  4. 
rectus  abdominus  ;  5.  pyramidalis  ;  6.  dia- 
phragma  or  septum  transversum. 

Muschs  of  the  thorax. — 1.  Sterno  costa- 
lis,  or  triangularis  sterni ;  2.  serratus  pos- 
ticus superior ;  3.  serratus  posticus  infe- 
rior ;  4,  5,  6,  scalenus  anterior,  medius, 
and  posterior  ;  7  to  18.  levatores  brevio- 
res  costarum  ;  19  to  21.  levatores  long1!- 
ores  costarum  ;  22.  intercostales  extern! ; 
23.  intercostales  intern! ;  24.  quadratus 
lumborum. 

Muscles  moving  the  head  and  spine — 1. 
Splenius  capitis  ;  2.  splenius  cerricis  ;  3, 
biventer  cervicis ;  4.  complexus  ;  5  tra- 
chelomastoideus ;  6.  transversus  cervicis ; 
7.  cervicis  descendens ;  8.  longissimus 
dorsi  :  9.  sacrolumbalis ;  10.  spinalis  cer- 
vicis; 11.  spinalis  dorsi  ;  12.  multifidus* 
spinae ;  13  to  22.  interspinales  cervicis  ; 
23  to  28.  interspinales  lumborum ;  29. 
rectus  capitis  posticus  major;  30.  rectus 
capitis  posticus  minor;  31.  obliquus  ca- 
pitis superior;  32.  obliquus  capitis  infe- 
rior ;  33.  rectus  lateralis  ;  34.  rectus  ca- 
pitis anticus  major;  35.  rectus  anticus 
minor ;  36.  longus  colli ;  37  to  43.  inter- 
transversi  colli  priores ;  44  to  49.  inter- 
transversi  colli  posteriores;  50  to  57.  in- 
tertransversi  dorsi ;  58  to  62.  intertrans- 
versi  lumborum. 

Muscles  of  the  anus  and  perineum. — 1. 
transversus  perinei ;  2.  transversus  peri- 
nei  alter;  3.  sphincter  ani ;  4.  levator  ani ; 
5.  musculus  coccygeus ;  6.  curvator  coc- 
cygis. 

Muscles  peculiar  to  the  male  organs  of  ge- 
neration.— 1.  Cremaster ;  2.  erector  penis ; 
3.  accelerator;  4.  compressor  prostatx. 

Muscles  peculiar  to  the  female  organs  of 
generation. — 1.    Erector     clitoridis;      2. 
.    sphincter  vaginae  ;  3.  depressor  uretlirae. 

The  whole  number  of  muscles  of  the 
trunk  105. 

Muscles  of  the  upper  extremity. — Shou] . 
der.  1.  Pectoralis  major  ;  2.  pectoralis 
minor;  3.  subchwius;  4.  serratus  mag- 
nus ;  5.  trepazius  ;  6.  latissimus  dorsi ;  7. 
rhomboideus  minor;  8.  rhomboideus 
major  :  9.  lovator  anguli  scapula:  ;  10, 


ANATOMY. 


deltoides;  11.  supraspinatus  ;  12.  infra- 
spinatus:  13.  teres  major;  14.  teres  mi- 
nor; 15.  Subscapularis. 

Arm. — 1.  Biceps  flexor  cubiti  -,  2.  bra- 
ehialis  internus;  3.  coracobrachialis;  4. 
triceps  extensor  cubiti ;  5.  anconeus. 

Fore-arm. — 1.  supinator  radii  longus  ; 
2,  3.  extensor  carpi  radialis  longior  et 
brevior  ;  4.  extensor  carpi  ulnaris ;  5.  ex- 
tensor communis  digitorum  manus  ;  6. 
extensor  proprius  auricularis;  7.  abduc- 
tor longus  pollicis  manus ;  8.  extensor 
major  pollicis  manus  ;  9.  extensor  minor 
poilicis;  10.  indicator  ;  11.  flexor  carpi 
ulnaris  ;  12.  palmaris  long-us  ;  13.  flexor 
carpi  radialis;  14.  pronator  radii  teres; 
15.  flexor  digitorum  sublimis,  or  perfora- 
tus ;  16.  flexor  profundus,  or  peiforans ; 
17  to  20.  musculi  lumbricalcs  ;  21.  flexor 
longus  pollicis  manus  ;  22.  supinator  ra- 
dii brevis;  23.  pronator  radii  quadratus. 

Jfttsdes  of  the  hand — 1.  abductor  bre- 
vis pollicis  manus  ;  2.  opponens  pollicis 
manus  ;  3.  flexor  brevis  pollicis  ;  4.  ab- 
ductor pollicis;  5.  palmaris  brevis;  6. 
abductor  digiti  minimi:  7.  flexor  propri- 
us dig-iii  minimi ;  8.  abductor  ossis  meta- 
carpi  digiti  minimi ;  9  to  11.  interossei 
intern!  manus ;  12  to  15.  interossei  exter- 
ni  manus. 

The  muscles  of  the  upper  extremity 
are  58. 

Muscles  of  the  thigh — 1.  Tensor  fasciae 
latx  ;  2.  gluteus  maximus ;  3  glutens 
rnedius:  4.  gluteus  minimus  ;  5.  pyrifor- 
mis  ;  6,  7,  geminus  superior  and  inferior; 
8.  obdurator  internus ;  9.  quadratus  femo- 
ris  ;  10.  biceps  flexor  cruris ;  11.  semi- 
tendinosus  ;  12.  semimembranosus  ;  13. 
j)soas  minor;  14.  psoas  major;  15.  ilia- 
cus  internus  ;  16.  sartorius;  17.  gracilis ; 
18.  rectus  extensor  cruris ;  19.  vastus 
externus  ;  20.  vastus  internus;  21.  cru- 
ralis  ;  22.  pectineus  ;  23.  triceps  abductor 
fernoris;  24.  obturator  externus. 

Muscles  of  the  leg. — 1.  Gastrocnemius 
or  gemellus ;  2.  soleus  ;  3.  plantaris  ;  4. 
popliteus;  5.  flexor  longus  digitorum  pe- 
dis;  6  to  9.  lumbricales  pcdis;  10.  flexor 
longus  hallucis  ;  11.  tibialis  posticus ; 
12.  peroneus  longus;  13.  peroneus  bre- 
vis ;  14.  tabialis  anticus  ;  15.  extensor 
longus  digitorurn  pedis;  16.  peroneus 
tertius. 

Muscles  of  the  foot. — 1.  Extensor  pro- 
prius hallucis;  2.  extensor  brevis  digito- 
rum  pedis ;  3.  flexor  brevis  digitorum 
pedis;  4.  abductor  1;:  <nsvrr- 

sus  pedis  ;  8.  abductor  digiti  minimi  pe- 
dis  :  7.  flexor  bi-evis  di?^ ,  :\'\  •  ;mni  pedis ; 
8  to  10.  interossei  interni  pcdis  ;  11  to  14. 
finterossei  extern!  pedis. 


The  muscles  of  the  lower  extremity 
are  54 ;  and  the  whole  number  of  the 
body  289.  But  as  they  are  the  same  on 
both  sides,  this  must  be  doubled,  which 
will  give  578  ;  an  enumeration  which  is 
pretty  nearly  correct. 

ORGANS  CONCERITED  IN  THE  REDUCTION  ASTD 
ASSIMILATION  OF  THE  FOOD. 

Organs  of  mastication  and  deglutition. — 
The  two  jaws,  with  their  teeth,  and  the 
tongue,  are  the  principal  agents  in  the 
business  of  mastication. 

The  articulation  of  the  condyle  of  the 
lower  jaw  with  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the 
temporal  bone  admits  of  the  former  part 
being  moved  in  various  directions.  Its 
depression  and  elevation  cause  the  open- 
ing and  shutting  of  the  mouth.  It  can  be 
brought  forwards  and  carried  backwards; 
and  admits  also  of  being  moved  to  one 
side  or  the  other.  It  is  by  a  combination 
of  these  various  motions  that  the  food  is 
masticated,  or  reduced  into  a  soft  and 
pulpy  form.  The  different  teeth  which 
are  placed  in  various  parts  of  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth  are  adapted,  by  their  form 
and  situation,  for  various  parts  of  the  pro- 
cess of  mastication.  The  anterior  ones, 
which  have  a  thin  cutting  edge,  and  in 
which  the  superior  overlap  the  inferior, 
act  like  the  blades  of  :\  pair  of  scissors. 
These  cut  the  food  into  smaller  morsels  ; 
and  serve  us  also  in  biting  off  a  portion 
from  any  mass  of  food  which  we  may  be 
eating.  The  back  teeth,have  broad  bases, 
furnished  with  obtuse  prominences  ;  and 
they  shut  perpendicularly  on  each  other. 
These  are  therefore  well  adapted  for  the 
grinding  and  trituration  of  the  food.  As 
their  office  requires  a  greater  muscular 
force,  they  are  placed  in  the  back  of  the 
mouth,  near  to  the  centre  of  motion,  and 
where ,  consequently,  the  action  of  the 
muscles  is  felt  with  the  greatest  effect. 
The  cutting  teeth  are  placed  in  front,  at 
a  greater  distance  from  the  attachment 
of  the  muscles,  because  their  office  does 
not  require  so  great  a  muscular  exer- 
tion. 

The  tongue  is  of  considerable  utility  in 
contributing  to  mastication,  as  it  serves  to 
move  the  food  about  in  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth,  and  to  subject  it  again  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  grinding  teeth,  when  it  has 
escaped  from  between  their  surfaces. 
The  muscles  of  this  organ,  which  we  have 
enumerated  in  the  myo!ogical  division  of 
the  article,  give  it  a  power  of  motion  in 
every  direction. 

But  the  simple  act  of  mastication  would 


ANATOMY. 


unly  reduce  the  food  into  a  powder,  or  at 
all  events  into  a  dry  mass,  that  could  not 
be  swallowed  without  great  difficulty.  To 
obviate  this  inconvenience,  it  is  plentiful- 
ly moistened  with  a  watery  fluid  called 
saliva,  and  is  thereby  converted  into  a  soft 
paste,  which  can  be  conveyed  into  the 
stomach  with  perfect  facility.  The  source 
of  this  fluid  is,  in  several  glandular  bodies, 
situated  near  the  mouth,  and  se lading  ex- 
cretory ducts,  which  convey  the  secret- 
ed fluid  into  that  cavity.  As  the  jaws 
move,  the  muscles  compress  these  glands, 
and  squeeze  the  secreted  fluid  into  the 
moutU.  The  tongue  is  constantly  em- 
ployed in  bringing  again  under  the  action 
of  the  teeth  those  portions  of  the  food 
which  escape  from  between  them;  and 
the  closure  of  the  lips  prevents  it  from 
fulling  out  of  the  mouth. 

The  true  salivary  glands  are  three  in 
number,  on  each  side  of  the  head.  The 
largest  is  placed  in  the  space  left  between 
the  ear  and  the  lower-jaw-bone  ;  and  is 
called,  from  its  situation,  the  parotid.  Its 
duct  pierces  the  middle  of  the  cheek. 
The  two  others  are  placed  under  the 
tongue,  and  are  called  the  submaxillary 
and  sublingual.  Their  ducts  join,  to  open 
by  a  common  orifice,  at  the  side  of  the 
membrane  called  the  frenum  of  the 
tongue,  which  ties  the  under  surface  of 
that  organ  to  the  inside  of  the  lower  jaw. 
Besides  these  large  salivary  glands,  there 
are  other  small  granular  bodies,  which 
pour  a  mucous  fluid  into  the  mouth ; 
these  are  named,  according  to  their  situa- 
tion, glandulae  labiales,  buccales,  &c. 

The  cavity  of  the  mouth  in  which  the 
process  of  mastication  goes  on  is  not  a 
very  extensive  one.  There  is  a  small 
space  left  between  the  cheeks  and  the 
teeth  externally;  but  within  the  teeth  the 
tongue  occupies  nearly  the  whole  room. 
The  upper  boundary  is  formed  by  the  pa- 
late or  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  the  lower 
by  the  surface  of  the  tongue.  The  mouth 
opens  behind,  by  a  tolerablefree  commu- 
nication, into  a  membranous  bag,  called 
the  pharynx.  The  surface  of  the  mouth 
is  every  where  covered  by  a  soft  and 
smooth  membrane.  This  is  of  course 
kept  constantly  in  a  moist  state,  as  the 
glandsabove  enumeratedcontinually  pour 
more  or  less  of  their  secretion  into  the 
cavity.  The  membrane  of  the  mouth  is 
continuous  with  the  external  surface  of 
the  body  ;  but  the  skin  assumes  a  more 
delicate  organization,  as  must  be  appa- 
rent to  every  body,  from  the  change  of 
colour  at  the  lips. 

Bar  of  the  pharynx.— -The   masticated 


aliment  is  collected  on  the  back  of  th« 
tongue,  which  is  then  carried  upwards, 
and  backwards,  to  discharge  it  into  the 
pharynx.  This  bag  is  covered  by  t;«uscu- 
lar  fibres  (forming  the  muscles  called 
constrictores  pharyngis)  which  contract, 
successively,  in  order  to  propel  the  food 
towards  the  stomach.  But  as  there  are 
several  organs  communicating  with  the 
pharynx,  the  food  might  pass  in  a  Wrong 
direction,  if  the  parts  were  not  so  con- 
trived as  to  prevent  such  occurrences. 

In  the  upper  and  anterior  part  of  the 
pharynx,  the  nostrils  open  by  two  large 
and  free  apertures.  Between  these  and 
the  entrance  from  the  mouth  is  found  a 
fleshy  and  moveable  curtain,  called  the 
soft  palate,  or  velum  pendulum  palati. 
There  is  a  small  body  of  a  pointed  figure, 
projecting  from  the  middle  of  this  organ, 
and  known  by  the  name  of  the  uvula. 
This  curtain  and  the  uvula  can  be  easily 
seen  in  the  throat  of  a  living  person.  It 
admits  of  being  elevated  so  as  to  shut 
the  opening  of  the  nostrils;  and  its  ac- 
tion is  exemplified  in  the  act  of  vomiting: 
the  food  is  forcibly  thrown  into  the  pha- 
rynx, and  would  pass  mostly  into  the 
nose,  were  it  not  prevented  by  the  soft 
palate.  From  the  uvula  the  membrane  is 
continued  on  either  side,  in  an  arched 
form,  towards  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and 
it  contains  a  glandular  body,  called  the 
tonsil,  which  secretes  a  mucous  fluid,  to 
lubricate  the  parts,  and  facilitate  the  pas- 
sage of  the  aliment.  The  larynx  opens 
into  the  pharynx,  just  at  the  root  of  the 
tongue  ;  over  this  part,  which  is  termed 
the  glottis,  every  morsel  of  the  food  must 
necessarily  pass  :  yet  so  exquisitely  ten- 
der is  the  membrane  of  the  wind-pipe, 
that  the  contact  of  the  smallest  extrane- 
ous body  excites  a  convulsive  paroxysm 
of  coughing,  that  does  not  cease  until  the 
offending  matter  be  removed.  Here  then 
are  two  objects  to  be  effected  ;  the  func- 
tion of  respiration  requires  that  the  wind- 
pipe should  have  a  free  cummunication 
with  the  external  air,  while  the  irritable 
nature  of  its  membrane  demands  that  no 
extraneous  body  should  find  admission. 
These  points  are  both  attained  by  means 
of  a  strictly  mechanical  contrivance  ;  by 
a  structure  which  produces  the  required 
effect  independently  of  the  will  of  the 
animal,  and  merely  in  -consequence  of 
those  motions  which  the  organs  perform 
in  the  office  of  deg-lutition.  At  the  back 
of  the  tongue,  and  just  in  front  of  the 
glottis,  is  a  cartilaginous  valve,  called  the 
epiglottis.  When  the  parts  are  at  rest, 
this  valve  stands  perpendicular,  and  con- 


ANATOMY. 


sequently  docs  not  interfere  with  the  pas- 
sage of  the  air  into  the  wind-pipe.  In  the 
act  of  swallowing,  the  tongue  is  carried 
backwards,  and  the  wind-pipe  is  drawn 
tip  :  hence  the  epiglottis  becomes  me- 
chanically applied  over  the  opening,  ani 
at  this  moment  the  food  enters  the  pha- 
rynx over  it,  and  by  its  pressure  closes  the 
aperture  still  more  completely.  As  soon 
as  the  food  has  passed,  the  tongue  and 
wind-pipe  resume  their  former  position, 
the  elasticity  of  the  cartilage  restores  it 
to  the  erect  state,  and  the  glottis  is  again 
free  for  the  continuance  of  respiration. 
So  completely  does  this  simple  mechan- 
ism answer  the  proposed  end,  that,  al- 
though every  morsel  of  food  passes  over 
the  glottis,  the  accident  of  any  portion 
going  the  wrong  way,  as  it  is  termed,  is 
comparatively  rare,  and  can  only  arise 
from  our  being  imprudent  enough  to 
laugh  or  talk  while  we  are  swallowing. 
In  either  of  these  cases  air  must  pass  out 
of  the  trachea,  and,  by  so  doing,  it  lifts  up 
the  epiglottis. 

The  pharynx  opens  below  in  the  oeso- 
phagus, a  muscular  tube,  which  conveys 
the  food  into  the  stomach.  The  aliment, 
in  its  farther  progress,  goes  through  dif- 
ferent viscera  contained  in  the  abdomen ; 
and  we  shall  therefore  proceed  with  a  de- 
scription of  that  cavity. 

The  term  abdomen  includes  a  large 
portion  of  the  body.  It  is  bounded  above 
by  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs,  and  by  the 
diaphragm,  which  separates  it  from  the 
chest,  at  the  back  part,  by  the  bodies  of 
the  lumbar  vertebra  ;  in  front  and  at  the 
sides,  by  the  abdominal  muscles ;  and  be- 
low, by  the  bones  of  the  pelvis. 

It  is  every  where  lined  by  a  membrane 
called  the  peritoneum.  The  surface  of 
this  is  perfectly  smooth  and  polished,  and 
moistened  by  a  serous  exhalation  produ- 
ced by  the  minute  arteries  of  the  part. 
This  membrane  not  only  lines  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen,  but  also  covers  all  the 
viscera  contained  in  that  cavity,  so  that 
the  exterior  surface  of  each  part  consists 
of  what  anatomists  call  its  peritoneal  coat. 
Hence  the  motions  of  these  parts  upon 
each  other,  and  upon  the  surface  of  the 
cavity,  are  performed  with  perfect  facility. 
The  productions  of  the  membrane, 
which  give  these  exterior  investments 
to  the  viscera,  serve  also  to  confine  them 
in  their  relative  positions. 

The  cavity  is  subdivided  into  three  re- 
gions, the  epigastric,  which  includes  all 
the  space  above  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
across  the  belly,  from  the  greatest  convex- 
ities of  the  cartilages  of  the  seventh  true 


rib;  the  umbilical,  which  is  the  division 
between  this  line  and  another  drawn  from 
the  anterior  superior  spines  of  the  ilia  ; 
and  the  hypogastric,  which  is  the  space 
left  below  the  last  line. 

The  sides  of  the  epigastric  region, 
which  are  the  spaces  covered  by  the  car- 
tilages of  the  ribs,  are  called  hypochon- 
dria: the  sides  of  the  umbilical  region 
are  named  the  loins  :  and  those  of  the 
hypogustric  the  groins. 

The  stomach  is  a  large  membranous 
reservoir,  receiving  the  food  from  the  oeso- 
phagus, and  retaining  it  until  a  certain 
change,  called  digestion,  is  produced.  Its 
figure  is  conical,  as  it  is  largest  at  the  left 
end,  and  gradually  decreases  in  size  to- 
wards the  right:  these  are  called  the  great- 
er and  smaller  extremities  of  the  stomach . 
It  is  also  bent  in  its  course,  so  that  we 
describe  a  greater  and  smaller  curvature 
or  arch.  It  has  twro  openings,  one  close 
to  the  diaphragm,  called  the  cardiac,  su- 
perior, or  oesophageal ;  the  other,  just  at 
the  smaller  end,  is  called  the  pyloric,  or 
lower  orifice.  The  capacity  of  the  sto- 
mach varies  from  about  5  to  11  pints. 

Its  structure  is  muscular;  and  this  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  propel  the  food, 
when  digested.  Under  the  muscular  coat 
is  found  the  internal,  or  villous  tunic ;  the 
arteries  of  which  pour  out  the  gastric 
juice,  the  chief  agent  in  the  digestion  of 
the  food. 

The  pylorus,  which  word  is  derived 
from  two  Greek  terms,  signifying  the 
keeper  of  the  gate,  is  a  contracted  ring,  by 
which  the  stomach  communicates  with  the 
small  intestine.  It  prevents  the  food  from 
passing  out  of  the  stomach  before  it  has 
been  sufficiently  acted  on  by  the  gastric 
juice. 

The  stomach  receives  a  portion  of  peri- 
toneum as  the  oesophagus  passes  the  dia- 
phragm. There  is  also  a  process  coming 
from  the  liver,  called  the  lesser  omentum, 
or  mesogaster.  This  is  attached  to  the 
lesser  arch  of  the  stomach.  The  great 
omentum,  or  the  caul,  is  affixed  to  the 
greater  arch  of  the  stomach,  and  hangs 
from  thence  over  the  surface  of  the  intes- 
tines, being  interposed  between  them  and 
the  parietes.  It  is  also  attached  to  a  part 
of  the  colon  :  its  use  is  unknown. 

The  small  intestine  is  divided  into  three 
parts;  the  duodenum,  jejunum,  and  ileum; 
but  this  distinction  is  an  arbitrary  one,  and 
not  founded  on  any  difference  in  struc- 
ture. It  consists  of  a  membranous  tube, 
about  an  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a  half  in  di- 
ameter, and  four  times  the  length  of  the 
subject.Notwithstanding  this  great  length, 
it  is  collected,  by  means  of  numerous  turn- 


ANATOMY. 


ings  antl  convolutions,  into  a  comparative- 
ly small  space.  These  convolutions  of  the 
small  intestine  occupy  the  chief  part  of 
the  umbilical  and  hypogastiuc  regions  of 
the  abdomen.  They  are  connected  in 
their  situation  by  means  of  a  broad  folded 
membrane,  called  the  mesentery.  This 
production  of  the  peritoneum  is  about  six 
inches  broad  at  its  commencement,  but  it 
expands  gradually,  something1  after  the 
manner  of  a  fan,  so  that  it  becomes  broad 
enough,  ultimately,  to  cover  the  whole 
length  of  the  small  intestine.  It  serves  to 
keep  the  different  convolutions  of  the  ca- 
nal in  a  certain  relative  position,  and  al- 
lows, at  the  same  time,  a  considerable 
freedom  of  motion,  without  any  danger  of 
intangling.  In  tracing  the  course  of  the 
small  intestine,  we  follow  the  duodenum 
iron*  the  lesser  extremity  of  the  stomach, 
in  the  right  hypochondrium,  making  three 
turns  close  on  the  backbone,  and  then 
coming-  out  just  over  the  left  kidney.  The 
gentvai  direction  of  the  canal  from  this 
point,  independently  of  its  various  turn- 
in  !.'/•;  ah  >  windings,  is  towards  the  right 
groin,  where  the  ilium  terminates  by  en- 
tering ihe  coecum. 

The  small  intestine  possesses  three 
coats  similar  to  those  of  the  stomach,  viz. 
an  external  or  peritoneal ;  a  middle  or 
muscular ;  and  an  internal,  or  villous.  tu- 
nic. The  latter  forms  a  great  many  trans- 
>erse,  loose,  and  Moating  processes,  call- 
ed valvulx  conniventes ;  by  means  of 
which  the  extent  of  surface  of  the  villous 
coat  is  very  much  augmented.  Numerous 
glandular  bodies  are  found  in  parts  of  the 
canal,  collected  into  small  parcels,  and 
hence  called  glandular  agminate. 

The  food,  which  is  reduced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  stomach  into  an  homogeneous 
mass,  called  chyme,  enters  the  small  in- 
testine, where  it  undergoes  a  further 
change,  and  becomes  chyle.  It  is  pro- 
pelled along  the  canal  by  the  muscular 
coat  of  the  intestine,  and  the  villous  tu- 
nic absorbs  from  it  the  nutritious  parti- 
cles. It  pusses  along  every  turn  and  wind- 
ing of  this  long  canal,  continually  subject- 
ed to  the  action  of  the  absorbing  vessels. 
The  residue  of  the  alimentary  matter  is 
sent  into  the  large  intestine,  from  which 
it  is  expelled  in  the  form  offices. 

The  large  intestine  is  a  canal  of  about 
two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  seven 
feet  in  length.  It  is  divided  into  the  cce- 
cum,  colon,  and  rectum.  The  coecum  is  a 
bag  situated  in  the  right  groin,  and  receiv- 
ing the  termination  of  the  ilium.  The 
latter  interstice  enters  in  such  a  manner, 
jhat  the  passage  of  the  aliment  is  allowed 

YWL.  !. 


from  it  into  the  ctecum,  but  prevented 
from  returning.  The  part  which  effects 
this  is  called  the  valvula  coli.  A  small 
process,  about  equal  in  size  to  an  earth- 
worm, is  connected  to  the  coecum.  It  is 
culled  appendix  cceci  vermiibrmis,  and  its 
use  is  unknown. 

From  the  right  groin  the  intestine 
ascends  on  the  right  side  of  the  abdomen 
over  the  kidney,  under  the  name  of  co- 
lon :  it  turns  completely  over  the  abdomen 
at  the  upper  part,  and  descends  along  the 
lef-  side  to  the  left  groin  ;  here  it  makes 
a  large  turn  over  the  brim  of  the  pelvis, 
and  enters  that  cavity,  where  it  takes  the 
name  of  rectum,  which  terminates  at  the 
anus.  We  distinguish  in  the  colon  the  right 
or  ascending  portion ;  the  middle  or  trans- 
verse arch  ;  the.  left  or  descending  ;  and 
the  sigmoid  flexure.  The  right  and  left 
portions  of  this  gut  are  closely  bound 
down  in  their  situations  by  two  portions 
of  peritoneum,  called  ligamenti  coli.  The 
transverse  arch  h:is  a  broad  process  con- 
nected to  it,  by  which  it  is  loosely  attach- 
ed :  this  is  called  the  mesocolon. 

Tiie  large  intestines  have  a  peritonea], 
a  muscular,  and  a  villous  coat ;  but  they 
have  no  valvulx  conniventes.  The  longi- 
tudinal muscular  fibres  are  collected  into 
three  bands,  whi<  :>  being  shorter  than  the 
rest  of  the  intestine,  occasion  the  rUier 
coatsto  be  gathered  up  in  in  folds  bei  w  t  ^n 
them,  and  thereby  give  the  intestine  a 
sacculated  appearance. 

The  residue  of  the  alimentary  matter, 
which  the  large  intestine  receives  from 
the  small,  is  converted  in  the  former  ca- 
nal into  a  substance  of  peculiar  odour, 
colour,  and  consistence,  called  faeces  ;  in 
which  form  it  is  expelled  from  the  body. 

Parts  subservient  to  the  functions  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal, and  contained  in  the  cavit'it 
of  the  abdomen. 

The  liver  is  the  larg-est  glandular  msrss 
in  the  body,  and  is  placed  towards  the 
right  side  of  the  epigastric  region.  Ifr, 
thickest  portion  fills  the  right  hypochon- 
drium; a  thinner  part  of  the  gland  extends 
across  the  middle  of  the  epigastric  region 
to  the  left  hypochondrium.  Its  size  is 
greater  in  proportion  as  the  animal  is 
younger.  In  the  adult  it  is  contained 
within  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  ;  but  in 
the  foetus  it  extends  to  the  navel,  and  fills 
half  the  belly.  Its  upper  surface  is  con- 
vex, and  in  close  contact  with  the  concave 
under  surface  of  the  diaphragm.  Its  under, 
or  concave  surface  rests  chieHy  on  the 
stomach.  It  is  divided  into  a  ri^ht  and 
left  lobe,  .and  lobulus  spigelu.  It  has  a 

B  b 


ANATOMY. 


posterior  and  thick,  an  anterior  and  thin, 
margin.  Its  colour,  in  the  most  healthy 
state,  is  of  a  reddish  brown ;  but  it  often 
deviates  from  this.  Its  weight,  in  an  adult 
man  of  middling  stature,  is  about  3  pounds. 
It  is  connected  to  the  diaphragm  by  four 
ligaments,  viz,  1.  ligamentum  latum,  or 
suspensorium,  which  divides  the  right  and 
left  lobes  from  each  other.  The  front 
edge  of  this  part  contains  the  fibrous  re- 
mains of  the  umbilical  cord  of  the  foetus, 
which,  assuming  the  appearance  of  around 
rope,  is  called  the  round  ligament.  2,  3. 
Ligamenta  lateralia,  or  dextrum,  et  sinis- 
trum.  4.  Ligamentum  coronarium. 

The  liver  is  covered  exteriorly  by  peri- 
toneum, and  there  are  certain  fissures  and 
excavations  on  its  surface.  1.  Fossa,  for 
the  gall-bladder,  in  the  under  surface  of 
the  right  lobe.  2.  Fissure  on  the  anterior 
thin  margin,  for  the  entrance  of  the  umbi- 
lical vein.  3.  Portse,  or  large  transverse 
notch,  at  which  the  blood-vessels  enter, 
and  from  which  the  hepatic  duct  proceeds. 
4.  Notch  for  the  inferior  vena  cava.  5. 
Excavation  for  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae. 
The  liver  is  composed  of  a  tolerably 
firm  and  close  substance,  consisting  of  a 
closely  united  congeries  of  different  ves- 
sels. These  vessels  are  the  vena  porta- 
rum,  the  hepatic  artery,  the  hepatic  veins, 
and  the  biliary  ducts.  The  former  vessel 
carries  to  the  liver  the  blood  which  has 
circulated  through  the  different  abdomi- 
nal viscera.  It  ramifies  in  the  liver  like 
an  artery,  and  the  secretion  of  the  bile  is 
supposed  to  take  place  from  the  blood 
which  it  conveys  to  the  liver.  The  blood 
of  this  vein,  as  well  as  that  brought  by  the 
hepatic  artery,  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
liver,  is  returned  by  the  large  hepatic 
veins  to  the  inferior  vena  cava.  The 
small  branches  of  the  hepatic  duct,  which 
convey  the  secreted  bile  from  the  liver, 
appear  like  small  yellow  pores,  when  a 
section  of  the  liver  is  made,  and  hence 
they  are  called  pori  biliarii. 

The  mesogaster,  or  little  omentum,  is 
attached  to  the  ports;  of  the  liver.  The 
vena  portarum,  the  biliary  ducts,  the  he- 
patic artery,  and  the  hepatic  plexus  of 
nerves,  pass  along  the  right  side  of  this 
process  ;  and  the  part  in  which  they  are 
situated  is  called  the  capsula  Glissoni. 
Under  the  edge  of  this  part  is  an  opening, 
leading  to  the  bag  of  the  great  omentum, 
and  called  the  foramen  epiploicum. 

G A LL-B LADDER    AXJ)    BILIARY    DUCTS. 

The  gall-bladder  is  a  membranous  bag, 
serving  as  -a  reservoir  for  the  bile.  Its 
shape  is  that  of  a  pear,  being  broader  at 


one  end,  and  diminishing  conically  to- 
wards the  opposite  extremity.  The  broad 
end  is  called  the  fundus ;  and  the  small- 
er part  of  the  neck  the  viscus.  Its  ave- 
rage capacity  may  be  about  one  ounce. 
It  is  firmly  bound  to  the  surface  of  the 
liver  by  peritoneum.  Its  inner  surface  is 
elegantly  reticulated,  and  furnishes  a 
viscid  mucus  that  mingles  with  the  bile. 

The  hepatic  duct  is  continued  in  u 
straight  course  from  the  liver  to  the  duo- 
denum, in  which  it  opens.  It  passes,  how- 
ever, in  an  oblique  manner,  between  the 
coats  of  the  intestine,  before  opening  into 
its  cavity.  Hence  the  contents  of  the  in- 
testine cannot  enter  the  duct;  and  the 
more  fully  the  intestine  is  distended,  the 
more  completely  is  this  prevented  by  the 
compression  of  the  duct  between  the  in- 
testinal tunics.  The  neck  of  the  gall- 
bladder is  gradually  contracted  into  a 
small  tube,  called  the  cystic  duct,  which 
joins  the  hepatic  at  an  acute  angle,  after 
first  running  parallel  with  it.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  hepatic  duct,  after  the 
junction  with  the  cystic,  is  often  called 
the  ductus  communis  choledochus.  The 
surface  of  the  cystic  duct,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  neck  of  the  gall-bladder,  has  nu- 
merous small  folds  of  the  internal  mem- 
brane, which  must  retard  and  obstruct 
the  course  of  the  bile. 

Pancreas — Is  a  gland  of  the  conglome- 
rate kind  ;  that  is,  composed  of  numerous 
minute  portions,  united  by  cellular  sub- 
stance. It  is  connected  by  one  end  to  the 
commencement  of  the  duodenum,  and  ex 
tends  across  the  vertebrae,  behind  the  les- 
ser arch  of  the  stomach,  to  the  spleen. 
Its  length  is  about  six  inches,  its  breadth 
one  and  a  half,  and  its  thickness  half  an 
inch. 

Each  of  the  small  molecules  which  com- 
pose this  gland  has  an  excretory  duct ; 
these  unite  together  into  larger  and  larger 
trunks,  and  the  main  tube  of  all  runs 
along  the  centre  of  the  gland,  and  joins 
the  ductus  communis  choledochus  just 
before  that  duct  opens  into  the  duodenum. 

Spleen. — This  part,  which  in  common 
language  is  called  the  milt,  is  a  soft  and 
livid  mass,  interposed  between  the  great 
end  of  the  stomach  and  the  diaphragm.  It 
weighs  about  six  or  seven  ounces.  It 
consists  of  a  congeries  of  cells  filled  with 
blood,  as  the  arteries  and  veins  of  the 
organ  communicate  with  them.  It  is 
closely  connected  to  the  great  end  of  the 
stomach  by  vascular  ramifications,  which 
the  splenic  vessels  send  to  the  stomach, 
It  has  a  concave  and  convex  surface  ;  an. 
anterior  and  posterior  extremity  ;  and  :u» 
external  peritoneal  covering. 


ANATOMY. 


ORGANS  OP  HKSPIHATION. 

As  these  are  contained  in  the  caVity  of 
*he  thorax,  we  shall  consider  the  subject 
in  the  form  of  a  description  of  that  cavity 
and  its  contents. 

The  cavity  of  the  thorax  is  the  space 
included  by  the  dorsal  vertebrae  behind, 
by  the  ribs  with  their  cartilages,  the  ster- 
num, and  intercostal  muscles,  at  the  sides 
and  fore  part ;  and  by  the  diaphragm  be- 
low.  This  cavity  is  lined  by  a  membrane 
called  the  pleura,  which  has  a  smooth  in- 
ternal surface,  constantly  moistened  by  a 
serous  exhalation. 

The  cavity  of  the  chest  contains  two 
distinct  membranous  bag's,  called  th.e 
right  and  left  bags  of  the  pleura  ;  each 
of  these  holds  the  lung  of  its  own  side, 
and  is  entirely  separated  from  the  oppo- 
site one.  The  pleura  not  only  forms  a 
bag  which  holds  the  lung,  but  is  also  re- 
flected over  the  surface  of  the  viscus,  be- 
stowing on  it  a  smooth  exterior  invest- 
ment. This  is  called  the  pleura  pulmo- 
nalis,  to  distinguish  it  froin  the  other, 
which  is  named  pleura  costalis. 

If  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  be  divided 
on  one  side  of  the  chest,  the  correspond- 
ing bag  of  the  pleura  will  be  opened;  and 
it  will  then  appear,  that  this  is  separated 
from  the  opposite  one  by  a  partition,  which 
extends  from  the  sternum  in  front  to  the 
vertebrae  behind,  and  is  known  by  the 
name  of  mediastinum.  The  pleura  may 
be  compared  to  two  bladders  placed  late- 
rally with  respect  to  each  other,  but  adher- 
ing only  partially,  and  separated  by  vari- 
ous intervening  bodies.  Thus,  the  heart 
and  adjoining  large  blood-vessels,  the 
oesophagus,  and  the  division  of  the  trachea 
into  the  two  bronchi,  are  placed  between 
the  two  pleurae.  The  mediastinum  then 
is  the  space  included  betweenthe  opposed 
surfaces  of  the  two  bags  of  the  pleurae, 
and  containing  the  parts  above  mentioned. 
The  name  of  anterior  mediastinum  is  ap- 
plied to  a  small  interval  left  between  the 
two  pleurae,  just  behind  the  sternum,  and 
occupied  only  by  a  loose  cellular  texture. 
The  posterior  mediastinum  is  a  larger 
space  in  front  of  the  bodies  of  the  verte- 
brae ;  it  contains  the  descending  aorta,  the 
vena  azygos,  thoracic  duct,  oesophagus, 
and  the  par  vagum. 

The  capacity  of  the  chest  taken  altoge- 
ther varies,  according  as  we  estimate  it  in 
a  state  of  inspiration  or  expiration ;  being 
largest  in  the  former,  and  smallest  in  the 
latter  state.  The  right  bag  of  the  pleura 
is  considerably  larger  than  the  left,  as  is 
also  the  right  lung. 


In  the  living  state,  the  lung  is  in  close 
contact  with  the  surface  of  the  cavity,  and 
follows  all  the  motions  of  the  sides  of  the 
chest.  It  is  distended  by  the  influx  of  air, 
when  the  chest  is  enlarged  ;  and  the  air  is 
expelled  from  the  lung,  when  the  chest  is 
diminished.  As  soon  as  the  thorax  is 
opened  in  the  dead  subject,  the  lung  falls 
down  from  the  sides  of  the  chest,  or,  in 
technical  language,  collapses,  and  then  a 
large  empty  space  is  seen  between  it  and 
the  ribs.  From  this  representation  it 
should  appear,  that  the  lungs  are  quite 
passive  in  the  business  of  respiration. 

The  lungs  are  two  in  number  :  one  be- 
ing contained  in  each  bag  of  the  pleura. 
They  are  loose  and  unconnected  in  these 
bags,  except  atone  point,  towards  the  up- 
per and  posterior  portion  of  each  vi.scus, 
where  the  great  vessels  enter  them,  and 
where  the  bag  of  the  pleura  is  continu- 
ous with  the  reflected  portion  of  thfrihem- 
brane.  These  are  called  the  ligaments  of 
the  lungs. 

Their  colour  varies  considerably.  It  is 
always  verging  more  to  a  red,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  subject  is  younger:  in  the  adult, 
it  has  more  of  a  spotted  and  livid  cast. 
Towards  the  back  of  the  lungs  it  is  always 
much  deeper,  from  the  gravitation  of  blood 
in  the  vessels  in  consequence  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  subject.  It  is  lighter,  when  the 
lungs  contain  much  air. 

The  lungs  are  subdivided  into  lobes  ; 
of  which  the  right  contains  three,  and  the 
left  two.  Their  substance  is  composed  of 
a  congeries  of  minute  membranous  cells, 
about  equal  in  size  to  a  pin's  head,  and  as 
these  are  more  or  less  filled  with  air,  they 
give  the  lung  a  peculiar  spongy  feel. 
These  cells  communicate  with  the  ulti- 
mate ramifications  of  the  air  vessels,  and 
receive  air  from  that  source.  The  pul- 
monary vessels  ramify  minutely  in  them, 
and  thereby  expose  the  blood  to  the  ef- 
fects of  the  contained  air ;  and  in  this  ex- 
posure the  object  of  respirationis  effected. 

T/ie  -windpipe.  The  tube,  which  con- 
veys the  external  air  into  the  lungs,  may 
be  divided  into  three  parts  ;  the  larynx, 
the  trachea,  and  the  bronchi. 

The  larynx  is  a  hollow  cartilaginous  or- 
gan, placed  at  the  top  of  the  trachea.  The 
air  which  passes  through  this  from  the 
lungs,  in  expiration,  produces  the  voice. 

The  cavity  of  the  larynx  opens  above  at 
the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  below  into  the 
trachea.  The  organ  is  composed  of  live 
pieces  of  cartilage  •  viz.  the  thyroid  and 
cricoid  cartilages  and  epiglottis,  and  two 
arytenoid  cartilages. 

The  thyroid  cartilage  is  the  largest,  and 


ANATOMY. 


consists  of  two  irregularly  quadrangular 
pieces,  united  in  front  at  an  obtuse  angle. 
This  part  projects  in  the  front  of  the  neck, 
and  much  more  conspicuously  in  the  male 
than  in  the  female  sex:  it  is  called  po- 
mum  Adami. 

The  cricoid  cartilage  may  be  compared 
to  a  ring  with  a  seal,  of  which  the  broad 
or  seal  part  is  placed  behind,  and  the  nar- 
rower portion  in  front.  It  is  directly  un- 
der the  thyroid  cartilage. 

The  arytenoid  are  two  pyramidal  por- 
tions of  cartilage,  connected  by  regular 
moveable  articulations  to  the  back  of  the 
cricoid. 

The  epiglottis  is  the  softest  cartilage  of 
the  larynx.  It  has  a  basis  firmly  tied  to 
the  thyroid  cartilage,  while  its  opposite 
extremity,  which  is  very  thin,  is  of  a 
rounded,  figure,  and  stands  directly  up- 
wards,, .except  during  deglutition,  when  it 
desceirt&iso  as  to  cover  the  opening  of  the 
larynx. 

The  thyroid  cartilage  is  tied  by  three 
ligaments  to  the  os  hyoides  above,  and  by 
•as  many  to  the  cricoid  cartilage  below; 
but  the  most  important  ligaments  of  these 
parts  are  the  ligamenta  glottidis  ;  which 
arise  from  the  front  of  the  arytenoid  car- 
nlages,  and  are  attached  to  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  front  portion  of  the  thyroid: 
A  longitudinal  slit,  culled  the  rima  glotti- 
dis, is  left  between  these,  and  it  is  by  the 
passage  of  the  air  through  that  slit  that 
the  voice  is  formed.  Hence,  from  the 
great  share  which  these  ligaments  have  in 
forming  the  voice,  the  name  of  chordae 
vocales  has  been  given  to  them.  " 

The  larynx  is  lined  by  a  vascular  and 
very  sensible  membrane,  copiously  mois- 
tened with  mucus,  in  order  to  defend  it 
from  the  external  air.  It  admits  of  free 
motion  in  the  neck,  and  its  parts  are  also 
moved  on  each  other ;  particularly  the 
arytenoid  cartilages,  whose  movements, 
by  altering  the  size  of  the  ruina  glottidis, 
and  the  state  of  tension  of  the  chordae  vo- 
cales, contribute  most  immediately  to  the 
variations  in  the  tone  of  the  voice. 

The  trachea  is  that  portion  of  the  aerial 
tube  which  is  placed  between  the  cricoid 
cartilages  and  the  origin  of  the  bronchi. 
It  is  a  cylindrical  membranoustube,of  from 
5  to  7-8ths  of  an  inch  m  diameter.  It 
runs  along  the  middle  of  the  fore-part  of 
the  neck,  having  the  large  blood-vessels 
of  the  head  on  each  side,  and  being  con- 
nected behind  to  the  oesophagus.  Soon 
after  it  has  entered  the  chest,  it  divides 
into  the  two  bronchi. 

The  tube  of  the  trachea  is  furnished 
with  hoops  of  cartilage,  by  which  it  is 


kept  permanently  open  for  the  passage  of 
the  air ;  these  are  not,  however,  complete 
circles, being  deficient  behind.  The  lin- 
ing of  the  tube  is  highly  vascular  and 
sensible,  and  covered  with  a  copious  mu- 
cous secretion,  which  is  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  constant  current  of  air  to 
which  it  is  exposed. 

The  bronchi  are  merely  the  two  bran- 
ches into  which  the  trachea  divides  for 
the  two  lungs?  and  of  these  the  right  is 
the  largest  and  shortest.  They  ramify 
through  the  lungs,  dividing  into  smaller 
and  smaller  branches;  and  the  ultimate 
ramifications  communicate  with  the  air- 
cells. 

ORGANS    OF    CIRCULATION. 

The  heart  is  the  centre  of  the  circulat- 
ing system ;  being  the  source  of  the  ar- 
teries, and  the  termination  of  the  veins. 
The  younger  the  subject,  the  larger  is 
the  heart  in  proportion  to  the  body.  It  is 
often  smaller  in  tall  and  strong  men,  than 
under  different  circumstances. 

It  is  connected  at  its  posterior  part,  be- 
hind the  sternum,  by  the  large  bloodves- 
sels, being  unattached  every  where  else, 
and  merely  confined  in  its  situation  by  the 
pericardium. 

The  pericardium  is  placed  in  the  cavity 
of  the  chest,  behind  the  second,  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  ribs  of  the  left  side.  It 
is  covered  to  the  right  and  left  by  the 
bags  of  the  pleura,  which  adhere  by  a 
loose  cellular  membrane.  It  is  not  actual- 
ly connected  by  any  part  of  its  surface 
to  the  sternum.  Below,  it  rests  on  the 
diaphragm,  and  adheres  very  firmly  to  the 
superior  surface  of  the  tendon  of  that 
muscle. 

The  cavity  of  the  pericardium  is  larger 
than  the  heart,  so  that  this  viscus  can 
move  freely  in  it. 

The  bag  of  the  pericardium  in  shape 
resembles  the  figure  of  the  heart  itself, 
being  conical.  Its  substance  is  thick  and 
compact,  and  it  is  much  more  dense  and 
strong  than  the  peritoneum  or  pleura. 
Where  the  great  vessels  are  connected 
to  the  heart,  this  membrane  becomes  re- 
flected over  its  surface;  and  hence  the 
substance  of  the  heart  has  a  close  invest- 
ment from  this  membrane,  besides  being 
contained  loosely  in  the  bag-like  portion. 
A  small  portion  of  the  large  blood-ves- 
sels is  included  within  the  cavity  of  the 
pericardium ;  particularly  of  the  aorta 
and  pulmonary  artery ;  which  are  conse- 
quently covered  by  the  reflected  por- 
tions. 

The  internal  surface  of  the  pcrir,ard: 


ANATOMY. 


um  is  moistened  by  a  serous  secretion 
from  the  exhalant  arteries  ;  which  is  col- 
lected after  death  into  a  few  drops  of  a 
clear  light  yellow  liquor.  It  is  an  un- 
natural increase  of  this  that  constitutes 
dropsy  of  the  pericardium.  This  fluid 
in  the  living  state  lubricates  the  opposed 
surfaces  of  the  heart  and  pericardium, 
and  thereby  facilitates  their  motion  on 
each  other,  and  prevents  their  accretion. 

The  heart,  which  is  contained  almost 
entirely  in  the  left  side  of  the  chest,  re- 
sembles a  half  cone  ;  hence  we  distin- 
guish in  it  a  basis  or  broad  part,  and  an 
apex  or  narrower  portion;  a  convex  and 
a  flat  surface.  The  basis  is  placed  to- 
wards the  right,  and  backwards;  the  apex 
points  obliquely  to  the  left,  forwards  and 
downwards.  The  basis  is  opposite  to  the 
seventh  or  eighth  vertebra  of  the  back, 
and  the  apex  points  to  the  cartilage  of 
the  fifth  or  sixth  left  rib.  The  position 
however  varies  by  the  motion  of  the 
diaphragm  in  respiration,  as  it  is  drawn 
down  in  a  strong  inspiration,  and  again 
rises  in  expiration.  Its  position  also 
seems  to  vary  slightly,  according  to  the 
situation  of  the  body  in  lying. 

A  small  portion  of  the  left  lung  seems, 
as  it  were,  removed  just  at  the  apex  of 
the  heart ;  so  that  that  part  of  the  viscus 
is  not  covered  by  the  lung  like  the  rest, 
but  touches  the  front  of  the  chest. 

Those  cavities  of  the  heart  which  are 
called  the  right  are  placed  in  front ;  and 
the  left  cavities  are  towards  the  back 
part ;  so  that  the  epithets  anterior  and 
posterior  would  correspond  more  nearly 
with  the  true  position  of  these  parts,  than 
those  of  right  and  left. 

The  flat  surface  of  the  heart  looks  di- 
rectly downwards,  and  rests  on  the  ten- 
don of  the  diaphragm;  this,  therefore,  in 
point  of  position,  is  inferior  ;  the  convex 
surface  is  turned  upwards,  forwards,  and 
obliquely  towards  the  left,  so  that  it  may 
be  called  the  superior  surface. 

The  weight  of  the  human  heart,  when 
removed  from  the  body,  with  its  pericar- 
dium, is  from  10  to  15  ounces. 

Like  the  heart  of  all  warm-blooded 
animals,  this  organ  consists  of  two 
hearts,  closely  and  intimately  connected. 
One  of  these  is  concerned  with  the  cir- 
culation through  the  body,  or  the  greater 
••irculation ;  the  other  with  the  circula- 
tion through  the  lungs,  or  the  minor  cir- 
culation. These  might  perform  their  of- 
fices, if  separate  and  even  distant  from 
each  other.  Each  of  these  hearts  con- 
sists of  two  cavities;  an  auricle,  or  mem- 
branous bag,  placed  at  the  mouths  of  the 


veins;  a  ventricle,  or  strong  muscular 
organ,  placed  at  the  orifice  of  the  artery, 
and  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  driv- 
ing the  blood  into  that  vessel  and  it$ 
branches. 

The  two  auricles  are  placed  at  the  ba- 
sis or  broadest  part  of  the  heart ;  and  the 
two  ventricles,  composing  the  chief  bulk 
of  the  organ,  are  found  in  front  of  the 
former  cavities. 

In  the  following  description  of  the 
structure  of  the  heart,  we  shall  trace  the 
parts  in  the  same  order  in  which  the 
blood  passes  through  them.  This  fluid, 
then,  after  circulating  through  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  body,  after  serving  the 
various  purposes  of  nutrition,  secretion, 
&.c.  is  returned  into  the  right  auricle  of 
the  heart  by  three  large  veins,  viz.  the 
superior  and  inferior  vena  cava,  and  the 
great  coronary  vein.  The  properties  of 
this  blood  have  been  so  altered  in  its 
course,  that  it  is  necessary  for  it  to  be 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere 
in  the  lungs,  before  it  is  again  fit  to  be 
sent  into  the  arteries  of  the  body.  The 
right  auricle  derives  its  name  of  auricle 
from  a  small  fringed  process,  which  is 
found  at  its  anterior  part ;  the  rest  of  the 
cavity  is  called  the  sinus  of  the  vense  cavze. 
The  lining  of  this  bag,  as  indeed  that  of 
all  the  other  parts  of  the  heart,  consists 
of  a  smooth  and  polished  surface.  The 
muscular  fibres  of  the  auricle  are  not  nu- 
merous nor  large ;  they  are  arranged  in 
parallel  fasciculi,  which  have  been  com- 
pared to  the  teeth  of  a  comb  ;  and  hence 
the  epithet  of  musculi  pectinati  has  been 
given  to  them. 

The  right  auricle  transmits  the  blood 
into  the  right,  anterior,  or  pulmonary 
ventricle,  through  a  large  circular  orifice, 
called  the  annulus  venosus,  or  the  auri- 
cular orifice  of  the  ventricle.  When  this 
latter  cavity  contracts,  the  blood  would 
be  driven  back  towards  the  auricle,  were 
not  this  prevented  by  a  valve,  called  the 
tricuspidal  of  triglochine.  This  valve  is 


formed  by  a  production  of  the 


of 


the  heart,  divided  into  three  pointed 
portions.  These  are  tied  by  tendinous 
strings  to  certain  projecting  packets  of 
the  muscular  fibres,  called  the  fleshy  co- 
lumns of  the  ventricle.  The  structure 
of  the  ventricle  is  very  different  from 
that  of  the  auricle.  It  is  a  strong  mus- 
cular cavity,  adapted  to  the  office  of  for- 
cibly projecting  the  blood  through  the- 
arterial  ramifications  ;  whereas  the  auri- 
cle is  a  mere  reservoir,  holding  the  blood 
until  the  ventricle  has  emptied  itself  by 
its  contraction. 


ANATOMY. 


The  pulmonary  artery,  which  arises 
from  the  upper  and  anterior  part  of  this 
ventricle,  conveys  the  blood  into  the 
lungs.  The  opening  of  this  artery,  which 
is  called  the  arterial  orifice  of  the  ventri- 
cle, is  furnished  with  three  valves,  called 
sigmoid  or  semilunar,  which  prevent  any 
retrograde  motion  of  the  blood  from  the 
artery  towards  the  heart. 

The  venous  blood,  by  being  exposed  to 
the  atmospheric  air  in  the  lungs,  is  alter- 
ed in  its  properties,  and  becomes  arterial 
blood,  in  which  state  it  is  returned  to  the 
left  auricle  of  the  heart  by  four  pulmo- 
nary veins,  two  of  which  belong  to  each 
lung.  This  left  or  posterior  auricle  con- 
sists of  a  large  cavity,  called  the  sinus  of 
the  pulmonary  veins ;  and  of  a  smaller 
process  or  auricula.  It  is  situated  quite 
at  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  heart, 
and  ^ransmits  the  blood  through  the  au- 
orifice  of  the  left  ventricle  into 
th;V,  cavity.  This  opening  is  perfectly  si- 
milar in  all  essential  circumstances  to  the 
corresponding  part  on  the  right  side  of 
the  heart  But  its  valve,  being  divided 
into  t-vo  portions  only,  is  called  mitralis, 
from  a  comparison  with  a  bishop's  mitre. 

The  left  ventricle  is  much  thicker  and 
stronger  than  the  right.  It  feels  exter- 
nally almost  like  a  solid  mass  of  flesh  ; 
while  the  right  is  comparatively  thin  and 
flabby.  The  reason  of  this  difference  is 
obvious.  The  left  ventricle  has  to  drive 
the  blood  to  the  most  remote  parts  of  the 
body,  whereas  the  right  only  sends  it 
through  the  lungs.  The  aorta  arises  from 
the  left  ventricle,  and  its  mouth  is  guard- 
ed by  three  semilunar  valves.  This  is  the 
trunk  from  which  the  arteries  of  the 
whole  body  arise. 

STRUCTURE  OF  THE  ARTEIUES. 

Those  vessels,  through  which  the  blood 
flows  from  the  heart  into  every  part  of 
the  body,  are  called  arteries.  The  term, 
which  is  derived  from  cttjp,  air,  and  rtjpe a, 
I  hold,  was  first  adopted  by  the  anato- 
mists of  the  Alexandrian  school,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  erroneous  opinion  which 
they  entertained,  that  these  vessels  were 
designed  for  the  distribution  of  air 
throughout  the  body. 

The  larger  arteries  have  thick  and 
clastic  sides,  so  that  they  remain  open 
when  divided,  and  present  a  regularly 
circular  aperture.  The  sides  may  be  se- 
parated into  three  strata  of  dissimilar 
substances,  which  are  technically  called 
coats.  The  innermost,  which  is  generally 
termed  the  cuticular  coat,  is  thin,  strong, 


and  highly  elastic.  The  internal  surface 
of  this  coat  is  perfectly  smooth,  so  that 
the  blood  glides  along  it  without  impedi- 
ment ;  the  external  surface  is  connected 
to  that  coat  which  surrounds  it.  The 
middle,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  muscular 
coat,  is  composed  of  a  congeries  of  cir- 
cular fibres,  separable  into  numerous 
strata,  but  not  much  resembling  muscu- 
lar fibres  as  found  in  other  situations. 
The  external  coat  of  the  artery  is  made 
of  condensed  cellular  substance,  which 
unites  these  vessels  to  the  neighbouring 
parts. 

It  appears  that  the  larger  vessels  have 
the  greatest  elastic  power,  with  the  small- 
est muscular  force  ;  while  these  proper- 
ties exist  in  reversed  proportions  in  the 
smaller  vessels.  In  the  large  arteries 
muscular  power  is  unnecessary,  for  the 
force  of  the  heart  is  fully  adequate  to  the 
propulsion  of  the  blood;  but  in  the  small- 
er arteries,  where  the  effect  of  the  heart's 
action  declines,  a  pi-oportionate  muscular 
power  is  allotted  to  the  vessels,  to  urge 
on  the  circulating  fluids. 

The  arteries  have  their  nutrient  arte- 
ries and  veins,  their  absorbents,  and  their 
nerves. 

All  the  arteries  proceed  from  one  great 
vessel,  as  the  branches,  spring  from  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  ;  and  we  proceed  to  no- 
tice certain  circumstances  observable  in 
their  ramifications. 

1.  When  an  artery  gives  off  a  branch, 
the  conjoined  areas  of  the  two  vessels 
make  a  greater  space  for  the  blood  to 
move  in,  than  the  area  of  the  original  ves- 
sel.    The  increase  of  dimensions  in  the 
branches  of  a  large  artery  is  slight;  but  in 
those  of  a  small  one  it  is  so  considerable, 
that  Haller  has  estimated  it  as  surpassing 
by  one  third  that  of  the  trunk  from  which 
they  sprung.     The  conjoined  areas  of  all 
the  small  arteries  so  greatly  exceed  that 
of  the  aorta,  that  the  same  anatomist,  in 
opposition  to  former  opinions,  affirms  that 
these  vessels  are  conical,  the  basis  of  the 
cone  being  in  the  extreme  arteries,  and 
the  apex  in  the  heart. 

2.  When   a  large  artery  sends   off  a 
branch,  its  course  does  not  in  general  de- 
viate further  from  that  of  the  trunk  than 
an  angle  of  45  degrees.     Sometimes  a 
branch,  which  has  gone  off  at  an  acute 
angle,  returns,  and  proceeds  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  that  of  the  trunk.   Sometimes 
indeed  a  large  artery  does  proceed  from 
the  trunk  at  nearly  a  right  angle,  as  the 
renal  arteries.   Though  the  large  arteries 
generally  ramify  at  acute  angles,  there  is 
great  diversity  in  the  branching  of  thr 
smaller  ones. 


ANATOMY. 


3.  Arteries  in  general  do  not  pursue  a 
straight,  but  a  serpentine  course  ;   this  is 
remarkably  the  case  in  some  instances; 
as  in  the  spermatics,  those  of  the  face  and 
occiput,  and  in  most  of  the  smaller  arte- 
ries. 

4.  Though  the  ramification  of  arteries 
may  be   compared  to   the  branching  of 
trees,  yet  it  differs  materially  in  this  par- 
ticular, that  the   different  branches  fre- 
quently conjoin.  This  conjunction  is  tech- 
nically*termed,if  we  borrow  the  term  from 
the  Greek  language,  their  anastomosis  ;  if 
from  the  Latin,  their  inosculation.     This 
union  of  arteries  rarely  happens  among 
the  larger  ones,  but  frequently  among  the 
smaller  ;  and  increases  in  number  in  pro- 
portion to  the  minuteness  of  the  vessels. 
The  utility  of  the  inosculations  of  arteries 
is  evident;   were  it  not  for  this  circum- 
stsnce,  if  any  arterial   trunk  were  acci- 
dentally compressed,  so  that  the  current 
of  blood  in  it  should  be  for  some  time 
obstructed,  the  parts  which  it  supplied 
must  perish.     But  in  consequence  of  the 
frequent  communications  of  these  tubes 
with  each  other,  the  blood  can  pass  from 
the  adjacent  arteries  into  all  the  branch- 
es of  any  one  accidentally  obstructed. 

When  arteries  inosculate,  two  currents 
o^  blood,  moving  in  opposite  directions, 
must  come  together,  and  retard  each 
other's  motion.  This  probably  is  the  rea- 
son, why  larger  arteries,  in  which  the 
blood  flows  with  rapidity,  so  seldom  con- 
join ;  whilst  the  smaller  ones  in  which  the 
blood's  motion  is  more  tardy,  communi- 
cate in  surprising  numbers,  and  with  a 
frequency  proportionate  to  their  minute- 
ness. The  very  frequent  communications 
of  the  minute  arteries  prevent  the  preju- 
dicial consequences  of  obstruction  of  the 
trunks  almost  as  effectually,  as  if  those 
arteries  themselves  communicated  by 
more  direct  and  larger  channels. 

All  these  minute  arterial  tubes  are  capa- 
ble of  enlargement ;  and  it  is  an  ascertain- 
ed fact,  that  even  the  aorta  itself  may  be 
gradually  obstructed  at  some  distance 
from  the  heart,  without  the  parts  which  it 
supplies  being  deprived  of  nourishment. 
From  an  attentive  consideration  of  all 
these  circumstances  it  has  been  conclud- 
ed, that  the  moderate  increase  of  the 
area  of  the  branches  of  large  arteries ;  the 
ucute  angles  at  which  they  divide  ;  their 
nearly  rectilinear  course  ;  and  the  rare  oc- 
currence of  inosculation  between  them  ; 
are  designed  to  facilitate  the  rapid  motion 
of  the  blood  in  them,  so  that  it  may  arrive 
unchanged,  and  in  the  same  state  that  it 
was  in  when  projected  from  the  heai't,  at 
that  part  of  the  body,  for  the  nourishment 


of  which  it  was  intended  :  whilst,  on  the 
contrary,  the  great  increase  of  the  area  of 
the  smaller  vessels,  the  variety  of  their 
angles,  their  tortuous  course,  and  their 
frequent  communications,  were  designed 
to  check  the  velocity  of  the  blood's  mo- 
tion, when  it  has  arrived  at  that  part  where 
secretion  is  to  be  performed,  and  nutri- 
tion is  to  take  place.  Contrary  opinions 
have  indeed  been  maintained  ;  and  for  the 
further  discussion  of  this  subject,  we  must 
refer  the  reader  to  the  remarks  on  the 
circulation  in  the  article  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Termination  of  the  arteries. — When  these 
vessels  have  become  very  minute,  they 
terminate  in  two  ways  :  they  either  turn 
back  again,  and  become  veins,  and  return 
the  blood  to  the  heart,  or  they  send  off" 
fine  vessels,  which  abstract  something 
from  the  circulating  blood,  and  are  there- 
fore called  secerning  arteries.  Though 
none  but  minute  arteries  are  ever  reflect- 
ed to  become  veins,  yet  many  of  them  are 
of  sufficient  magnitude  to  admit  common 
waxen  injection  ;  and  when  this  experi- 
ment succeeds,  the  continuity  of  the  ar- 
teries and  veins  is  very  manifest.  It  seems 
therefore  to  follow  from  this  facility  of 
communication,  that  the  mass  of  the  blood 
is  constanntly  and  freely  circulating,  in 
order  to  undergo  that  change  which  is  ef- 
fected in  the  lungs,  whilst  but  a  small  part 
of  it  proceeds  into  the  verv"  minute  arte- 
ries, for  the  purpose  of  having  secretions 
made  from  it.  For  these  arteries,  however 
minute,  mustbe  considered  large,  in  com- 
parison with  the  exility  of  others,  which 
cannot  be  injected  with  wax,  and  even 
reject  the  red  globules  of  the  blood,  or 
admit  them  in  such  small  proportion,  that 
they  do  not  impart  the  red  colour  to  the 
fluid  which  moves  in  those  vessels.  Now, 
we  may  venture  to  affirm  that  these  glo- 
bules do  not  much  exceed  in  diameter 
the  150,000th  part  of  an  inch,  which  cir- 
cumstance sufficiently  sho\vs  the  minute- 
ness of  the  lesser  arteries. 

The  secerning  arteries  are  in  general 
too  minute  to  admit  of  demonstration  ; 
they  are  however  evident  in  some  glands ; 
in  the  kidney,  for  instance,  they  may  be 
seen  continued  into  the  excretory  vessels. 
Subtile  injections,  when  thrown  into  the 
larger  arterial  trunks,  ooze  out  on  the  sur- 
faces of  membranes,  and  into  the  cellular 
substance,  and  they  are  generally  suppos- 
ed to  be  poured  forth  from  the  open  orifi. 
ces  of  secerning  arteries.  Analogy,  there- 
fore, rather  than  actual  demonstration, 
leads  us  to  believe,  that  the  secerning  arte- 
ries abstract  the  particles  of  nutrition,  or 
the  materials  which  compose  the  fabric  of 
the  body,  from  the  circulating  fluids,  and 


ANATOMY. 


deposit  them  from  their  open  mouths,  so 
as  by  this  means  to  build  up  and  keep  in 
repair  the  structure  of  the  body. 

Distribution  of  the  nrteries. — The  great 
artery,  whose  brandies  supply  the  whole 
of  the  body,  is  named  the  aorta.  It  arises 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  left  ventricle, 
and  emerges  from  the  heart  between  the 
pulmonary  artery  and  the  right  auricle. 
It  first  ascends  in  the  chest ;  opposite  the 
upper  edge  of  the  second  rib  it  bends 
backwards  till  it  reaches  the  left  side  of 
the  spine,  in  which  situation  it  descends 
from  the  fourth  or  fifth  dorsal  to  the  last 
lumbar  vertebra. 

By  the  arch  of  the  oarta  is  meant  that 
part  of  the  vessel  which  arises  from  the 
heart  and  bends  across  the  chest.  It 
sends  off' the  following  branches  :  the  two 
first  arising  at  right  angles  close  to  the 
heart ;  the  three  following  from  the  con- 
vexity of  the  arch  : 

1.  Right  coronary  artery  of  the  heart. 

2.  Left  coronary  artery  of  the  heart. 

3.  Arteria  innominata,  a  common  trunk, 
dividing  into 

1.  Right  subclavian. 

2.  Right  common  carotid. 
0.7  Left  common  carotid. 
4  $  Left  subclavian. 

The  common  carotid  artery  is  destined 
for  the  supply  of  the  head.  It  emerges 
from  the  chest  by  the  side  of  the  trachea; 
mounts  upwards  in  front  of  the  vertebrae, 
and  parallel  with  the  trachea,  till  it  reach- 
es the  upper  margin  of  the  thyroid  carti- 
lage, without  sending  off'  a  single  branch. 
At  this  part  it  divides  into  the  external 
and  internal  carotid  arteries,  the  former 
of  which  is  distributed  to  the  outside  of 
the  head ;  the  latter  to  the  brain. 

The  external  carotid  continues  its 
course  upwards  between  the  jaw  and  the 
ear,  being  imbedded  in  the  substance  of 
".he  parotid  gland. 

Hranches  of  the  external  carotid  artery. 

1.  Superior  thyroideal. 

a.  Laryngeal  branch. 

2.  Lingual  artery. 

a.  Hyoideal  branch. 

b.  Artery  to  the  back  of  the  tongue. 

c.  Raminal  artery. 

3.  Facial  or  labial,  or  external  maxil- 
lary. 

a.  Ascending  palatine  branch. 

b.  Arteries    to    the     surrounding 

glands. 

c.  Interior  labial  artery. 

d.  Coronary  artery  of  the  lower  lip. 
c'.  Coronary  artery  of  the  upper  lip. 


/.  Nasal  arteries. 

4.  Ascending  pharyngeal  artery. 

5.  Occipital  artery. 

6.  Posterior  artery  of  the  ear. 

7.  Superficial  temporal  artery. 

a.  Branches  to  the  parotid  gland. 

b.  Anterior  auricular  arteries. 

c.  Transverse  artery  of  the  face, 
</.  Middle  temporal  artery. 

K.  Anterior  temporal  branch. 
/.  Posterior  temporal  branch. 

8.  Internal  maxillary  artery. 

«.  Middle  artery  of  the  dura  ma- 
ter, or  spinous  artery. 

b.  Inferior  maxillary  artery. 

c.  Pterygoid  branches. 

d.  Deep  temporal  branches. 
c.  Artery  of  the  cheek. 

/.  Alveolar  artery  of  the  upper  jaw. 

if.  Infra- orbital  artery. 

h.  Superior  palatine  branch. 

i.  Nasal  branch. 

The  internal  carotid  artery  enters  into 
the  skull,  through  the  canal  formed  in  the 
substance  of  the  temporal  bone.  And  its 
branches  ramify  through  the  substance  of 
the  brain.  All  the  arteries  of  the  brain 
have  thinner  coats  than  these  vessels  pos 
sess  in  any  other  part  of  the  body. 

Jlranches  of  the  internal  carotid  artery. 

1.  Ophthalmic  artery,  supplying  all  the 
parts  contained  in  the  orbit. 

a.  Lacrymal  branch. 

b.  Ethmoidal  arteries. 

c.  Superior  and  inferior  muscular 

branches. 

d.  Central  artery  of  the  retina. 

e.  Ciliary  arteries. 

/.  Superior  and  inferior  palpebral 

branches. 
g.  Nasal  artery. 
h.  Frontal  artery. 

2.  Communicating  branch. 

3.  Anterior  artery  of  the  brain. 

4.  Middle  artery  of  the  brain. 

The  subclavian  artery  passes  over  the 
first  rib,  and  behind  the  clavicle,  into  the 
cavity  of  the  axilla.  There  it  takes  the 
name  of  axillary,  and  is  covered  by  the 
pectoral  muscles.  Emerging  from  the 
armpit,  its  name  is  again  changed  for  that 
ofbrachial.  This  part  of  the  trunk  runs 
along  the  inside  of  the  arm,  close  to  the 
edge  of  the  biceps  muscle,  until  it  reach- 
es the  elbow  joint,  where  it  divides  into 
the  branches' that  belong  to  the  fore  arm. 

JB  ranches  of  the  subclafOfon  artery. 
1.  Internal  mammary. 


ANATOMY. 


3,  Inferior  thyroideal. 

a.  Thyroid* branch. 

b.  Ascending  thyroid  artery. 

c.  Transverse  artery  of  the  neck. 

d.  Transverse  artery  of  the  shoulder, 

or  supra  scapulary. 

3.  Vertebral,  a    large  trunk  passing 
through  perforations  in  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,   and 
through  the  foramen  magnum  of  the  skull 
to  the  brain,  where  it  unites  with  its  fel- 
low of  the  opposite  side,  to  form  the  ba- 
silar  artery. 

a.  Inferior  artery  of  the  cerebellum. 
it.  Arteries  to  the  spinal  marrow. 

c.  Superior  artery  of  the  cerebel- 

lum 

d.  Posterior  or  deep  seated  artery  of 

the  brain. 

N.  B.  The  arterial  circle  of  Willis  is  a 
large  anastomosis  ;  by  which  the  two  ca- 
rotids are  joined  together,  and  united  also 
to  the  basilar  artery. 

4.  Superior  intercostal. 

5.  Deep-seated  cervical  artery. 

6.  Superficial  cervical  artery". 

Branches  of  the  axillary  artery. 

1.  Superior  or  short  thoracic. 

2.  Inferior  or  long  thoracic. 

3.  Thoracic  artery  of  the  shoulder, 

4.  Deep  thoracic  artery. 

5.  fnfra-scapular  artery. 

6.  Posterior  circumflex. 

7.  Anterior  circumflex. 

branches  of  the  brachial  artery. 

1.  Various  muscular  branches. 

2.  Profunda  humeri  major,  or  greater 
deep-seated  artery  of  the  arm. 

3.  Medullary  artery  of  the  humerus. 

4.  Lesser  deep-seated  artery  of  the  arm. 

5.  Great  anastomizing  branch. 
[    6.  Radial  artery. 

7.  Ulnar  artery. 

The  two  last  branches  are  those  into 
which  the  trunk  of  the  brachial  divides 
:ttthe  elbow.  They  run  along  the  fore- 
arm to  the  wrist. 

branches  of  the  radial  artery . 

1.  Recurrent  branch. 

2.  Superficial  artery  of  the  palm. 

3.  Branch  to  the  back  of  the  wrist. 

4.  Branches  to  the  back  of  the  thumb 
and  fore-finger. 

The  urtt-ry  then  enters  the  palm,  and 
forms  the  deep-seated  arterial  arch  of  the 
palm. 

VOL  I. 


Branches  of  the  ulnnr  artery. 

This  vessel,  when  it  has  arrived  at  the 
wrist,  passes  forwards  into  the  palm  of 
the  hand,  more  superficially  than  the  ra- 
dial, and  forms  the  superficial  arcU  of  the 
palm. 

1.  Ru current  artery. 

2.  Interosseous  artery. 

a.  Posterior  branch. 

« Interosseous  recurrent. 

b.  Anterior  branch. 

3.  Branch  to  the  back  of  the  hand. 

4.  Deep  palmar  branch. 

5.  Three  large  digital  arteries. 

Jiranclies  nf  the  descending  portion  of  tlte 
aorta  in  the  chest. 

1.  Common  bronchial  artery. 

2.  Right  and  left  bronchial  arteries. 

3.  Esophageal  arteries. 

4.  Lower  intercostal  arteries. 

The  aorta  pusses  through  the  dia- 
phragm at  the  lower  part  of  the  chest,  and 
takes  the  name  of  abdominal  aorta.  It 
is  still  situated  on  the  left  side  of  the  bo- 
dies of  the  vertebrae,  and  at  the  fourth 
lumbar  vertebra  it  terminates  by  dividing 
into  the  two  common  iliac  trunks. 

Jiranches  of  the  abdominal  aorta. 

1.  Right  and  left  phrenic  arteries. 

2.  Cseliac  artery. 

a.  Coronary  artery  of  the  stomach. 

b.  Hepatic  artery. 

«e.  Duodeno-gastric,  or  gasfTjo- 
epiploic  artery. 

/3.  Superior  pyloric  artery. 

y.  Cystic  artery. 
r.  Splenic  artery. 

a,.  Pancreatic  arteries. 

/3.  Short   arteries    to    the    sto- 
mach. 

y.  Left  gastro-epiploic  artery. 

3.  Superior  mesenteric  artery. 

a.  From  12  to  20  large  branches  to 

the  small  intestine. 

b.  Middle  colic  artery. 

c.  Ileocolic  artery. 

4.  Renal  or  emulgent  arteries. 

5.  Spermatic  arteries. 

6.  Inferior  mesenteric  artery. 

a.  Left  colic  branch. 

b.  Internal  hemorrhoidal  branch. 

7.  Five  pairs  of  lumbar  arteries. 

8.  Two  common  iliac  arteries. 

9.  Middle  sacral  artery. 

The  common  iliac  quickly  divides  into 
the  external  and  internal  iliac  branches? 
of  which  the  former  goes  to  the  thigh, 
the  latter  enters  the  cavity  of  the  pelvis. 

c;  c 


ANATOMY. 


tranches  of  the  internal  iliac  artery. 

1.  Ileo-lumbar  artery. 

2.  Lateral  sacral  arteries. 

3.  Vesical  arteries. 

4.  Middle  hemorrhoidal. 

5.  Uterine  branch. 

6.  Obturator  artery. 

7.  Gluteal  artery. 

8.  Ischiatic  artery. 

9.  Pudendal  artery. 

a.  External  hemorrhoids!  branches. 

b.  Artery  of  the  perineum. 

c.  Dorsal  artery  of  the  penis. 

d.  Deep  artery  of  the  pen's. 

The  external  iliac  artery  having  chang- 
ed its  name  for  that  of  femoral,  runs  along 
the  front  of  the  thigh,  and  then  bends  in- 
wards to  ihe  ham;  where  it  takes  the 
name  of  popliteal.  It  passes  through  the 
latter  space  to  the  leg,  when  it  terminates 
by  dividing1  into  two,  of  which  one  runs 
along  '.he  front,  and  the  other  the  back 
of  the  leg. 

Branches  of  the  external  iliac  artery. 

1.  Epigastric  artery. 

2.  Circumflex  artery  of  the  ilium. 

Branches  of  the  femoral  artery. 

1.  Branches  to  the  lymphatic  glands, 
and  integuments. 

2.  External  pudic  arteries. 

3.  Deep-seated  artery  of  the  thigh, 
a.  External  circumflex  artery. 

d.  Internal  circumflex  artery. 
c.    First    and    second     perforating 
branches. 

4.  Branches  to  the  neighbouring  mus- 
cles. 

5.  Great  anastomosing  branch. 

Branches  of  the  popliteal  artery. 

1.  Superior  internal  articular  artery. 

2.  Superior  external  articular  artery. 

3.  Middle  articular  artery. 

4.  Inferior  internal  articular  artery. 

5.  Inferior  external  articular  artery. 

6.  Anterior  tibial  artery. 
7-  Posterior  tibiai  artery. 

Branches  of  the  anterior  tibial  artery. 

1.  Recurrent  branch. 

2.  Various  small  muscular  branches. 

3.  External  and  internal  malleolar  arte- 
ries. 

4.  Tarsal  and  metatarsal  arteries. 

5.  Dorsal! s  hnlli<-is. 


Branches  of  the  posterior  tiliial  <i.  i 

1.  Large  muscular  branches  to  the  so- 
leus. 

2.  Medullary  artery  of  the  tibia. 

3.  Peroneal'or  fibuiar  artery. 

a.  Anterior  branch. 

b.  Posterior  branch. 

4.  External  plantar  artery. 
a.  Four  digital  arteries. 

5.  Internal  plantar  artery. 

There  is  another  large  arterial  trunk  in 
the  body,  besides  the  aorta,  called  the 
pulmonary  artery;  this  rises  from  the 
right  ventricle,  and  conveys  the  venous 
blood  to  the  lungs,  for  the  purposes  ot" 
respiration. 

OTTHE  VEINS. 

The  blood  is  constantly  moving  in  the 
arteries  from  the  trunks  into  the  branches; 
in  the  veins  it  follows  a  directly  opposite 
course,  and  flows  from  the  branches  to 
the  trunks. 

There  are  seven  large  venous  trunks  in 
the  body,  to  which  all  the  blood  is  return- 
ed ;  three  of  these,  viz.  the  superior  and 
inferior  venacava,  and  the  coronary  vein 
of  the  heart,  return  the  blood,  which  has 
circulated  through  the  body  into  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart ;  the  other  four  are 
the  pulmonary  veins,  and  bring  the  blood 
back  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle. 

The  coats  of  the  veins  are  thin  when 
compared  with  those  of  the  arteries  ; 
hence  the  blood  can  generally  be  plainly 
seen  through  them;  and  hence  when  di- 
vided they  collapse,  instead  of  presenting 
a  circular  section,  as  arteries  do.  It  is 
difficult  to  separate  them  into  coats,  yet 
they  are  said  to  consist  of  two ;  viz.  a 
smooth  and  highly  polished  internal  one, 
which  lines  the  canal  ;  and  a  rough,  cel- 
lular external  tunic,  in  which  no  muscular 
power  resides.  Hence  the  circulation 
proceeds  through  these  vessels  merely  by 
the  impulse  of  the  arterial  blood,  and  is 
not  aided  by  any  action  of  the  containing 
tubes. 

The  veins  are  much  more  numerous, 
and  also  larger  than  the  arteries.  In  most 
parts  of  the  body  each  artery  has  two 
veins  lying  by  its  side  ;  and  in  many  in- 
stances there  is  another  numerous  set  of 
veins  besides  these.  Hence  the  venous 
system  is  much  more  capacious  than  the 
arterial  ;  and  this  difference  is  so  great, 
that  the  veins  are  suppossad  to  contain 
nine  parts  out  of  thirteen  of  the  whole 
mass  of  blood.  This  great  capacity  of  the 
venous  system  obviates  the  effects  of  any 


ANATOMY. 


casual  obstruction  to  the  ready  transmis- 
sion of  biood  through  the  lungs;  for  the 
whole  or*  the  veins  are  not  distended  in  a 
natural  state,  but  serve  as  an  occasional 
reservoir,  in  whi-h  the  blood,  constantly 
urged  forwards  by  the  heart,  may  be  held 
till  the  cause  of  obstruction  has  ceased. 
But  as  such  retardation  in  the  course  of 
the  venous  blood  would  tend  to  drive 
back  the  whole  mass  on  the  minute  veins, 
which  are  the  least  able  to  bear  it,  such 
retrograde  motion  is  prevented  by  valves, 
which  exist  in  great  numbers  in  the  ve- 
nous system.  These  are  thin  membranes, 
having  a  seniilunar  edge  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  vein,  and  a  straight  edge  float- 
ing in  the  cavity  of  the  vessel :  they  are 
placed  in  pairs.  When  the  blood  is  going 
on  in  its  natural  direction,  they  lie  close 
to  the  sides  of  the  tube ;  but  when  it  at- 
tempts to  return,  the  blood  raises  the 
loose  edge,  and  that  meets  in  the  centre 
of  the  vessel  with  the  corresponding  part 
of  the  opposite  valve,  and  thus  closes  the 
canal.  Thus,  when  an  obstruction  takes 
place,  each  portion  of  a  vein  has  to  sup- 
port that  column  of  blood  only  which  is 
contained  between  its  own  valves.  Still, 
as  these  vessels  possess  no  powers  of  their 
own,  and  are  too  far  removed  from  the 
heart  to  feel  its  influence  on  the  passage 
of  blood  through  them,  we  find  that  the 
circulation  is  affected  in  them  by  external 
causes,  as  position,  &c.  Hence  the  legs 
swell  after  long  standing;  and  hence  also 
the  veins  of  these  parts  are  apt  to  become 
enlarged  and  varicose. 

Distribution  of  the  veins. — This  is  for  the 
most  part  similar  to  that  of  the  arteries, 
as  each  of  the  latter  vessels  have  generally 
two  accompanying  veins,  (which  bear  the 
same  names  as  the  concomitant  arteries) 
named  venae  sodales  arteriarum.  But  in 
some  situations  there  is  a  class  of  veins  not 
correspondingto  the  arteries, but  running 
under  the  skin,  and  termed  cutaneous  or 
superficial  veins.  These  are  found  par- 
ticularly in  the  extremities,  and  vary  much 
in  size  at  different  times. 

The  vena  cava  superior  is  formed  by 
three  large  trunks. 

1.  Vena  azygos,    which    returns  the 
blood  from  the  sides  of  the  chest,  and  runs 
along  the  middle  of  the  spine. 

2.  Right  subclavian,  which  is  also  made 
up  by  three  venous  trunks,  viz.  the  inter- 
nal jugular,  the  external  jugular,  and  the 
axillary. 

3.  Left  subclavian,  formed  in  the   same 
manner  as  the  right. 

The  external  jugular  vein  returns  the 
blood  from  the  outside  of  the  head,  and 
runs  along  the  neck, just  under  the  skin. 


We  sometimes  bleed  from  this  in  affec- 
tions of  the  head. 

The  internal  jugular  is  a  very  large  ves- 
sel, lying  deeper  in  the  neck,  and  close  to 
the  carotid  artery.  It  brings  back  the 
blood  from  the  brain.  The  danger  in  at- 
tempts at  suicide  consists  in  dividing  this 
vessel,  or  the  carotid  artery,  and  not  the 
external  jugular  vein.  The  axillary  vein 
is  made  up  of  the  vessels  which  bring  the 
blood  back  from  the  arm.  Besides  the 
deep-seated  veins,  we  have  here  a  larg^ 
superficial  vessel,  running  along  the  out- 
side of  the  fore-arm  and  arm,  and  called 
the  cephalic  vein  ;  another  on  the  inside, 
named  the  basilic.  Between  these  in  the 
fore-arm  are  found  some  veins  called  the 
median.  At  the  bend  of  the  elbow  these 
last  make  up  two  large  trunks,  of  which 
one  opens  into  the  basilic,  and  the  other 
into  the  cephalic  vein.  These  are  called 
vena  mediana  basilica,  and  vena  mediana 
cephalica.  It  is  the  latter  veins  that  we 
generally  bleed,  when  that  operation  is 
performed  in  the  arm  ;  and  as  they  run 
directly  over  the  artery,  the  latter  vessel 
is  endangered  by  the  lancet. 

The  inferior  vena  cava  is  a  very  large 
trunk,  running  along  the  spine  at  the  right 
side  of  the  aorta.  It  returns  the  blood 
from  all  the  lower  parts  of  the  body.  It 
is  made  up  by  the  junction  of  the  two 
common  iliac  veins  and  as  it  ascends 
through  the  abdomen,  it  receives  the  fol- 
lowing venous  trunks  ;  the  lumbar,  sper- 
matic, renal,  and  the  immense  venae 
cavae  hepaticae. 

The  common  iliac  vein  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  external  and  intei  lal  iliacs. 
The  latter  brings  back  the  blood  from  the 
cavity  of  the  pelvis;  the  former  returns 
it  from  the  lower  extremity. 

We  have  two  large  cutaneous  veins  to 
notice  in  the  leg  and  thigh  :  viz.  the  sa- 
phena  major,  which  runs  up  along  the  in- 
ner side  both  of  the  leg  and  thigh,  and 
can  be  distinctly  seen  in  the  living  person 
when  in  the  erect  posture  ;  the  saphena 
minor,  which  runs  over  the  calf  of  the  leg. 
The  former  terminates  in  the  femoral 
vein  near  the  abdomen,  the  latter  in  the 
popliteal  vein. 

The  vena  portarum  is  a  large  vessel, 
formed  by  the  uniou  ofthose  veins  which 
belong  to  the  stomach  and  intestines,  the 
spleen  and  pancreas.  It  conveys  the  blood, 
which  has  circulated  through  those  organs 
to  the  liver,  and  it  branches  out  in  that 
gland  as  arteries  do  in  other  parts.  Its 
blood  is  returned  from  the  liver  by  the 
hepatic  veins,  which  have  been  already 
noticed. 


\\  \-m\n. 


'  iiid    M! 

Illll'l          <      III'  I         ,        1)1      '.l|;'      111 

"li'  if   mouth1*.      Th'  \ 
:iud  '  no1     I"  I"    •' 

in  'ii  -I  it  ,  i  '.    i||-  M  <  i  it, n  ,     iinl   l>\     j;i  <  :il     I  i 

bom  .    ,i  i<  i,!'ih  in  en  detected  in 

l-ll)l    «)l     Illll! 
i    |c. I-  IM  ,    Hi-  ii- 

i   them  to  receive  HI    dlfl'i 

.!'  nominal ioni  "I  i.-«  <•  .-'I-.  and  i\  mph 
;  he  I 

nnliilM  (I  Hi--  •  li\  l«  ,  :i  null.}'  llni'l,  from  1  In 

lUlcll 

lvin|.  'ii  up  from  :ill 

(lull  I  lie 

had 

cd   m  hird'.  MI-  ;, 
•till  retained  Ihi  "I'  ••< 

t|i:i(    Hi.     \  •  .pali  'I    ill  tin-,   impor 

I.Hll  :  UK    I  ll    i,f    hl'.l   «l«    UiMII-.llal 

me  '  .  mall 

In  loin;-.  !M  Mrll'U-.Mii,  v.  lu>  av.r.lid  in 
tli.  I  ||  In-, I  •  nun'  nl  :iii:i(iiini(  :.| 

I   MI.,  inn,     u  In  r'      airi'Min- 

,1    h\     l)i      lluuli  i-         An. I  it 

r.  IM  till    " MI  -lal   llniil'  i    thai    wi    Iff   in 

dehl.  .!    I.  i     tull\     |.IM\  iiij',    id-     impMilaut 
MIK  ,1  hat   t  In      udiole   liii-.in.  M    M|    :il) 

•orptiotifti  i"  ih'imi  <i  i,\  1 1  inch 

we  a  r'  IIMU  <  MM-. i.li  riiij;  They  ha\-  <•! 
hid  l,i  •  n  iiij.  «  I.  .1  in  |U(  Ii  }'  i.  at  a!, iin 
<  Inner,  thai  Hi'  \  a|)|i<  ai  In  II  y  a<  h  ipial  r  I., 
|M  Hoi  in  t  h<  n  M||I<  < 

II,  a-,  u  <    hi  inl\   l.<  In  \  '  ,  lh'  M     v.  -,-.<  I  ,  hi 

tin     MII|\    MIH  |  \Vnictl    |"   i  hii  in  I  In     M|)I.  .    M| 

.i  |il  ion,    th«  \    HIM-. I  <   \  r.t    in   (  \  e  iy    |»ai  I 

ll\'   I  hi      h'.lU    .  I'MI      1  hell       I'      MM  -,|)Ml     Mil    Hie 

MII  l.n-.  M|  tin  -.1,  111  IIMIII  u  huh  ointment 
in  i\  MM!  In-  lak'ii  M|i,  IIMI-  au\  mi.  in..! 

jiaii  from  which  blooo,  when  accidentally 

«  Ilir  i  il,  iua\  IIM!  hi  alr.-irhed  ,  iia\  ,  I  he 
\i  i  \  malic  r  •  MiiipoMm;  tin  l<  \lure  M|  our 
lidilu  |  r.  iiml'  iiimual  removal 

ami  1 1  -|IM\  al  IMII       I  Ii  mist  lh<   i  < 

(ni-(  i"  nippofed  to  begin  b}  Mp.'ui.rdn .  \ 

Si  it.  ralU    thiMti|diMul    tin    |MM|\,  allliMMj.|, 
n     la«  I    <  an   In    «h  IIIMI  r,  I  rat  <  •!   in  I  In    . 

inn-.  MII|\    (iniin  inner mrfacei of theie 

,,1-j.air.  tin  \     a|.|"  ar    IM    the    unanh  ,1 
|,i,.      ami     poinli  <l     liilns      liMl   h\    tin      mi- 
i  in  'I  IM  he 
j,at  nl'iir,,  and  like  a  «  up.         I  In    ! 

•  i  her.  and    al'li  r 

time  i"i ilnvj  •  aj-ahle  i>r 

• 


•••I    IMIHI    I  . 
.  iillv 

Initrui  lui- 

imil'ltudl     IM  \<  n,  .       ihc  y 

:  -In 

i  Inn  and  1 1 

tllMM  l||, 

veil 

th< -r,  MI-,  a-,  it  i  ,  |.  (  |,uie:ili 

IMIIIM-,.  'I    I,,  ,|,    |  ,\,    ,|        |, -I))!) 

ob  vi  o  u  i     i  • 

tin  •,.     in>  .,  i,,,  |, 

tin  v  take  op  1'i-Miu  i 

'  d  IM;;I  tin  :  ,  and  hh  inh  d  v,  ilh  lln    lymph, 
\vhir;h  t  In  y  itnhih'    ||.,u,  t),,-  i,,', 
the  h',dy,  and    ulm  h 

MI  h   h.  ten  parth  i- 1  , 

'In  y      al-.o      pn  \ ,  nl     ;,(  «. (denial    pi- 

'In     ;  !,'n.|, 

d    iMi-vvards   l;y 

«  oilai. -ni  chanm  Ii     i.d..  th< 

tin--,'    I,,),,  -S)  |,y  ronjoiniiij;,  loi  in  a  tn 
•.mailer  an  a  than  tin    nn.1<  d  an  a-.    M!    tin 
•  I-,  In  !MI-<    th.-ir  lune'iMii      '1  In    .  !l<  <  i 
of  'I  '  .MII  rt  tin  ,  ihc 

^ •  in-  .  ihal  if,  an  ncceli  ration  m  ti.- 

n  ui    M!'  the    lymph,    in    pnipMition 

'   Mllr  0    lllfl     t  I'M  Ilk     M!    I 

Tin    diameli  r  ol  I  In    Hn,: 
dm  I    In  an  h'H    a  -.mall  proportion    tO 
uniii  d     diann  ler,    ol    all    the    miniit' 
•.Miln  nt-,  in  Ihe  hody,  and  when  this  dm  i 
hi.  !n  '  n  i.pi  ned,  tin     lymph    ha-,    (lowed 
lion,  il    wilh  a  for.-,    and  j.  I   hki    Ihal   with 
w  hn  h  tin    hlood  is-.iu  |  from  a    ! 
l.d.i    lln     V(  in-,,  Hn    :,• 
rd    with   IHIMici-oir.     \.il\i  '.,   will'  h   prevent 

any  n  iii,;-iad.    motion  ol' their  fluid-.,  and 
al  .M     piev.  ul     any      portion    ol    lln      r 
Irom  lUltaining  tin    u.  ijdit    ol  mon-    fluid 
than  r.  conlaiin  d  li«  1  \\  e.  n  [tl  valv  |      I  In- 
:d,'.orh<  nl-.,  ln,\-..  \  .  r   dilh  iTroin  Hn    \ 
m  one    \  i  i  \     mat.  rial    eueum-.lain  . 
that   lln  v     h.ae     a    pou  i  i    ol    i  out  i  a<  lion, 
and  ar.    aid.    ,..|  ||,,  m  ..  l\ ,  -.  IM  propel  lh.  ir 

<   Milt  I    III    ,  \\    Il0e\  I    I     I  '    lie  i    t-,  Mil    t  lie    phe- 

UMiii'  ua  M|'  ahsMrpliMii  ean  .  an  '  I'-  donht 
that  lln  -,e  vi  \-, i  I  .  h:.-.  •  a  <  nulrai  tile  pou 
•  r,  hy  u  hn  1 1  Hn  -.  M  Ii  u  to 

IIOMOU  ,  :. uh  .lain  i  ,  v,  l,i!  I  I  In  \  i  (  add\ 
iinhilie  tho:,<  ||,:,|  ;4|-,.  salul:u\  .  II  (In  •  - 

'.  <     ,    •   I       ai  .     .,1,    .   i  ,  ,  d     III     tin       Iin      .   II 

when  turj'.id    \\  ilh     alc.oih.  d  i  In,  le,    tin  n 

lonlents  will  disappear  IM 

and  agaifl  '"  •  Om<    \  ilibll    ,  a  pin  noun  HMD 

I  hat  ean    onl\    In    <    .  pl;.in<  d  h  v  -.upp. 

lln      \ess«  I    In     <  oul  i.nl     ;(l     thai    pail,     and 

ni-|;e  I'o i  \\  aid-    it  .  .  mil.  nl'..      llalh  r  found 

licit  the  thoracic  dnei  <  ont.-a'  N-d   \\hru 

il  iled,    -i'i    that    Hn-'       •    MI      I--.:      little 


\\.\TOM\. 


i,H,l.i       »|       ||,. 

till    l.ll-ll'.lp       III'     I] 

.Mil,]    III    .    '.I, 

i.i.  nun 

il,l     V\   ll.    II 
.,:'.!  II.     V      j. 

•il.mil    : 
«    ill>  •  I    I 

,  \\  IIP  li 

•  i  i  linn  i-  .   111  that  b  od} 

.in  i  i|M.ti  IP  in.  -i  .•  < 

n  ..in  UK  (;l  Hid.  .  onjoiti,  and  im  m 

.1    Illl    Ijl.ll        '  I     ' 

.vim  li    t-ni.  r  tin    pl.mil,    n. 
n  .'i  ilh  -I.  -1111111111  tl 

i     i   .  II.  r    nil  i 
II   'I'M-  K  .il\  .1    I.'-   IUMIIVI!    nil"   tin-  Im  m-  i 

• 

•  .  .  ii.  depON 

i'  .     n,  j.id|.«-| 

i  i  1  1  1  •    I  I  : 

.  .    '   II.    I 

.,i    ilu     absorbed    llunl    i-» 

I     .1     III  l|.        Ill       ill'      .'        )•  l.lll.l    .,     .Ill'l     ll     IS 

.  t.  ,1  in 

in.,,  i/  I,   I  lit   m  I  In  .  .,  pin,.,  it 

in  confl  ih.  .. 

,•1    ll.     !    .      ll.l.lllll1     V.    ll  ll     Illllllll     V      .   .'    I    .,     wllll    ll 

imc  ti  .  .ii    iiniiiii  |in<  '  . 

Illi'.      till).  i        u  IIP    I,  .Mir,  |       m       |||, 

.III!  . 

lip          I',  llij.li   id'  .111,1      Hi 

'III.  IP     I     .    M, 

MI-  ..i  iii    IP  .  i.,  i|.|,  ti  na  ill--- 

pi  ..  n  h   Id    Hi. 

"I    i  IP      ii'inl.  I 

mi   lit. 

' 

.11.  •!    I  i. 

iCl  .  |H  inn,    Ml  linaii  ''   i-ln,    "I     'j'l  •'  ' 
;  i  .      lie     jili-'      .'  In   i  •     II.  '.iiji.in, 

ill'l    Hi'  ••!    U'll  h     tin      \\  injili  id'    .    Ii  mil     I  li> 
••I   lli'-    liddy.  !••  I.  nut  ili.    Mid 

.      Ill         Ml.  II,    .1    .      I, 

'      ill'       I   -    '    '     |ll    I 

i  iilinii    rlnli.      'I  IP      \  ....  I     Mm  .    I 
•A  ilh  II.  I  i  .  .    ill.-.  I    lip-    ' 

i  ,  ition  H  ii-  .  -  1"  .-•  on  HI.- 

Hie   l>"i  ,      ;     .  .,,.,,  ,,i, 

illld  wild  li   i  I  ,     III,- 

< 


.iii'-.i  ,i   'i  IP 
ni  lilndil  I  -'-in  • 


I    IP  ||t         IMII        Hi, 

I  form  •    m  «n-  >  inn 

III         : 

ill        I  ,  I       III'          I    I ; '  I  I  I       I U 1 ) 0 | fl 

l'""l\    . 
»    III'     ll       III'          ll.'.OI    I,'     III     .       II  •     'Illllllll    lH 

i    iinliili'-.l  i 
lip  ;ii|.l. 

M     M  (.    ll   '.III    III'       III 

.iii.l    .ill    Id.     .  !i 

llMIII      Ml'  ,        (III 

lurfC1'  *  -  '"  •  '"  "  l('' 

I.I'...  nl<-il   111  .("  ill,  i 

til    111    ijtnhl  y  ,    lln  \     i  -t-  |,l,  in  .h    |  he 
wiHi  null. 
\villi   ml'  i  IPHI 

I  .  ilh.  i.  nl  l«.  inloi  in  Mi 

|.  H  I  .    ..I    'I.-     I.  mid 

ition  ..I  ih'  n  |.  .1  in  n 

III      'll   illll.llll'.ll  \\  III  M       |'i 

Mi  ii  :  i,  .ml  ilu  n 

'  nli 

ilriir.  \\  li-  HIM, 

1    Mi, 
l.i..l\   .    ni'l  M..    n  i  il  . 

tnn  "i  (;>  r»blb( 

mil   mil  m, m  tin. n    i.l     il,- 
1  <  m    u  Im  h   lln  .  mil  i 
I  Im  .  lip 
lip 
in  tin     ,»  \ill.i    1 1. 

",          I   III         I     II,          Ml    .        '., 

,       jftfg 

j-l    III.  I    i,      '      ill'    ll        III.'        1.1'llP  I 

I'    'I      I.'    lull    I    Ml-  .,,.      ill      Mi    , 

|.  ii  I  nl    I  In-    <i.  !,.IIP  n    I  >i  IIH  illli.    I', 
i  .  (•_,,, n,   N  li-  i  -  n  i. .mi. I--, I 

<jil  mill  ,       '-I      I-".  .-       •  -    liul  n        •;,    I      Ull 
I 

tb(      1.  P!IP    |     ip     m  I 

-,-   ,i  'Sill  ill    |, 

,  it,  d|i|.d  .il,     I/.   Mi.     IP, 
I '   I .  i  ,     i  .  i    1 1 1  -  .  I   I  1 1  •     . 

dl    III,      ;  '    I  :  .   nlri 

V\  IP    ,  llil'.HiM.    li, 

• .  i    MM.  ..I-,.,,  i    i .  fou  nd 

[(     ll'il      Ml.    II    ll    j,    ill,   III'      Illll-l-llil   ,    Will*    I, 

>l      |"'l  lidllt,    ih 
n  mi>  .1  ML-  in  mil.  i  OU  •      I  i. 
|i.-i  I--*  M\    \-  l.il'-,  it    ,i    k  i(lii''y    IP 


ANATOMY. 


Several  very  minute  converging1  tubes  are 
seen  running  through  the  uriniferous  por- 
tion, and  terminating  by  open  mouths  on 
their  conical  points  ;  these,  which  can  be 
filled  with  minute  injection  from  the  ar- 
teries, and  the  open  mouths  of  which  can 
be  seen  with  the  aid  of  a  small  magnify- 
ing power,  are  the  excretory  tubes,  or 
tubuli  urirtiferi,  of  the  kidney.  The  urini- 
ferous  portion  of  the  gland  forms  about 
fifteen  conical  projections,  termed  papil- 
la:;  on  each  side  of  which  the  excretory 
tubes  open  in  great  numbers.  The  pa- 
pillae project  into  short  membranous  ca- 
nals, called  infundibula ;  and  these  ter- 
minate in  a  common  receptacle,  situated 
at  the  notch  of  the  kidney,  and  known  by 
the  name  of  the  pelvis.  From  this  a  ca- 
nal about  equal  in  size  to  a  writing  quill, 
the  ureter,  conveys  the  secreted  fluid 
into  the  bladder. 

The  bladder  is  a  membranous  and  mus- 
cular reservoir,  receiving1  the  urine  as  it 
is  found  in  the  kidnies,  retaining  it  until 
it  has  accumulated  in  some  quantity,  and 
then  expelling  it  through  a  canal  called 
the  urethra. 

The  internal  surface  of  the  bladder  is 
formed  by  a  smooth  membrane,  constant- 
ly covered  with  a  mucous  secretion,  which 
defends  it  from  the  irritating  effects  of  the 
contained  fluid.  It  has  a  muscular  coat, 
sometimes  described  as  a  muscle,  under 
the  name  of  detrusor  urinae ;  and  that 
part  of  the  fibres,  which  is  situated  round 
the  opening  of  the  urethra,  is  called  the 
sphincter  vesicae,  as  it  keeps  the  aperture 
constantly  closed,  until  we  make  an  effort 
for  the  expulsion  of  the  contained  fluid. 
The  ureters  open  into  the  lower  part  of 
the  bladder ;  and  open  in  such  a  manner 
that,  although  the  urine  flows  readily  from 
them  into  the  receptacle,  none  can  return. 
They  pass  between  the  muscular  and  in- 
ternal tunics,  before  they  penetrate  the 
latter. 

The  bladder  is  situated  just  behind  the 
ossa  pubis  ;  and  is  partly  covered  by  the 
peritoneum.  The  urethra  proceeds  from 
its  lower  and  anterior  surface,  and  this 
part  is  called  the  neck  of  the  bladder  ;  it 
then  goes  under  the  arch  of  the  pubis. 
It  forms  in  the  female  a  canal  about  an 
inch  and  a  half,  or  two  inches  long,  which 
opens  in  the  cavity  left  between  the  labia 
pudendi.  In  the  male  it  is  about  nine  in- 
ches in  length,  and  runs  along  the  under 
part  of  the  penis  to  the  extremity  of  that 
organ,  where  it  opens. 

ORGAXS    OF    GENERATION. 

The  parts  which  the  two  sexes  per- 


form, in  the  important  business  of  pro- 
pagating the  species,  are  so  entirely  dif- 
ferent, that  we  shall  not  be  surprised  at 
finding  that  the  male  and  female  organs 
ot  generation  are  wholly  dissimilar  to 
each  other. 

The  germs  or  rudiments  of  the  future 
beings  are  produced  by  the  female,  in  or- 
gans called  the  ovaria.  But  these  remain 
inert  and  useless,  unless  called  into  ac- 
tion by  the  fecundating  influence  o,  the 
male.  The  fecundating  fluid  is  prepared 
in  two  glands,  called  the  testes.  When 
the  germ  has  been  acted  on  by  this  fluid, 
it  passes  through  a  canai  called  the  iallo- 
pian  tube,  into  the  uterus,  where  it  is  re- 
tained until  it  has  acquired  a  considerable 
magnitude  ;  and  from  which  it  is  expell- 
ed at  the  end  of  nine  months.  The  se- 
minal liquor  of  the  male  is  poured  into 
the  urethra,  and  is  introduced  by  means 
of  the  penis  into  a  membranous  cavity  of 
the  female,  called  the  vagina. 

External  parts  of  generation  in  the  fa- 
male.  Over  the  surface  of  the  pubis, 
there  is  a  greater  accumulation  of  fat  and 
cellular  substance  than  in  the  male  ;  and 
the  prominence  caused  by  this  structure 
is  called  mons  veneris.  A  longitudinal 
cavity  extends  from  this  eminence  in 
front  to  the  anus  behind  ;  and  the  sides 
of  it  are  bounded  by  two  folds  of  the  skin, 
called  labia  pudendi,  or  alac  majores. 
The  whole  of  these  parts  taken  together 
constitute  the  pudendum,  or  sinus  puclo- 
ris.  The  mons  veneris,  and  the  outer 
surface  of  the  labia,  are  covered  with  hair 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

The  parts  contained  within  this  longi- 
tudinal cavity  are  covered  by  a  more  de- 
licate kind  of  integuments,  than  that 
which  composes  the  general  surface  of 
the  body.  A  change  takes  place  in  the 
organization  of  the  skin,  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  that  which  is  observed  at  the  lips. 
Hence  the  surface  of  the  parts  contained 
within  the  labia  has  a  red,  smooth,  and 
soft  covering ;  which  is  besmeared  with 
a  cebaceous  secretion  of  peculiar  odour, 
furnished  by  numerous  small  glands,  lying 
just  under  the  surface.  This  unctuous 
matter  is  required  in  order  to  defend  the 
parts  from  the  urine  ;  and  also  to  obviate 
the  effects  of  that  rubbing  on  each  other, 
which  must  be  occasioned  by  the  motions 
of  the  body. 

Towards  the  upper  part  of  the  longi- 
tudinal slit,  left  between  the  labia,  a 
small  prominent  organ  is  discerned,  call- 
ed the  clitoris.  This  exactly  resembles 
the  male  penis  in  structure.  It  only  pro- 
jects, however,  about  a  quarter  of  an 


ANATOMY. 


inch.  We  distinguish  in  it  a  glans  and 
preputium,  which  resemble,  on  a  small 
scale,  the  parts  of  the  same  name  in  the 
male. 

Below  the  clitoris  are  two  small  folds, 
called  the  nymphs.  These  are  connected 
above  to  the  preputium  clitoridis ;  they 
diverge  from  eacii  other  as  they  extend 
below.  They  vary  much  in  size  ;  in  a 
natural  state  they  may  measure  about 
halt'  an  inch  at  the  broadest  part.  They 
are  of  a  much  greater  magnitude  in  the 
Hottentot  female,  and  have  given  rise  to 
the  reports  of  travellers,  that  the  sinus 
pudoris  is  covered  in  those  persons  by  a 
curtain  or  apron  of  skin.  About  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  below  the  clitoris,  we 
meet  with  a  round  aperture,  which  is 
the  termination  of  the  female  urethra: 
and  just  below  this  is  the  opening  of  the 
vagina;  which  opening  is  technically 
called  os  externum  uteri.  This  has  a 
very  different  appearance  in  a  young  girl 
and  in  a  married  woman.  In  the  latter 
it  is  a  large  and  free  aperture,  fully  ade- 
quate in  size  to  the  admission  of  the  pe- 
nis; in  the  former  it  is  shut  up  in  a  great 
measure  by  a  thin  membrane,  called  the 
hymen.  This  closes  the  lower  portion  of 
the  os  externum,  to  various  extents  in 
different  subjects;  and  is  torn  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  consummation  of  mar- 
riage. Some  little  excrescences,  suppos- 
ed to  be  the  remains  of  the  ruptured  hy- 
men, are  called  carunculae  myrtiformes. 
The  anus  is  found  about  one  inch  behind 
the  commencement  of  the  vagina. 

The  vagina,  or  canalis  uteri,  is  a  mem- 
branous canal,  about  five  inches  in  length, 
extending  almost  directly  backwards 
from  the  os  externum.  Its  sides  are  dense 
and  tough  ;  and  the  surface  is  covered 
with  numerous  wrinkles  and  prominences, 
which  are  less  conspicuous  in  women  who 
have  had  children  than  in  virgins. 

The  uterus  is  a  hollow  organ ;  but  its 
cavity  is  so  small  in  the  impregnated 
state,  and  its  sides  are  so  thick  and  dense, 
that  it  feels  like  a  solid  fleshy  mass.  Its 
broadest  and  largest  part,  which  is  called 
the  fundus,  is  situated  directly  upwards. 
The  smaller  and  narrower  portion,  term- 
ed the  neck,  is  downwards.  The  length 
'  of  the  organ,  from  the  fundus  to  the  end 
of  the  neck,  is  about  three  inches;  its 
breadth  at  the  fundus  about  one  inch,  and 
at  the  cervix  considerably  less.  It  is  si- 
tuated within  the  cavity  included  by  the 
bones  of  the  pelvis.  The  peritoneum 
passes  from  the  bladder  *o  the  anterior 
surface  ot  the  uterus,  ana  completely  co- 
vers the  organ.  It  is  extended  from  the 


two  sides  of  the  uterus  to  the  bones  of 
the  pelvis,  forming  two  broad  duplica- 
tures,  called  the  broad  ligaments  of  the 
uterus;  each  of  which  includes  three 
parts,  named  the  appendages  of  the  ute- 
rus: 'viz.  the  ovarium,  fallopian  tube,  and 
round  ligament. 

The  cavity  of  the  uterus  opens  into 
the  posterior  part  of  the  vagina  by  an 
orifice,  named  the  os  tincx  or  os  internum 
uteri. 

The  round  ligament  of  the  uterus  is  a 
fibrous  chord,  passing  from  the  fundus 
uteri  through  the  abdominal  ring,  and 
serving  to  confine  this  organ  in  its  pro- 
per situation. 

The  ovarium  is  an  oval  fleshy  body,  si- 
tuated towards  the  posterior  surface  of 
the  broad  ligament.  It  contains  some 
small  watery  vesicles,  called  ovula  g^aafi- 
ana,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  germs 
of  the  future  beings,  that  are  to  be  called 
into  action  by  the  stimulus  of  the  male 
semen. 

The  fallopian  tube  is  a  convoluted  ca- 
nal, commencing  by  a  very  minute  orifice 
from  the  corner  of  the  uterus,  running 
along  the  upper  margin  of  the  broad  liga- 
ments, and  gradually  increasing  in  size, 
till  it  ends  near  the  ovarium  by  a  broad 
trumpet-shaped  mouth,  open  to  the  ca- 
vity of  the  abdomen,  and  having  an  ele- 
gant arrangement  of  plaits  and  fringes 
surrounding  the  aperture,  whence  it  is 
often  called  the  u'mbriated  extremity  of 
the  tube. 

Male  organs  of  generation. — The  testes, 
or  glands,  which  produce  the  semen,  are 
contained  in  the  scrotum,  a  bag  formed  of 
common  integuments,  and  hanging  from 
the  front  of  the  pelvis  between  the  thighs. 
A  prominent  line,  called  the  raphe,  runs 
along  the  middle  of  this,  and  divides  it 
into  two  equal  portions.  The  testes  are 
surrounded  and  connected  in  their  situa- 
tion by  a  loose  cellular  substance.  They 
are  of  an  oval  shape,  and  about  equal  in 
size  to  a  pigeon's  egg.  They  hang  from 
the  abdomen  by  the  spermatic  chords, 
which  consist  of  the  arteries,  veins,  lym- 
phatics, and  excretory  tubes  of  the  testes, 
united  by  a  cellular  substance,  and  cover- 
ed by  a  muscle,  called  the  cremaster,  by 
the  action  of  which  the  testis  is  occasion- 
ally drawn  up  towards  the  belly. 

The  substance  of  the  testis  is  covered 
by  two  membranous  tunics,  one,  which 
immediately  invests  it,  and  is  called  tu- 
nica albuginea ;  another,  which  surrounds 
this  more  closely,  and  forms  a  bag,  in 
which  the  testis' hangs,  the  tunica  vagi- 
nalis. 


ANATOMY. 


There  is  a  small  body,  partly  distinct 
from  the  testis,  and  placed  behind  it, 
called  the  epididymis. 

The  substance  of  the  testis  is  found  by 
dissection  to  be  soft;  and  it  is  composed 
of  a  congeries  of  very  minute  tubes, 
named  tubuli  seminiferi,  which  may  be 
unravelled  and  separated  by  macerating 
in  water,  although  they  were  previously 
connected  into  the  appearance  of  a  fleshy 
mass.  The  diameter  of  these  tubes  is 
estimated  at  l-200th  of  an  inch  ;  and  the 
number  of  them  at  about  60,000.  If  they 
were  joined  together,  they  would  form  a 
tube  of  about  5000  feet  long.  These 
tubes  terminate  ultimately  in  a  single 
small  canal,  which,  by  its  innumerable 
turns  and  windings,  makes  up  the  whole 
epididymis.  If  this  could  be  completely 
drawn  out,  it  would  be  about  30  feet 
long.  It  increases  rather  in  size  towards 
the  end  of  the  epididymis,  and  leaves 
that  body  in  the  form  of  a  simple  and 
unconvoluted  tube,  assuming  the  name 
of  vas  deferens,  and  ascending  along  the 
back  of  the  spermatic  chord  to  the  abdo- 
men. It  can  be  readily  distinguished  in 
that  situation  in  the  living  person  :  it  feels 
like  a  hard  chord,  about  the  size  of  a 
crow  quill. 

When  the  spermatic  chord  has  entered 
the  abdomen,  the  vas  deferens  leaves  it, 
runs  along  the  back  of  the  bladder,  and 
opens  into  the  commencement  of  the 
urethra. 

Vesiculce  seminales. — Before  the  vas  de- 
ferens terminates  in  the  urethra,  it  is 
joined  at  an  acute  angle  by  the  canal  of 
the  vesicula  seminalis. 

These  vesicles  are  two  soft  bodies,  ly- 
ing in  contact  with  the  under  surface  of 
the  bladder,  and  formed,  each  of  them, 
by  the  convolutions  of  a  single  membran- 
ous tube.  An  injected  liquor  thrown  into 
the  vas  deferens  will  pass  into  the  vesi- 
cula seminalis,  rather  than  into  the  ure- 
thra ;  for  the  opening  into  that  canal  is 
extremely  small,  while  the  communica- 
tion with  the  vesicula  is  large  and  free. 
Hence  it  has  been  supposed  that  these 
vesicles  are  reservoirs  for  retaining  the 
fluid  formed  in  the  testicles  until  it  is 
wanted. 

Mr.  John  Hunter  has  however  pretty 
clearly  demonstrated  that  the  vesiculx 
are  not  intended  to  contain  semen,  but 
that  they  secrete  a  peculiar  fluid,  to  sub- 
serve the  purpose  of  generation.  See  his 
"Observations  on  certain  parts  of  the 
Animal  Economy." 

Prostate  gland. — The  origin  of  the  ure- 
thra is  surrounded  bv  the  substance  of 


this  gland,  which  in  sue  and  form  muck 
resembles  the  chesmit.  Numerous  open- 
ings are  found  in  the  commencement  ef 
the  urethra,  which  discharge  on  pressure 
a  whitish  viscid  fluid,  secreteu  in  the 
substance  of  the  prostate.  A  portion  of 
the  gland  projects  into  the  lower  part  of 
the  commencement  of  the  urethra,  and 
has  received  the  name  of  caput  gallinagi- 
nis:  it  is  on  this  that  the  openings  of  the 
canals,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  vasa 
deferentia  and  vesiculae  seminales,  are 
found. 

The  urethra  is  subservient  to  two  pur- 
poses; the  expulsion  of  the  semen  in  the 
act  of  copulation,  and  the  conveyance  of 
the  urine  from  the  bladder.  Its  surface  is 
perfectly  smooth,  and  is  covered  and  pro- 
tected by  a  mucous  secretion.  The  dia- 
meter of  this  canal  varies  slightly  at  dif- 
ferent parts,  but  may  be  stated  generally 
at  about  one-eighth  or  an  inch.  At  its 
first  departure  from  the  bladder,  it  is 
surrounded  for  one  inch  by  the  prostate  ; 
it  is  then  continued  as  a  simple  membran- 
ous tube,  but  surrounded  by  muscular 
fibres  for  another  inch  ;  this  is  called  the 
membranous  portion  of  the  urethra.  In 
the  rest  of  its  passage  it  is  surrounded  bv 
a  vascular  substance,  called  corpus  spon- 
giosum  ;  this  is  accumulated  in  a  consi- 
derable mass  at  its  commencement,where 
indeed  the  urethra  is  broader  than  in  any 
other  situation,  and  this  is  called  the 
bulb.  The  seminal  and  prostatic  liquors 
are  poured  into  the  bulb  of  the  urethra, 
and  are  forcibly  expelled  from  thence 
by  a  sort  of  convulsive  contraction  of  a 
muscle,  whose  fibres  surround  this  part 
of  the  canal;  the  ejaculator  seminis. 
The  glans  penis  is  nothing  more  than  a 
portion  of  the  same  vascular  mass,  which 
surrounds  the  rest  of  the  urethra,  cover- 
ed by  a  very  delicate,  sensible,  and  finely 
organized  integument. 

The  bulb,  corpus  spongiosum,  and 
glans,  are  susceptible  of  the  same  erec- 
tion as  the  body  of  the  penis;  which  is 
indeed  essential  to  the  performance  of 
their  functions,  m  conveying  the  fecun- 
dating liquor  into  the  body  of  the  female, 

The  penis  consists  of  two  bodies,  call- 
ed crura,  or  corpora  cavenosa,  which 
arise  separately  from  the  bones  of  the 
pelvis;  but  join  so  as  to  form  afterwards 
a  single  organ.  Each  crus  consists  of  a 
very  strong  and  dense  ligamentous  tube,, 
filled  internally  with  cellular  substance, 
into  the  cells  of  which  tiie  arteries  open, 
and  from  which  the  vt.ins  coian.cnce 
The  arteries  pour  the  i.iuod  into  these 
organs  with  great  energy,  in  obedience' 


ANATOMY. 


to  the  passions  of  the  mind,  and  thereby 
distend  the  ligamentous  tubes  until  they 
feel  perfectly  hard  and  rigid,  in  which 
state  the  whole  organ  is  fitted  for  the 
function  which  it  has  to  perform  in  the 
act  of  copulation.  The  urethra,  sur- 
rounded by  its  spongy  substance,  runs 
along  the  under  surface  of  the  corpora 
cavernosa,  and  the  glans  penis  is  situated 
at  the  anterior  extremity  of  these  parts. 

The  body  of  the  penis  is  covered  by 
common  integuments,  which,  being  adapt- 
ed to  cover  the  organ  in  its  extended 
state,  fall  into  wrinkles  when  it  is  col- 
lapsed. These  are  continued  beyond  the 
end  of  the  glands,  and  are  inflected,  so  as 
to  form  a  hood  or  covering  to  the  glans, 
called  the  prepuce.  The  latter  part  is 
connected  to  the  mouth  of  the  urethra  by 
a  small  fold  named  the  frenum.  The 
surface  of  the  glans,  and  the  lining  of 
the  prepuce,  are  smeared  with  an  unctu- 
ous matter  of  peculiar  odour,  furnished 
by  some  small  glands. 

OF    THE    BIUIST   AND    NERVES. 

The  brain  is  a  soft  and  somewhat  white 
substance,  situated  in  the  cavity  of  the 
skull,  and  corresponding  in  form  to  that 
cavity.  Its  parts  are  supported  by  a  firm 
membrane,  called  the  dura  mater,  and  its 
substance  is  more  immediately  invested 
by  a  delicate  membrane,  called  the  pia 
mater. 

The  structure  of  the  brain  is  remark- 
ably constant  and  uniform ;  very  seldom 
deviating  from  the  accustomed  standard. 
Varieties  of  formation  occur,  not  unfre- 
quently,  in  most  other  parts  of  the  body ; 
but  the  parts  of  the  brain  preserve  an  al- 
most invariable  relation  of  form,  position, 
magnitude,  and  connection  ;  which  seems 
to  prove,  that  the  right  performance  of 
the  functions  of  this  organ  requires  an 
exactness  in  the  structure  of  individual 
parts. 

According  to  Soemmering,  the  weight 
of  the  brain  varies  from  2lb.  5\oz.  to  3/£. 
3f  02.  Of  two  hundred  brains,  which  this 
anatomist  examined,  none  weighed  four 
pounds,  whereas  Haller  states  its  weight 
as  amounting  in  general  to  five  pounds. 
The  weight  of  the  brain,  compared  to 
that  of  the  body,  is  an  inverse  ratio  to 
the  age  of  the  subject.  In  young  foetuses 
it  is  soft  and  almost  fluid  :  it  becomes  of 
a  more  solid  consistence  in  increasing 
age,  and  is  firmest  in  old  persons. 

The  dura  mater  is  a  very  firm  and 
compact  membrane,  adhering  closely  by 
vessels  and  fibres  to  the  internal  surface 

VOL.  I, 


of  the  cranium.  It  is  therefore  to  berg- 
garded  as  the  periosteum  of  the  internal 
table  of  the  cranium,  as  well  as  a  mem- 
brane  for  supporting  and  investing  the 
brain.  It  is  described  by  anatomists  as 
consisting  of  two  layers,  intimately  con- 
nected in  general,  but  separated  from 
each  other  at  particular  parts,  so  as  to 
leave  vacancies  between  them,  called  si- 
nuses, into  which  the  veins  of  the  brain 
pour  their  blood.  The  chief  of  these  are, 
the  superior  longitudinal,  the  two  lateral, 
and  the  torcula  herophili.  There  are 
besides  some  smaller  ones,  as  the  infe- 
rior longitudinal,  the  cavernous,  the  cir- 
cular, the  superior,  and  the  anterior  pe- 
trosal.  They  all  terminate  ultimately  in 
the  lateral  sinus,  which,  quitting  the  cra- 
nium, takes  the  name  of  internal  jugular 
vein. 

On  the  upper  part  of  the  dura  mater 
some  small  eminences  are  observed,  aris- 
ing from  clusters  of  white  granular  bo- 
dies, situated  between  this  membrane 
and  the  pia  mater ;  they  are  the  glandulce 
Pacchioni,  and  fill  the  pits  which  may  be 
observed  in  the  skull-cap.  The  ramifica- 
tions of  the  spinous  artery,  which  is  the 
chief  nutrient  vessel  of  the  dura  mater, 
are  very  conspicuous  on  each  side  of  the 
head.  The  inner  surface  of  the  dura 
mater  is  smooth  and  shining,  and  has  no 
connection  with  the  pia  mater,  except 
where  veins  pass  from  the  latter  mem- 
brane to  the  sinuses. 

The  processes  which  the  dura  mater 
forms,  for  separating  and  supporting  the 
different  parts  of  the  brain,  are,  1.  the 
falx  cerebri ;  2.  tentorium  cerebelli ;  3. 
falx  cerebelli. 

The  two  membranes  which  immedi- 
ately invest  the  brain  were  considered  as 
one,  and  called  the  pia  mater,  until  a 
more  minute  investigation  had  shewn 
that  it  could  be  divided  into  two  layers. 
The  outer  one  is  called  tunica  arachnoi- 
dea.  This  is  spread  over  the  visible  sur- 
face of  the  brain,  is  of  a  pale  white  co- 
lour, yet  in  some  degree  transparent,  ve- 
ry thin,  and  devoid  of  evident  vessels.  It 
is  seen  most  evidently,  where  it  passes  be- 
tween the  two  lobes  of  the  cerebellum, 
and  about  the  middle  of  the  basis  cere- 
bri :  in  other  parts  it  adheres  so  intimate- 
ly to  the  pia  mater,  that  the  distinction 
can  scarcely  be  demonstrated. 

The  pia  mater  every  where  covers  the 
external  surface  of  the  brain,  and  there- 
fore sends  processes  into  all  the  convolu- 
tions of  this  organ.  It  is  extremely  vas- 
cular, and  a  great  portion  of  the  blood, 
which  the  brain  receives,  is  spread  out 


ANATOMY. 


upon  its  surface  in  minute  vessels.  The 
outer  surface  is  tolerably  smooth ;  the 
inner  universally  villous,  from  the  torn 
orifices  of  innumerable  vessels,  which  en- 
tered the  substance  of  the  brain. 

The  surface  of  the  brain  appears  con- 
voluted, so  as  to  resemble  the  windings  of 
the  small  intestines.  These  convolutions 
do  not  in  general  penetrate  more  than 
one  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a  half,  into  the 
substance. 

The  contents  of  the  cranium  are  divid- 
ed into  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  and  medul- 
la oblongata. 

The  cerebrum  is  the  upper,  and  by  far 
the  largest,  portion  :  it  occupies  all  the 
superior  part  of  the  vaulted  cavity  of  the 
skull,  and  rests  below  on  the  tentorium, 
the  petrous  portions  of  the  temporal 
bones,  the  sphenoid  alae,  and  the  orbits. 
Its  upper  surface  presents  a  regularly 
convex  oval,  narrower  in  front}  than  be- 
hind. It  is  divided  into  a  right  and  left 
hemisphere  by  a  deep  longitudinal  fis- 
sure, into  which  the  falx  cerebri  descends. 
Each  hemisphere  is  divided  into  two 
lobes  by  means  of  the  fissura  magna  Syl- 
vii.  This  fissure  commences  at  the  basis 
of  the  brain,  opposite  to  the  lesser  ala  of 
the  sphenoid  bone ;  the  anterior  lobe  is 
that  portion  of  the  hemisphere  situated 
in  front  of  the  fissure  ;  and  the  posterior 
lobe  is  the  division  placed  behind. 

The  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  are 
united  together  at  about  two  inches  and 
a  half  from  the  surface  of  the  brain,  by 
means  of  a  medullary  body,  called  corpws 
callosum.  This  is  about  three  inches  in 
length,  and  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in 
breadth. 

As  there  are  no  distinguishable  parts  in 
the  upper  portions  of  the  hemispheres 
of  the  cerebrum,  it  is  customary  to  pare 
all  these  away  in  dissection,  nearly  to  the 
level  of  the  corpus  callosum,  in  ,order 
that  we  may  be  able  more  easily  to  open, 
and  more  particularly  to  examine,  certain 
cavities,  which  are  situated  at  the  sides  of 
that  body,  and  are  called  the  lateral  ven- 
tricles. 

On  making  a  section  of  the  brain,  we 
perceive  that  it  is  composed  of  two  sub- 
stances ;  an  exterior  one,  which  is  of  a 
grey  colour,  and  an  interior  one,  which  is 
white.  These  are  simply  termed  the  ci- 
neritious  and  white  substances,  or  sub- 
stantia  cinerea  et  alba ;  or,  from  the  for- 
mer surrounding  the  latter,  as  the  bark 
does  the  wood  of  a  tree,  they  are  named, 
in  contradistinction,  the  cortical  and  me- 
dullary substances  of  the  brain. 

The  two  lateral  ventricles  are  situated 


in  the  substance  of  the  brain,  by  the  side 
of  the  corpus  callosum,  (one  in  either  he- 
misphere.) The  cavity  begins  in  the  front 
lobe  of  the  brain,  as  far  forwards  as  the 
commencement  of  the  corpus  callosum ; 
it  runs  from  before  backwards,  in  a  direc- 
tion parallel  to  that  body,  and  at  its  poste- 
rior end  bends dow n \vards,and  returns  ob- 
liquely from  behind  forwards,  to  terminate 
almost  under  its  superior  extremity.  At 
the  place  where  the  ventricle  bends,  in 
order  to  run  downwards,  there  is  a  parti- 
cular elongation  passing  into  the  posterior 
lobe,  forming  a  triangular-pointed  cavity, 
and  terminating  in  a  cul  de  sac.  This  is 
the  digital  cavity,  or  cornu  posterius,  of 
the  lateral  ventricle.  These  and  the  other 
ventricies  of  the  brain  contain  a  small 
quantity  of  a  watery  fluid.  The  disease  of 
h}  drocephalus  is  a-  morbid  increase  of 
quantity  in  this  fluid,  which  accumulates 
sometimes  to  the  amount  of  some  pounds, 
distending  and  dilating  the  ventricles 
enormously.  The  learned  Soemmering, 
who  may  justly  be  esteemed  the  first  of 
modern  anatomists,. places  the  censorium 
commune  in  this  fluid.  He  has  traced  all 
the  nerves  of  the  brain  to  the  sides  of  the 
ventricles;  and  concludes,  that  impres- 
sions made  on  these  nerves  will  be  trans- 
mitted to  the  water  of  the  ventricles, 
which  he  considers  as  the  organ  of  the 
soul. 

The  two  lateral  ventricles  are  separated 
by  a  perpendicular  partition,  called  the 
septum  lucidum,.  which  passes  from  the 
corpus  calloaum  to  the  fornix.  It  contains 
a  small  triangular  cavity,  called  by  some 
the  fifth  ventricle  of  the  brain.  It  has  no 
communication  with  the  other  cavities  of 
the  brain. 

The  fornix  is  a  roundish  medullary  bo- 
dy, lying  between  the  two  ventricles  at  the 
lower  part.  It  arises  by  two  anterior  crura 
from  the  front  of  the  brain  ;  these  unite  to 
form  the  body  or  pillar  of  the  fornix,  which 
separates  behind  into  two  posterior  crura, 
that  run  into  the  reflected  portion  of  the 
ventricles.  Under  the  anterior  part  of  the 
fornix  is  a  small  slit-like  opening,  by  which 
the  two  lateral  ventricles  communicate. 

The  choroid  plexus  is  a  production  of 
the  pia  mater,  containing  a  vast  number 
of  arterial  and  venous  ramifications,  float- 
ing almost  loosely  in  the  cavity  of  the  ven- 
tricles. It  is  first  observed  in  the  reflect- 
ed portion  of  the  ventricle,  where  it  is  the 
broadest  and  largest :  it  diminishes  in  size 
as  it  ascends/  and  terminates  just  at  the 
opening  of  communication  between  the 
two  cavities.  The  choroid  plexuses  of  the 
t\vo  ventricles  are  united  bv  a  middle  ex- 


ANATOMY, 


pansion,  passing  under  the  fornix,  and 
called  the  velum. 

The  lateral  ventricle  contains  certain 
eminences,  which  form  its  sides;  the  cor- 
pus striatum  is  the  anterior  and  superior 
eminence,  grey  on  its  external  surface, 
and  striated  internally.  The  posterior  emi- 
nence in  each  ventricle  is  called  the  thala- 
mus  nervi  optici ;  it  is  hemispherical,  and 
white,  and  joined  to  its  opposite  one  by 
an  union  of  substance,  called  the  soft  com- 
missure. The  hippocampus  major  is  a 
large  elongated  eminence,  lying  in  the  de- 
scending portion  of  the  lateral  ventricle  : 
and  the  hippocampus  minor  is  u  smaller 
one,  in  the  digital  cavity. 

The  pineal  gland,  orconarium,  is  found 
behind  the  optic  thalami.  Its  size  is  about 
that  of  a  small  horse-bean  ;  its  colour 
grey,  and  figure  conical.  Two  small  me- 
dullary chords  connect  it  to  the  optic  tha- 
lami. In  the  substance  of  this  body  is 
found  a  small  quantity  of  a  gritty  matter, 
nearly  resembling  sand.  It  consists  of  a 
number  of  semi-transparent  and  light  yel- 
low grains.  Soemmering,  who  first  dis- 
covered that  this  belonged  to  the  healthy 
structure  of  the  brain,  calls  it  the  acervulus 
of  the  pineal  gland.  This  liitle  body  has 
been  more  attended  to  and  noticed  than 
it  would  otherwise  have  been,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  chimerical  dream  of  Des- 
cartes, who  represented  it  as  the  seat  of 
the  soul. 

Below  the  pineal  gland  is  a  square  por- 
tion of  the  brain,  divided  into  four  super- 
ficial eminences,  called  corpora  quadrige- 
mina,  and  from  these  a  thin  production 
extends  to  the  cerebellum,  under  the 
name  of  valvula  cerebri. 

By  drawing  asunder  the  optic  thalami, 
and  separating  their  soft  commissure,  we 
expose  the  third  ventricle  of  the  brain. 
This  appears  as  an  oblong  cavity,  about 
jin  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length.  A  round 
medullary  rope  is  seen  in  front  of  it,  and 
a  similar  one  behind ;  these  are  called  the 
anterior  and  posterior  commissures.  A 
round  aperture  is  observed  under  the  an- 
terior commissure, beyond  which  the  ven- 
tricle terminates  by  a  pointed  and  conical 
extremity,  from  which  a  short  process  is 
continued  to  the  pituitary  gland,  under 
the  name  of  infundibulum.  The  foramen 
commune  anterius  is  an  opening  observed 
between  the  optic  ihalami  before  they  are 
disturbed,  and  lending  from  the  aperture 
of  communication,  which  connects  the 
two  lateral  ventricles  under  the  fornix,  in- 
to the  third  ventricle.  Just  before  the  pos- 
terior commissure  a  round  opening  is 
found,  leading  through  a  shoi-t  canal,  in 
front  of  the  tubercula  quadrigetnina,  to  the 


fourth  ventricle.  It  is  named  canulis  me- 
dius,  iter  ad  quartum  ventriculurn,  or 
aquseductus  Sylvii.  Thus  the  four  first 
ventricles  of  the  brain  have  a  free  com- 
munication with  each  other. 

Under  the  posterior  lobes  of  the  cere- 
brum there  is  found  a  transverse  produc- 
tion of  dura  mater,  called  tentorium,which 
is  attached  to  the  internal  transverse  ridge 
of  the  occiput  behind,  and  to  the  petrous 
portions  of  the  temporal  bone  in  front. 
Under  this  membrane  lie  the  two  lobes  of 
the  cerebellum,  separated  by  a  small  per- 
pendicular production,  called  the  falx  ce- 
rebelli. 

The  fourth  ventricle  is  a  cavity,  left  be- 
tween the  upper  and  posterior  surface  of 
the  medulla  oblongata,and  the  front  of  the 
cerebellum.  It  extends  laterally  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  in  the  crura  cerebelli : 
a  groove  runs  along  the  middle  of  the  me- 
dulla oblongata,  which  constitutes  the 
front  of  the  ventricle,  and  terminates  at 
the  end  of  the  cavity  in  a  point.  From  the 
lateral  productions,  and  the  pointed  ter- 
mination of  the  cavity,  it  has  been  named 
the  calamus  scriptorius. 

The  pituitary  gland  is  a  firm  substance, 
differing  in  texture  from  the  brain,  and 
lodged  in  the  sella  turcica.  Its  name  is 
derived  from  a  supposition  that  it  secreted 
the  mucus  of  the  nose,  which  in  ancient 
times  was  supposed  to  flow  from  the  head. 
It  is  connected  by  the  infundibulum  to  the 
basis  of  the  brain.  Behind  the  last  men- 
tioned part,  at  the  basis  cerebri,  are  seen 
two  small  rounded  eminences,  called  cor- 
pora subrotunda.  The  crura  cerebri  are 
two  large  medullary  processes  going  from 
the  cerebrum  to  the  medulla  oblongata. 

The  cerebellum  is  situated  in  the  lower 
fossae  of  the  occipital  bone,  under  the  ten- 
torium.  It  consists  of  an  intermixture  of 
cortical  and  medullary  substance,  arrang- 
ed differently  from  the  order  observed  in 
the  cerebrum.  A  perpendicular  section  of 
this  part  discovers  a  very  elegant  structure 
in  this  respect.  A  thick  trunk  of  medul- 
lary matter  sends  off  processes,  in  every 
direction  ;  from  these  other  branches  pro- 
ceed, all  of  which  are  surrounded  by  cor- 
tex. This  is  called  the  arbor  vit<e.  The 
arbor  vitae  constitutes  the  cms  cerebelli  . 
on  each  side,  and  these  processes  join  the 
medulla  oblongata. 

The  medulla  oblongata  is  a  large  me- 
dullary protuberance,  resting  on  the  busi- 
lar  process  of  the  occiput.  Its  connection 
with  the  crura  cerebri  and  cerebelli  have 
been  already  noticed.  A  medullary  chord 
is  continued  from  its  posterior  end,  under 
the  name  of  medulla  spinalis. 

^  Mir  Ha  spinal  is.    This  is  a  roundish 


ANATOMY. 


medullary  cUord,  about  the  size  of  the 
ibre-finger,  arising  within  the  cranium 
from  the  medulla  oblongata ;  leaving  that 
cavity  at  the  foramen  magnum  occipitale, 
and  continued  along  the  canal  left  in  the 
spine  to  the  upper  lumbar  vertebrae, 
where  it  terminates  by  forming  the  cauda 
equina. 

It  sends  oft'  a  pair  of  nerves  at  each  in- 
terval between  two  vertebrae.  It  is  co- 
vered immediately  by  pia  mater  and  tuni- 
ca arachnoidea,  and  more  loosely  by  a 
sheath  of  dura  mater,  which  lines  the 
whole  spinal  canal.  It  is  plentifully  sup- 
plied with  blood  vessels.  The  nerves 
come  off  from  this  body  in  numerous 
threads,  quite  separate  from  each  other  at 
first,  but  uniting  afterwards.  The  cauda 
equina  consists  of  the  medulla  spinalis, 
entirely  resolved  into  a  bundle  of  such 
threads. 

Structure  of  the  Nerves. — The  nerves 
are  soft,  white,  and  fibrous  chords,  nearly 
of  a  cylindrical  shape,  arising  from  the 
brain,  or  medulla  spinalis.  When  they 
leave  the  brain,  the  pia  mater  collects  the 
fibres  into  larger  or  smaller  fasciculi. 

The  medullary  filaments  of  the  nerves 
are  covered  by  a  vascular  membrane,  call- 
ed by  lieil  neurilema,  which  detaches  pro- 
cesses from  its  inner  surface,  to  surround 
and  invest  the  smaller  divisions  and  fibres 
of  the  medullary  substance.  By  immers- 
ing a  nerve  in  alkali,  its  medulla  is  dissolv- 
ed, and  the  containing  membranous  tubes, 
formed  of  neurilema,  are  left.  Acids  dis- 
solve the  neurilema,  and  leave  the  medul- 
lary fibres.  These  organs  receive  a  con- 
siderable supply  of  blood  from  vessels  ra- 
mifying on  their  neurilema. 

By  maceration  in  water,  and  careful  dis- 
section, a  nervous  trunk  may  be  separated 
into  numerous  threads  ;  and  each  of  these, 
when  examined  in  a  microscope,  seems  to 
be  an  assemblage  of  proportionably  small- 
er fibres.  Greater  magnifying  powers 
shew  those  fibres,  which  before  appeared 
simple,  to  be  composed  of  still  smaller 
threads  ;  and  it  is  doubtful,  whether  the 
ultimate  nervous  fibre  can  be  discovered. 
All  that  is  said,  therefore,  of  the  form, 
course,  &c.  of  these  ultimate  fibres  is 
•wholly  conjectural.  The  fibres  do  not  pro- 
ceed in  a  straight  uninterrupted  course, 
but  join  frequently  with  each  other. 

A  nerve  divided  in  tke  living  subject 
retracts :  the  medulla  is  expressed  from 
its  extremities,  by  the  contraction  of  its 
membranes,  in  the  form  of  globules.  If 
the  Annual  be  killed  at  some  distance  of 
time  from  the  operation  of  dividing  a 
nerve,  the  divided  extremities  are  rather 


swoln,  and  are  connected  by  a  newly 
formed  matter.  Anatomists  have  disput- 
ed greatly,  whether  or  not  this  be  a  real 
nerve.  As  this  question  can  hardly  be 
decided  by  merely  anatomical  testimony, 
it  appears  most  philosophical  to  inquire, 
whether  the  new  matter  will  perform  the 
functions  of  a  nerve  ;  and  this  has  been 
completely  proved  by  the  experiments  of 
Dr.  llaighton,  in  the  first  part  of  the  Phi- 
losophical Transactions  for  the  year  1795 

In  some  parts  of  the  nervous  system, 
little  tubercles,  or  knots,  called  ganglia, 
are  found  in  the  course  of  the  nerve,  and 
are  usually  formed  by  the  concurrence 
of  Severn  branches.  These  bodies  are  of 
various  figures,  but  generally  flattened. 
They  partake  more  of  the  red  colour  than 
tUe  trunks  of  the  nerves  on  which  they 
are  formed,  as  they  possess  more  nume- 
rous blood-vessels.  They  contain  nervous 
fibres,  surrounded  by  a  firm  vascular  sub- 
stance. 

By  the  term,  origin  of  a  nerve,  we  un- 
derstand its  connection  with  the  brain  or 
spinal  marrow.  This  end  is  called  its 
sensorial  extremity,  being  considered  as 
the  point  to  which  it  conveys  the  impres- 
sions made  on  it  by  external  objects,  and 
from  which  it  receives  the  commands  of 
the  will,  to  be  transmitted  to  the  organs 
which  it  supplies. 

There  is  considerable  difference  in, 
form,  structure,  and  consistence,  betweea 
the  individual  nerves. 

The  nerves  are  arranged  in  pairs,  as 
they  are  exactly  similar  on  both  sides  of 
the  body.  Hence  any  pair  of  nerves  con- 
sists of  the  right  and  left  nerve. 

They  are  sometimes  divided  into  those 
of  the  brain,  and  those  of  the  medulla  spi- 
7ialis  ;  or  into  the  nerves  of  the  organs  of 
sense,  the  n-rves  of  motion,  and  the  mixed 
nerves;  or,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
parts  which  they  supply,  into  voluntary 
and  involuntary  nerves. 

The  quantity  of  nerves  distributed  to 
the  different  structures  in  the  body  varies 
greatly.  The  organs  of  sense  receive  the 
most  copious  supply — viz.  the  eye,  the 
nose,  labyrinth  of  the  ear,  ends  of  the 
fingers,  glans  penis  et  clitoridis,  and  the 
rest  of  the  skin.  Muscles  have  also  a 
large  share  of  nerves :  the  blood-vessels 
are  much  more  sparingly  furnished.  The 
nerves  of  the  viscera  are  very  small  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  organs. 
Bones,  cartilages,  tendons,  ligaments, 
membranes,  marrow,  fat,  have  no  discerni- 
ble nerves. 

Nerves  ramify  through  the  body  some- 
thing like?  arteries  :  thus,  a  nervous  trunk 


ANATOMY. 


sends  off'  branches  :  these,  again  divided, 
form  ramifications  :  and  *in  their  further 
progress  form  twigs,  filaments,  Stc.  and 
this  division  goes  on,  until  the  nerve,  from 
its  smallness,  can  be  no  longer  traced. 
Yet  we  can  manifestly  discern  the  nerves 
in  some  instances,  as  in  the  organs  of 
sense,  terminating  in  a  pulpy  expansion. 

Like  the  arteries,  nerves  communicate 
with  each  other;  and  it  is  conjectured 
that  these  communications,  like  those  of 
the  blood-vessels,  are  designed  to  obviate 
the  effects  of  the  injury  of  compression  of 
any  particular  nervous  trunk.  In  some 
parts  these  communications  are  very  nu- 
merous, so  as  to  constitute  a  minute  net- 
work of  nervous  filaments,  called  a  plexus. 

Description  of  the  particular  nerves. — 
There  are  in  the  whole  body  thirty-nine 
pairs  of  nerves ;  of  which  nine  arise  from 
the  brain,  and  thirty  from  the  spinal  mar- 
row. There  is  another  pair,  called  the 
great  sympathetic,  which  can  hardly  be 
ascribed  to  either  of  these  classes. 

Nerves  of  the  brain. 

1st  pair.  Olfactory  nerves  ;  arise  from 
the  corpora  striata,  and  go  through  the 
cribriform  lamella  of  the  ethmoid  bone  to 
the  pituitary  membrane  of  the  nose. 

2d  pair.  Optic  nerves  ;  arise  from  the 
Ihalami  nervorum  opticorum,  and  proceed 
to  the  eye-ball,  where  they  are  expanded, 
to  form  the  retina. 

3d  pair.  Nervi  motores  oculorum ; 
arise  from  the  crura  cerebri,  and  are  dis- 
tributed to  some  of  the  muscles  of  the 
eye-ball. 

4th  pair.  Nervi  trochleares ;  come  from 
the  valve  of  the  brain,  and  supply  the 
trochlearis  muscle  of  the  eye. 

5th  pair.  Nervi  trigemini ;  arise  from 
the  side  of  the  medulla  oblongata.  This 
nerve  divides  into  three  branches,  of 
which  the  first,  or  ophthalmic,  goes  into 
the  orbit,  and  after  giving  a  few  branches 
there  passes  out  on  the  forehead.  The 
second, or  superior  maxillary,  supplies  the 
parts  about  the  upper  jaw;  a  remarkable 
branch  of  it  is  the  infra-orbital,  which 
comes  through  the  large  hole  under  the 
orbit  to  the  face.  The  third,  or  inferior 
maxillary,  is  distributed  to  the  lower  jaw 
and  adjacent  parts. 

6th  pair.  Nervi  motores  externi ;  from 
the  medulla  oblongata  to  the  external 
straight  muscle  of  the  eye. 

7th  pair.  Nervi  auditorii.  This  pair 
consists  of  two  nerves  lying  in  contact, 
but  completely  distinct  from  each  other, 
both  in  their  origin,  course,  and  distribu- 
tion. The  porlio  mollis  of  this  nerve  is 


distributed  to  the  labyrinth  of  the  'eat'. 
The  portio  dura  goes  through  the  tempo- 
ral bone,  and  is  very  widely  spread  over 
the  face.  These  nerves  are  more  cor- 
rectly termed  nervus  auditorius,  and  ner~ 
vus  facialis.  The  chorda  tympani  is  a 
branch  of  communication  between  the  fa- 
cial nerve  and  the  lingual  branch  of  the 
inferior  maxillary. 

8th  pair.  Par  vagum  ;  arises  from  the 
medulla  spinalis,  before  it  quits  the  cra- 
nium. It  receives  an  accessory  branch, 
that  originates  from  the  upper  portion  of" 
the  medulla  spinalis,  contained  in  the  cer- 
vical vertebrae.  The  par  vagum  passes 
along  the  neck,  in  company  with  the  ca- 
rotid artery  and  the  internal  jugular  vein, 
It  sends  oft'in  the  upper  part  of  the  neck, 
1.  the  glossopharyngeal  nerve ;  2.  supe- 
rior laryngeal ;  and  3.  the  accessory 
branch  ;  the  trunk  that  enters  the  chest, 
and  gives  rise  to  the  inferior  laryngeal  or 
recurrent  nerve.  It  afterwards  becomes 
connected  to  the  oesophagus,  and  passes 
the  diaphragm  in  conjunction  with  that 
tube,  to  be  distributed  finally  to  the  sto- 
mach ;  sending  in  its  passage  several 
brandies  which  supply  the  lungs. 

9th  pair.  Nervi  linguales;  arise  near 
the  former,  go  through  the  foramen  con- 
dyloideum,  and  supply  the  muscles  of  the 
tongue. 

Nerves  of  the  medulla  spinalis. — The  cer- 
vical nerves,  soon  after  they  come  out 
from  between  the  vertebrae,  communicate 
with  each  other.  They  supply  all  the  mus- 
cles which  are  situated  about  the  verte- 
brae of  the  neck.  The  second  sends  a  large 
branch,  which  ramifies  extensively  over 
the  occiput. 

The  nerve  of  the  diaphragm,  called  the 
phrenic  or  diaphragmatic,  arises  princi- 
pally from  the  fourth  cervical  nerve.  It 
lies  close  on  the  anterior  scalenus  muscle* 
then  goes  over  the  pericardium  to  the 
diaphragm. 

The  four  lower  cervical  nerves,  and  the 
first  dorsal,  concur  in  forming  the  axillary 
plexus,  from  which  the  upper  extremity 
derives  its  supply.  These  are-  large  ner- 
vous trunks  coming  out  at  the  side  of  the 
neck,  and  variously  united  to  each  other, 
They  go  behind  the  clavicle  with  the  axil- 
lary artery.  This  plexus  sends  off  the 
following  branches : 

1.  Nervi  thoracici,  accompanying  the 
thoracic  arteries. 

2.  Nervus  supra-scapularis,  distributed 
with  the  artery  of  the  same  name. 

3.  Nervus    axillaris,     following    the 
course  of  the  posterior  circumflex  artery. 

4.  CutruieusJ  interims,  running  over  the 


ANATOMY. 


brachial  artery  to  the  elbow,  and  then  ra- 
mifying under  the  skin  of  thej  inner  side 
of  the  fore-arm. 

5.  Cutaneus  externus,  distributed  along 
the  outer  side  of  the  fore-arm. 

6.  Median  nerve,  a  large  trunk  accom- 
panying  the    brachial    artery,  then  pro- 
ceeding 'to  the  hand,  and  supplying  the 
thumb,  with  the  two  neighbouring  fingers, 
and  the  radial  side  of  the  ring  finger. 

7.  Radial  nerve,  bends   round    the  os 
luimeri,  from  the  inner  to  the  outer  side 
of  the  bone  ;  it  is  distributed  superficially 
to  the  back  of  the  hand  and  fingers. 

8.  Ulnar  nerve,  accompanying  the  nerve 
of  the  same  name  to  the  hand,  where  it 
supplies  the  little  finger,  and  the   ulnar 
side  of  the  ring  finger. 

The  twelve  pairs  of  dorsal  nerves  sup- 
ply the  muscles  in  their  neighbourhood. 
They  give'' also  numerous  branches  of 
communication  to  the  great  sympathetic. 

The  five  pairs  of  lumbar  nerves  send 
branches  to  the  neighbouring  muscles,  and 
give  communicating  filaments  to  the  great 
sympathetic.  They  also  produce  two 
nerves  distributed  to  the  front  of  the 
thigh  ;  viz.  the  anterior  crural,  which 
g-ots  out  of  the  pelvis  near  the  external 
iliac  artery,  and  has  an  extensive  distribu- 
tion to  the  thigh  and  leg ;  and  the  obtu- 
rator nerve,  which  belongs  also  to  mus- 
cles on  the  front  of  the  thigh. 

The  sacral  nerves  give  communicating 
branches  to  the  great  sympathetic,  and 
several  filaments  to  the  organs  of  gene- 
ration in  both  sexes,  to  the  bladder,  rec- 
tum, &.c.  They  mostly,  however,  unite  to 
form  the  great  sciatic. nerve,  which  is  the 
largest  trunk  in  the  body.  It  goes  out  of 
the  pelvis  at  the  back  part,  and  passes  to 
the  thigh.  Here  it  sometimes  is  pressed 
by  the  weight  of  the  body  in  sitting,  and 
causes  the  effect  of  the  foot  going  to 
sleep,  as  it  is  expressed  in  common  lan- 
guage. Tliis  nerve  is  distributed  to  the 
back  of  the  thigh,  and  over  the  whole  leg 
and  foot. 

Great  sympathetic  or  intercostal  nerve. — 
It  is  first  formed  by  a  small  filament  of 
the  .6th  pair,  or  nervus  motor  externus, 
together  with  another  derived  from  the 
pterygoid  branch  of  the  superior  maxil- 
lary- In  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  this 
nerve  has  a  very  large  ganglion  lying  on 
the  vertebrx,  called  the  superior  cervicaj 
ganglion.  This  ganglion  receives  branches 
of  communication  from  the  five  upperu 
pairs  of  cervical  nerves,  and  sends  oflf 
branch  to  the  heart.  The  trunk  descend 
along  the  neck,  and  forms  an  interior  cer- 
vical ganglion,  which  has  communicating 


filaments  from  the  neighbouring  spinal 
nerves,  and  sends  several  branches  to  the 
heart,  forming  the  cardiac  plexus.  The 
sympathetic  nerve  then  passes  through 
the  chest,  over  the  heads  of  the  ribs,  re- 
ceiving branches  from  each  dorsal  nerve, 
and  forming  a  dorsal  ganglion  between 
every  two  vertebrae.  In  its  course  it  sends 
off  the  splanchnic  nerves,  which  go 
through  the  diaphragm,  and  form  a  vast 
and  most  intimate  plexus  about  the  root 
of  the  cueliac  artery,  called  the  cxliac 
plexus,  from  which  the  liver,  pancreas, 
spleen,  large  and  small  intestines,  and 
kidnics,  derive  their  nerves.  All  these 
organs  receive  several  filaments,  united 
so  as  to  form  plexuses,  and  surrounding 
their  arterial  trunks. 

The  trunk  of  the  great  sympathetic  en- 
ters the  abdomen,  and  goes  over  the  lum- 
bar vertebra,  receiving  branches  of  com- 
munication, and  forming  lumbar  ganglia; 
it  is  then  continued  along  the  front  of  the 
sacrum,  where  the  sacral  nerves  supply 
communicating  filaments,  and  where  five 
sacral  ganglia  are  formed. 

OllGANS    OF    SENSE. 

Organ  of  vision. — The  globe  of  the  eye 
is  contained  in  a  bony  socket,  formed  by 
the  bones  of  the  cranium  and  of  the  face. 
It  is  furnished  with  muscles  which  can 
move  it  in  every  direction,  and  surround- 
ed by  a  very  soft  and  delicate  kind  of  fat, 
which  yields  to  it  in  all  its  motions.  It  is 
composed  of  certain  membranes,  called  its 
tunics  or  coats,  and  of  other  parts,  termed 
humours. 

Its  figure  is  very  nearly  spherical ;  but 
the  transparent  portion  in  front  is  the  sec- 
tion of  a  smaller  sphere  than  the  globe. 
The  optic  nerve,  to  which  the  eye-ball  is 
attached  posteriorly,  enters  considerably 
on  the  inside  of  the  axis  of  the  eye. 

The  coats  of  the  eye  are  disposed  con- 
centrically ;  and  the  exterior,which  is  very 
dense,  firm,  and  tough,  is  called  the  scle- 
rotica.  This  does  not  cover  the  whole 
globe,  but  leaves  a  circular  opening  iu 
front,  filled  by  the  transparent  cornea, 
which,  although  pellucid,  is  a  very  firm 
and  strong  membrane.  Hence,  the  sclero- 
ticu  and  cornea  together  form  a  very  com- 
plete exterior  case,  which  defends  and 
supports  the  more  delicate  parts  within. 
The  necessity  of  having  the  front  of  the 
globe  transparent,  for  the  purpose  of  ad- 
mitting1 the  rays  of  light,  is  obvious. 

Under  tne  scleroticaa  soft  and  vascular 
membrane  surrounds  the  eye-ball,  and  is 
called  the  choroid  coat.  It  is  connected 


ANATOMY. 


to  the  selerotica  by  aloose  adhesion,  which 
ran  be  destroyed  by  blowing  air  between 
the  membranes;  but  in  front  this  adhesion 
is  stronger,  and  forms  a  white  circle  named 
orbiculus,  or  ligamentum  ciliare.  The  co- 
lour of  the  choroid  cout  is  a  deep  brown, 
approaching  to  a  black,  and  this  colour  is 
derived  from  a  substance  called  pigmen- 
tum nigrum,  which  separates  from  the 
choroid  by  maceration,  and  dissolves  in 
water  so  as  to  render  it  turbid. 

The  inner  surface  of  the  choroid  coat, 
which  is  universally  coloured  by  pigmen- 
tum  nigrum  in  the  human  subject,  is 
sometimes  called  tunica  ruyschiana,  as 
Ruysch  endeavoured  to  prove  that  it  form- 
ed a  distinct  membrane  from  the  external 
part.  It  is  this  inner  surface  that  possess- 
es the  brilliant  colours  observable  in  ani- 
mals, whence  the  appellation  of  tapetum. 
This  surface  lies  in  contact  with  the  retina, 
but  does  not  adhere  to  that  membrane. 
On  the  front  of  the  eye,  however,  and  be- 
yond the  anterior  margin  of  the  retina,  the 
choroid  is  closely  attached  by  means  of 
numerous  and  very  delicate  folds,  called 
the  ciliary  processes,  to  the  surface  of  the 
vitreous  humour,  round  the  margin  of  the 
crystalline  lens. 

The  iris  is  a  membrane  continued  trans- 
versely across  the  eye-ball,  behind  the  cor- 
nea, and  appearing  as  a  continuation  of 
the  choroid  from  the  orbiculus  ciliaris. 
The  round  opening  in  the  front  of  this 
membrane  is  called  the  pupil ;  it  allows 
the  passage  of  the  rays  of  light  into  the 
interior  of  the  eye.  This  aperture  varies 
in  its  dimensions  according  to  the  quantity 
of  light  to  which  the  organ  is  exposed  :  a 
strong  light  causes  the  pupil  to  become 
contracted,  in  order  to  exclude  a  portion  of 
the  rays  of  light  which  offend  the  organ. 
The  aperture  is  dilated  in  a  weak  light,  to 
let  in  as  many  rays  as  possible.  Some 
anatomists  have  thought  proper  to  employ 
themselves  in  debating  at  length,  whether 
these  motions  arise  from  a  really  muscular 
structure  or  no  ;  but  we  believe  that  they 
iiave  not  yet  settled  the  point  completely. 

The  name  of  iris  'was  applied  to  this 
part,  from  the  diversity  of  colours  observ- 
able in  it  in  different  individuals  ;  and 
it  is  the  colour  of  this  that  produces  the 
colour  of  the  eye, in  the  popular  sense  of 
'he  phrase.  There  is  a  remarkable  cor- 
respondence in  this  point  between  the 
skin  and  hair  and  the  iris.  A  light  com- 
plexion and  hair  is  accompanied  with  blue, 
grey,  or  the  lighter  colours  of  the  iris; 
while  a  dark  skin  and  black  hair  are  at- 
tended with  the  dark  brown  iris. 

In  that  curious  variety  of  the  human 
•  race  called  the  Albinos,  where  the  skin 


and  hair  are  of  a  dead  milk-white  hue,  if* 
consequence  of  a  total  absence  of  the 
rete  mucosum,  or  colouring  principle,  the 
colouring  matter  of  the  iris  and  choroid  is 
also  deficient,  and  these  parts  appear  red, 
from  the  numerous  blood-vessels  which 
they  contain. 

The  posterior  surface  of  the  iris  is  co- 
vered by  pigmentum  nigrum,  and  is  call- 
ed the  uvea. 

Under  the  choroid  coat  is  found  a  third 
membrane  of  the  eye-ball,  called  the  reti- 
na, which  is  formed  by  the  expansion  of" 
the  medullary  substance  of  the  optic  nerve, 
and  forms  the  immediate  organ  of  vision, 
It  is  of  a  yellowish  grey  colour,  and  so  ex- 
tremely soft  as  almost  to  be  lacerated  by 
the  slightest  touch.  Its  outer  surface  is 
entirely  unconnected  with  the  choroid 
coat  ;  and  the  inner  surface  is  expanded 
on  the  vitreous  humour,  but  not  connected 
to  it.  It  terminates  in  front  by  a  distinctly 
defined  edge,  where  the  ciliary  processed 
begin  to  adhere  to  the  vitreous  humour. 
On  the  inside  of  the  retina  are  seen  the 
branches  of  an  artery  and  vein,  which  en- 
ter through  the  centre  of  the  optic  nerve, 
(arteria  et  vena  centralis  oculi).  The  part 
at  which  it  enters  the  eye  is  termed  the 
porus  opticus,  and  is  of  course  insensible: 
and  hence  physiologists  have  explained 
the  reason  why  the  optic  nerve  is  inserted 
out  of  the  axis  of  the  eye  ;  as  otherwise 
the  axis  of  vision  would  have  fallen  on  an 
insensible  part  of  the  retina. 

On  the  outer,  or  temporal  side  of  the 
retina,  there  is  a  fold  of  the  membrane  of 
a  bright  yellow  colour,  in  the  recent  state, 
and  there  is  also  said  to  ;,be  an  aperture. 
These  circumstances  were  first  pointed 
out  by  Soemmering,  and  have  been 
named  after  him. 

The  vitreous  humour  occupies  the  great- 
est share  of  the  globe  of  the  eye.  It  con- 
sists of  a  clear  water  contained  in  a  cellular 
substance,  which  is  so  perfectly  transpa- 
rent as  to  resemble  pure  glass,  whence  its 
name  is  derived.  The  cellular  substance 
is  condensed  on  the  surface  into  a  smooth 
membrane,  called  the  membrana  hyaloi- 
dea.  This  is  marked  in  front  by  a  circular 
series  of  black  radiated  lines,  caused  by 
the  adhesion  of  the  ciliary  processes, 
which,  like  other  parts  of  ihe  choroid,  are 
covered  with  pigmentum  nigrum.  Under 
these  a  circular  canal  runs,  named  the  ca- 
nal of  Petit. 

The  crystalline  humour  or  lens  is  im- 
bedded in  the  front  of  the  vitreous  hu- 
mour. Its  size  is  about  that  of  a  pea,  but 
it  is  much  more  flattened  in  form.  Tt  is  of 
a  waxy  consistence,  softer  external!}',  and 
growing  gradually  firmer  towards  the  cen- 


ANATOMY. 


tre.  The  lens  is  contained  in  its  proper 
capsule,  the  posterior  surface  of  which 
adheres  firmly  to  the  tunica  hyaloidea; 
but  its  separation  can  sometimes  be  effect- 
ed without  rupturing  it.  It  has  no  appa- 
rent connection  to  this  capsule.  It  is  an 
opaque  state  of  this  body  that  constitutes 
the  disease  called  cataract. 

The  aqueous  humour  is  a  small  quantity 
of  transparent  water,  placed  immediately 
behind  the  cornea,  and  occupying  the 
space  between  that  membrane  and  the 
crystalline  lens  :  it  is  easily  reproduced 
when  let  out. 

In  the  midst  of  the  space  occupied  by 
this  humour  the  iris  is  found,  and  it  di- 
vides the  space  into  two  portions,  called 
the  anterior  and  posterior  chambers  of  the 
eye ;  which  communicate  by  means  of  the 
pupil.  The  anterior  is  much  the  largest 
of these. 

The  choroid  coat,  ciliary  processes,  and 
iris,  are  very  vascular,  and  derive  their 
supply  from  the  ciliary  branches  of  the 
ophthalmic  artery. 

The  iris  is  very  largely  supplied  with 
nerves  from  a  small  ganglion,  named  len- 
ticular, formed  on  a  branch  of  the  nervus 
motor,  or  nerve  of  the  third  pair.  These 
are  called  the  ciliary  nerves. 

Of  tfie  eye-lids  andlacrymal  apparatus.— 
The  eye-ball  is  covered  by  two  moveable 
curtains,  formed  by  a  folding  of  the  com- 
mon  integument,  and  called  the  eye-lids. 
In  order  to  keep  these  uniformly  expand- 
ed, and  to  prevent  them  from  forming 
wrinkles,  each  of  them  contains  a  thin 
portion  of  cartilage,  adapted  in  figure  to 
the  convexity  of  the  globe,  and  called  the 
tarsus.  In  order  to  provide  still  further 
for  the  greatest  possible  facility  of  motion, 
the  eye-lids  fare  lined  by  a  smooth  and 
polished  membrane,  and  the  globe  of 
the  eye  is  covered  by  the  same  membrane, 
on  its  anterior  part :  this  is  called  con- 
junctiva, as  it  serves  to  connect  the  front 
of  the  eye-ball  to  the  eye-lids. 

The  junctions  of  the  eye-lids  are  called 
the  internal  and  external  canthus,  or  angle 
of  the  eye. 

They  are  opened  by  the  levator  palpe- 
brae  lifting  up  the  upper  lid ;  and  this  mus- 
cle is  in  a  state  of  constant  action  so  long 
as  we  keep  our  eyes  open.  They  are 
closed  by  the  circular  orbicularis  palpe- 
brarum. 

The  cilia,  or  eye-lashes,  are  two  rows 
ot  strong  curved  hairs  implanted  in  the 
opposed  edges  of  the  two  eye-lids,  and 
admirably  calculated  for  protecting  the 
eye  from  dust  or  other  foreign  bodies. 

The  hairy  prominences  above  the  eye- 
iids  are  Uie  supercilia,  or  eye-brows;  these 


are  very  moveable  ;  they  serve  as  a  pro- 
tection to  the  eyes,  and  are  much  con- 
cerned in  expressing  the  passions. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  motions  of  the 
eye-lids  and  eye-balls  on  each  other,  the 
surface  of  the  conjunctiva  is  constantly 
moistened  by  a  watery  and  mucilaginous 
fluid,  poured  out  by  the  arteries  of  the  part. 
The  incrustations  of  the  mucilage  in  the 
night  would  glue  the  eye-lids  together  ; 
but  this  effect  is  obviated  by  a  natural  oint- 
ment, formed  in  a  very  elegant  grandular 
apparatus  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  tarsi. 
We  there  find  about  16  or  17  longitudinal 
parallel  rows  of  very  minute  glandular  bo- 
dies ;  and  these  pour  out  their  sebaceous 
secretion  from  a  series  of  apertures  on  the 
edges  of  the  eye-lids.  They  are  called 
the  meibomian  glands,  and  ciliary  ducts. 

The  fluid  just  described  is  constantly 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  conjunctiva ; 
but  on  extraordinary  occasions,  as  when  an 
irritating  foreign  body  is  in  the  eye,  or  in 
consequence  of  affections  of  the  mind,  a 
fluid  is  poured  out  in  greater  abundance, 
which  has  the  name  of  tears,  and  is  secret- 
ed by  the  lacrymal  gland.  This  is  a  small 
conglomerate  gland,  situated  in  the  orbit, 
near  the  upper  eye-lid,  and  having  ducts 
which  terminate  on  the  surface  of  the  con- 
junctiva ;  but  which,  on  account  of  their 
minuteness,  are  hardly  demonstrable  in  the 
human  subject.  The  utility  of  this  secre- 
tion in  washing  away  any  foreign  substance 
must  be  sufficiently  obvious. 

The  superfluous  part  of  the  lacrymal  se- 
cretion is  conveyed  through  two  very  fine 
tubes  to  a  small  bag,  situated  at  the  inter- 
nal angle  of  the  eye.  These  tubes  com- 
mence by  open  mouths,  called  the  puncta 
lacrymalia,  from  the  inner  extremities  of 
the  eye-lids,  and  are  about  equal  in  size 
to  admit  a  hog's  bristle. 

There  is  a  little  fleshy  projection  at  the 
corner  of  the  eye,  and  between  the  two 
puncta,  called  caruncula  lacrymalis. 

The  lacrymal  sac  is  a  small  membranous 
bag,  placed  in  the  hollow  formed  at  the 
inner  edge  of  the  orbit.  The  tendon  of 
the  orbicularis  palpebrarum,  which  gene- 
rally forms  a  slight  eminence  visible 
through  the  skin,  crosses  the  middle  of 
this  bag. 

A  canal,  called  the  ductus  nasalis,  and 
lodged  in  a  groove  of  the  superior  maxil- 
lary bone,  conveys  the  tears  into  the  nose; 
where  it  terminates  by  an  open  orifice 
within  the  inferior  turbinated  bone. 

ORGAN  OF  HEARING. 

The  organ  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
external  and  internal  ear,  by  the  membra- 


ANATOMY. 


na  tympani.  The  situation  of  the  former 
on  the  outside  of  the  head  is  well  known; 
the  latter  is  contained  in  the  petrous  por- 
tion of  the  temporal  bone. 

The  external  ear  consists  of  two  parts, 
ris.  the  pinna,  or  ear,  popularly  so  called, 
and  a  tube  called  ineatus  auditorius  ex- 
ternus  leading- from  the  pinna  to  the  mem- 
brana  tympani.  These  parts  serve  for  col- 
lect] ng  sounds,  and  conveying-  them  to 
the  membrana  tympani. 

The  pinna  consists  of  a  convoluted  car- 
tilage, inclosed  by  common  integuments. 
The  lower  part,  which  is  pierced  for  ear- 
rings, has  no  cartilage,  and  is  called  the 
lobulus  The  helix  is  the  fold  forming  the 
external  circumference  of  the  ear;  the 
next  eminence  to  this,  which  forms  the 
margin  of  the  great  cavity  of  the  external 
ear,  is  called  anthelix  ;  it  separates  at  its 
upper  and  anterior  end  into  two  processes 
named  crura.  The  projection  immediate- 
ly in  front  of  the  meatus  is  the  tragus,  and 
that  immediately  opposite,  the  antitragus. 
The  great  cavity  within  the  anthelix,  and 
leading  to  the  meatus,  is  called  the  con- 
cha. Several  sebaceous  glands  are  situa- 
ted in  the  folds  of  the  ear. 

The  meatus  externus  is  formed  first  by 
a  portion  of  cartilage,  continued  from  the 
pinna,  and  more  interiorly  it  consists  of  a 
canal  in  the  substance  of  the  bone.  This 
bony  part  does  not  exist  in  the  foetus, 
where  the  meatus  is  wholly  cartilaginous. 
The  common  integuments  continued  from 
the  pinna  line  the  meatus  externus,  and 
the  cuticle  is  produced  over  the  membra- 
na tympani. 

The  surface  of  the  meatus,  at  its  com- 
mencement, is  furnished  with  numerous 
fine  hairs,  and  the  canal  is  moistened  by  a 
secretion  of  an  oily  and  inflammable  na- 
ture, called  cerumen.  This  is  produced 
by  numerous  small  glands,  visible  on  the 
external  surface  of  the  meatus,  and  dis- 
tingnishahle  by  their  yellowish  colour. 
The  cerumen  concretes,  and  is  collected 
sometimes  in  such  quantity  as  to  induce  a 
slight  degree  of  deafness,  which  is  easily 
removed  by  svringing  with  warm  wafer. 

The  membrana  tympani,  which  ik  cir- 
cular membrane  above  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  is  stretched  across  the  inner 
extremity  of  the  meatus,  and  derives  its 
name  from  a  comparison  with  a  drum  head, 
to  which  it  bears  some  analogy  in  its  use. 
In  the  foetus  it  is  streiched  on  a  distinct 
bony  ring,  called  the  annulus  auditorius. 
This  ring-  is  deficient  at  its  upper  part,  and 
has  no  bony  union  to  the  rest  of  the  tem- 
poral bone,  but  it  becomes  united  soon 
after  birth. 

VOL.  1. 


This  membrane  is  concave  on  its  exte- 
rior surface,  and  convex  towards  the  tym- 
panum. Its  position  is  inclined,  the  upper 
margin  being  more  towards  the  outside  of 
the  head,  and  the  under  part  farther  in- 
wards ;  so  that  the  superior  part  of  the 
meatus  forms  an  obtuse  angle,  and  the  in- 
ferior part  an  acute  angle,  with  the  mem- 
brane. 

The  internal  ear  consists  of  two  divi- 
sions, viz.  the  tympanum  and  the  laby. 
rinth. 

The  tympanum  is  an  irregular  bony  ca- 
vity, which  will  about  admit  the  end'of  a 
finger,  hollowed  out  of  the  temporal  bone, 
just  within  the  membrana  tympani.  It  has 
several  communications  with  the  neigh- 
bouring parts. 

Opposite  to  the  membrana  tympani  are 
two  openings,  which  lead  to  the  labyrinth 
of  the  ear.  The  upper  one  is  named  the 
fenestra  ovalis,  the  lower  one  the  fenestra 
rotunda,  and  the  projection  between  them, 
is  called  the  promontary.  The  fenestra 
ovalis  is  filled,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
by  one  of  the  little  bones  of  the  tympa- 
num, and  the  fenestra  rotunda  is  closed 
by  a  membrane. 

The  eustachian  tube,  or  iter  apalatoad 
aurem,  opens  in  front  of  the  tympanum. 
It  commences  by  an    expanded  cartilagi- 
nous orifice  at  the  back  of  the  nostrils, 
passes  through  the  -substance  of  the  tem- 
poral bone,  and  terminates  by  a  contract- 
ed orifice  in  the  tympanum.     Its  office  is 
to  convey  air  into  the  cavity  of  the  tympa- 
num.    The  membrana  tympani  is  thrown, 
into  vibrations  by  the  impulse  of  the  sono- 
rous undulations 'of  the  air,  and  that  vibra- 
tion could  not  take  place,  unless  there  was 
air  in  the  inside  as  well  us  on  the  outside 
of  the  membrane.     Water,  or  any  other 
fluid,  would  not  have  answered  the  pur- 
pose.    Hence  an  obstruction  of  this  tube 
causes  deafness,  which  surgeons  have  at- 
attempted  to  remedy  by  puncturing  the 
membrana  tympani.     An  opening  in  the 
latter  membrane  of  a  small  extent  does  by 
no  means  injure  hearing :  for  many  per- 
sons have  the  power  of  impelling  tobacco 
smoke,  or  agitating  the  flame  of  a  candle 
through  the  ear,  and  yet  seem  to  have  a 
perfect  use  of  the  organ.    In  these  cases 
the  air  or  smoke   enters  the   eustachian 
tube  from  the  throat,  and  passes  through 
the  unnatural  aperture  in  the  membrane. 
The  mastoid  process  of  the   temporal 
bone  is  composed  internally  of  numerous 
cells,  communicating    with  each   other, 
and  finally  opening  into  the  back  part  of 
the  tympanum.  These  do  not  exist  in  the 
foetus. 

E  e 


ANATOMY. 


The  cavity  of  the  tympanum  contains  a 
cliain  of  small  bones  called  ossicula  audi- 
tus,  connected  by  one  end  to  the  membra- 
na  tympani,  and  by  the  other  to  the  fe- 
nestra  ovalis.  Of  these  the  first,  which  is 
compared  to  a  hammer,  is  called  the  mal- 
leus ;  the  second  is  named  the  incus,  the 
third  the  orbiculare,  and  the  fourth  the 
stapes. 

The  malleus  possesses  a  manubrium  or 
handle,  a  long  and  short  process,  and  a 
head  which  forms  an  articular  surface. 

The  incus  resembles  a  grinding-  tooth, 
with  its  two  fangs  diverging.  We  remark 
in  it  a  body,  the  surface  of  which  is  hol- 
lowed out  to  receive  the  head  of  the  mal- 
leus ;  a  long  and  a  short  leg. 

The  orbiculare  is  of  the  size  of  a  small 
grain  of  sand.  It  is  attached  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  long  crus  of  the  incus  and 
the  stapes. 

The  stapes  has  an  exact  resemblance 
to  the  iron  part  of  a  stirrup  :  it  has  a  head, 
two  crura,  and  a  basis. 

The  handle  of  the  malleus  is  firmly  con- 
nected to  the  membrana  tympani ;  and 
hence  arises  the  external  concavity  and 
internal  convexity  of  the  membrane.  The 
head  of  that  bone  is  joined  to  the  body  of 
the  incus,  whose  long  leg  is  articulated  to 
the  head  of  the  stapes.  The  basis  of  the 
stapes  fills  up  the  fenestra  ovalis.  The 
ends  of  the  bones  forming  these  articula- 
tions are  covered  with  cartilage,  and  fur- 
nished with  capsules  like  other  joints. 

The  bones  of  the  tympanum  have  some 
smallmusclesconnected  to  them  by  which 
they  are  moved  outwards,  or  towards  the 
membrana  tympani,  and  inwards,  or  to- 
wards the  fenestra  ovalis.  The  first  of 
these  motions  relaxes,  the  latter  stretches 
the  membrane.  The  names  of  these  mus- 
cles are,  tensor  tympani,  laxator  tympani, 
and  stapedeus. 

The  nerve  called  chorda  tympani  passes 
across  the  tympanum,  between  the  handle 
of  the  malleus  and  the  long  leg  of  the 
incus. 

The  use  of  the  ossicula  auditus  seems 
to  be  that  of  transmitting  the  vibrations  of 
the  air  from  the  membrana  tympani  to  the 
labyrinth.  The  final  use  of  the  muscles 
which  moves  these  bones  is  unknown. 

The  labyrinth  of  the  ear  consists  of 
three  parts: — 1.  A  spiral  bony  canal, 
twisted  like  a  snail-shell  and  thence  call- 
ed the  cochlea.  2.  Three  semicircular 
bony  canals :  and  3.  A  sm.ill  cavity,  call- 
ed the  vestibulum,  into  which  the  cochlea 
and  the  semicircular  canals  open.  These 
parts  are  formed  of  the  hardest  bone  in 
the  body,  almost  equal  in  solidity  to  ivory, 


and  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal 
bone,  which  incloses  them,  is  of  a  similar 
structure.  In  the  foetus  the  labyrinth  is 
surrounded  by  a  softer  and  looser  kind  of 
bone,  so  that  it  can  be  most  easily  dissect- 
ed at  that  age. 

The  vestibulum  is  about  equal  in  size 
to  a  large  pea,  and  the  fenestra  ovalis 
opens  into  the  middle  of  the  cavity.  It 
has  also  five  openings  from  tlie  semicir- 
cular canals  ;  the  superior  and  exterior 
joining  by  one  of  their  extremities,  and 
opening  by  a  common  hole. 

The  cochlea  has  two  turns  and  a  half. 
Its  canal  turns  round  a  bony  centre,  called 
the  modiolus,  to  which  is  attached  a  thin 
plate  of  bone,  projecting  into  the  cavity 
of  the  cochlea,  and  named  lamina  spiralis. 
This  projecting  plate  divides  the  canal  of 
the  cochlea  into  two  parts :  one  opening 
into  the  vestibulum,  the  other  at  the  fe- 
nestra rotunda.  The  latter  is  called  the 
scala  tympani,  the  former  scala  vestibuli. 

The  vestibulum,  cochlea,  and  semicir- 
cular canals  are.  lined  by  a  delicate  vascu- 
lar membrane,  on  which  the  portio  mollis 
of  the  seventh  pair  of  nerves  are  distribut- 
ed. This  membrane  contains  a  clear 
water. 

The  filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve 
pass  from  the  meatus  auditorius  internus 
through  a  number  of  very  small  apertures 
which  lead  to  the  labyrinth,  and  they  ter- 
minate on  the  vascular  membrane  of  the 
labyrinth,  so  that  the  nervous  pulp  is  ex- 
posed almost  bare  to  the  contained  fluid. 
The  distribution  of  the  nerve  on  the  coch- 
lea is  particularly  beautiful.  The  aque- 
ducts of  the  ear  are  two  very  fine  tubes, 
passing  from  the  vestibulum  and  cochlea 
to  open  on  the  surface  of  the  dura  mater. 

ORGAN    OF    SMELLIKG. 

The  nose  is  a  cavity  of  very  irregular 
figure,  formed  chiefly  by  the  bones  of  the 
face,  and  communicating  with  the  various 
sinuses,  or  bony  cells  formed  in  the  head. 

It  is  separated  by  the  brain  above  by 
the  cribriform  lamella  of  the  ethmoid 
bone.  This  separation  is  a  perfect  one, 
and  the  two  cavities  of  the  cranium  and 
nose  are  wholly  distinct  from  each  other, 
although  they  are  supposed,  by  the  unin- 
formed in  anatomy,  to  communicate  to- 
gether. 

The  bottom  of  the  cavity  is  formed  by 
the  upper  surface  of  the  pallet. 

The  general  cavity  is  divided  into  two 
equal  halves,  called  nostrils,  by  the  sep- 
tum narium,  a  thin  and  flat  bony  parti- 
tion, descending  from  the  cribriform  la- 


ANATOMY. 


taella  to  the  palate.  The  flat  surface  of 
the  septum  may  therefore  be  said  to  form 
the  inner  side  of  the  nostril ;  and  its  outer 
side  presents  three  bony  eminences,  call- 
ed the  concha:  narium,  or  turbinated 
bones. 

Moreover,  the  following  excavations  or 
sinuses  open  into  the  cavity  at  various 
parts.  Two  frontal  sinuses ;  numerous 
cells  of  the  ethmoid  bone  ;  two  sphenoi- 
dal  sinuses ;  and  two  great  hollows  in  the 
upper  jaw-bone,  called  the  antra,or  max- 
iliary  sinuses. 

The  front  openings  of  the  nostrils  are 
well  known.  This  aperture  is  heart-shap- 
ed in  the  skeleton,  the  broadest  part  be- 
ing towards  the  mouth ;  but  it  is  much  al- 
tered in  the  recent  subject  by  the  apposi- 
tion of  pieces  of  cartilage,  the  broadest  of 
which  are  the  lateral  portions,  termed alse 
nasi.  Behind,  the  nostrils  open  by  large 
apertures  into  the  upper  and  anterior  part 
of  the  pharynx,  above  the  velum  pendu- 
lum palati. 

The  sides  of  the  bony  cavity  just  de- 
scribed are  covered  by  a  thick,  soft,  and 
very  vascular  membrane,  called  mem- 
brana  schneideriana,  or  pituitaria.  Its 
surface  is  constantly  moistened  by  a  se- 
cretion of  mucus  from  the  arteries,  with 
which  it  is  very  copiously  supplied.  This 
prevents  the  effects  which  the  current  of 
air  in  respiration  would  otherwise  pro- 
duce, of  drying  the  membrane.  It  is  only 
an  increased  quantity  of  this  secretion, 
altered  too  somewhat  in  its  quality,  that 
is  discharged  from  the  nose  in  colds,  and 
which  is  popularly  supposed  to  come  from 
the  brain.  This  membrane  extends  into  the 
cells  which  communicate  with  the  nose, 
but  is  thinner  and  less  vascular  there. 

The  ethmoidal  cells  open  into  the  cavi- 
ty of  the  nose,  partly  above,  and  partly 
under,  the  loose  edge  of  the  superior  tur- 
binated bone.  The  frontal  sinuses  open 
into  the  front  of  these  cells  ;  and  the 
sphenoidal  sinuses  into  the  back  part  of 
them.  The  antrum  maxillare  has  a  round 
opening  between  the  two  turbinated 
bones.  The  nasal  duct  opens  under  the 
inferior  of  these  bones:  and  the  expand- 
ed orifice  of  the  eustachian  tube  is  just  at 
the  communication  between  the  back  of 
the  nose  and  the  pharynx. 

The  filaments  of  the  olfactory  nerves, 
having  penetrated  the  cribriform  lamella, 
are  distributed  to  the  pituitary  membrane 
that  covers  the  septum  nasi  and  superior 
turbinated  bone. 

.  Several  small  branches  from  the  fifth 
pair  are  also  distributed  on  the  nose,  at 
different  parts. 


OTIGA?T    Of    TASTE. 

It  would  be  a  waste  of  words  to  de- 
scribe the  situation  and  form  of  the  tongue. 
This  organ  presents  a  most  interesting 
subject  to  the  physiologist,  from  the  con- 
cern which  it  has  in  the  functions  of  mas- 
tication, deglutition,  and  articulation,  be- 
sides that  it  constitutes  the  organ  of  the 
sense  of  taste. 

Its  bulk  is  made  up  of  numerous  mus- 
cles, which  are  distinct  at  their  origin,  but 
become  mixed  and  confused  at  their  in- 
sertion into  the  tongue.  The  union  of  these 
fibres  with  each  other,  and  with  the  fatty 
substance  which  connects  them,  consti- 
tutes the  peculiar  substance  of  the 
tongue.  It  is  covered  externally  by  a 
continuation  of  the  common  membrtne  of 
the  mouth.  This  membrane,  however,  on 
the  edges,  tip,  and  upper  surface  of  the 
organ,  is  covered  with  small  projecting 
processes,  called  papilla:,  in  .which  the 
sense  of  taste  resides. 

Towards  the  back  of  the  tongue  seve- 
ral mucous  glands  are  found,  with  open- 
ings that  would  admit  a  bristle.  These 
secrete  a  fluid,  to  facilitate  the  passage  of 
the  food  through  the  isthmus  faucium. 

Next  to  these  openings,  and  still  at  the 
posterior  part  of  the  organ,  are  found 
eight  or  ten  large  papillae,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  V,  with  the  pointed 
part  towards  the  throat.  These  are  the 
papillae  magnse  or  capitatae.  They  consist 
of  a  round  body,  surrounded  by  a  circu- 
lar fold  of  membrane.  These  also  are 
mucous  glands. 

The  most  numerous  class  of  papillje  are 
those  which  occupy  the  sides  and  tip  of 
the  tongue.  These  are  the  smallest  in 
size,  so  as  to  have  been  compared  to  the 
villi  of  the  skin  ;  and  conical  in  shape. 
They  are  called  papilla:  conicae  or  villosae. 
Among  these  a  few  larger  ones  are  scat- 
tered, the  papillae  semilenticulares. 

The  tongue  receives  three  large  nerves 
on  each  side ;  1st,  the  glossopharyngeal 
branch  of  the  eighth  pair,  distributed  to 
the  back  of  the  tongue  and  upper  part  of 
the  pharynx  :  2ndly,  the  lingual  nerve, 
or  nerve  of  the  9th  pair,  which  supplies 
the  muscles:  and  Srdly,  the  lingual 
branch  of  the  inferior  maxillary,  which 
goes  to  the  papillae  chieHy. 

ORGAIf    OF    THE    SF.XSE    OF    TOUCH. 

This  sense  may  be  considered,  in  the 
most  enlarged  acceptation  of  the  term,  as 
residing-  in  the  surface  of  the  body  in  ge- 
neral :  in  a  more  limited  view,  we  regard 


ANATOMY. 


the  ends  of  the  fingers  as  more  particu- 
larly adapted,  by  their  organization,  for 
exploring  the  tangible  properties  of  bo- 
dies. 

The  skin,  or  exterior  covering  of  the  bo- 
dy, is  divided  into  three  layers,  viz.  the 
cuticle,  the  rete  mucosum,  and  the  cutis. 
These  parts  are  called  the  common  inte- 
guments of  the  body.  To  them  a  fourth 
is  sometimes  added,  v'z.  the  adipous 
membrane.  But  although  there  is  gene- 
rally a  layer  of  fat  under  the  skin,  this  is 
not  invariably  the  case. 

The  cutis  vera,  or  true  skin,  is  a  very 
dense  and  compact  membrane,  formed, 
as  it:  were,  by  a  general  condensation  of 
the  cellular  substance  on  the  surface  of 
the  body.  It  is  this  that  forms  leather, 
when  subjected  to  the  operation  of  tan- 
ning. Its  thickness  varies  in  different 
parts  of  the  body.  It  possesses  consider- 
able elasticity,  by  virtue  or  which  it  yields 
to  any  distending  power,  and  on  the  cessa- 
tion of  such  force  recovers  its  former 
state.  It  has  also  a  species  of  contracti- 
lity, which  is  evinced  by  its  corrugation 
from  cold.  Its  colour  in  the  inhabitants 
of  all  countries  is  white.  It  possesses 
great  vascularity,  and  has  also  an  abundant 
supply  of  nerves,  which  bestow  on  it 
acute  sensibility.  It  is  thrown  into 
folds  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  in 
consequence  of  their  motions  on  each 
other ;  this  may  be  particularly  observed 
in  the  hands  and  fingers.  Its  surface  is 
also  marked  by  lines,  crossing  and  inter- 
secting each  other  variously,  and  inter- 
cepting spaces  of  all  shapes  and  descrip- 
tions. 

Such  parts  of  the  cutis  as  are  the  most 
highly  organized  have  numerous  fine 
hair-like  processes,  called  villi.  These 
are  more  vascular  than  other  parts,  and 
receive  also  a  more  copious  supply  of 
nerves.  Such  parto  enjoy  a  higher  and 
more  acute  sensibility.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  which,  both 
by  their  form  and  organization,  are  more 
especially  fitted  to  act  as  organs  of  touch. 
It  is  also  observed  in  the  lips^  and  in  the 
g-lans  penis. 

The  rete  mucosum  is  a  soft  mucous 
substance,  readily  demonstrable  in  the 
negro,  where  it  is  thick  and  of  a  black  co- 
lour, but  hardly  discernible  in  the  Euro- 
pean. This  is  the  seat  of  the  colouring 
matter  of  the  skin. 

The  cuticle  is  a  thin  semi-transparent 
covering,  possessing  no  particular  arrange- 
ment of  parts,  no  vessels  nor  nerves.  It 
adheres,  however,  closely  to  the  subjacent 
jiarts,  and  is  exactly  moulded  to  the  sur- 


face of  the  cutis.  It  is  best  seen  after 
the  action  of  a  blister,  when  it  is  elevated 
by  an  effusion  of  fluid  under  it.  In  the 
dead  body  it  may  be  separated  from  the 
cutis  by  putrefaction,  or  by  immersion  in 
hot  water.  In  this  way  it  may  be  remov- 
ed, entire,  from  the  hand  and  fingers,  so 
as  to  resemble  a  glove 

It  forms  an  insensible  medium,  interpos- 
ed between  the  nerves  of  the  organ  of 
touch  and  external  objects  ;  and  as  it  co- 
vers the  whole  exterior  of  the  body,  our 
surface  is  actually  dead.  When  removed 
from  any  part,  it  is  speedily  renewed  by 
the  cutis.  Its  thickness  varies  in  different 
parts;  being  greatest  where  it  is  exposed 
to  friction,  as  in  the  palms  and  soles.  Its 
thickness  is  here  also  increased  by  fric- 
tion, as  we  may  observe,  by  contrasting 
the  hand  of  a  labourer  with  that  of  a  per- 
son who  does  not  use  his  hands  in  the 
same  rough  manner. 

It  appears  that  the  cuticle  is  impervious 
to  fluids,  as  the.  sc  mm  contained  in  a  blis- 
tered part  does  not  transude;  neither  does 
a  dead  body  become  dried  while  covered 
by  this  expansion;  but  when  that  is  re- 
moved, it  is  speedily  reduced  by  evapora- 
tion to  a  state  of  dryness.  Yet  it  must  be 
penetrated  by  the  vessels  in  a  living  body, 
as  is  proved  by  the  immense  discharge 
botii  of  sensible  and  insensible  perspira- 
tion. Probably,  also,  the  absorbents  open 
on  it  by  natulous  orifices;  for  mercurial 
ointment/rubbed  on  the  skin,  affects  the 
system. 

Sebaceoics  glands  are  formed  under  the 
'skin,  in  a  few  situations  only,  as  about  the 
nose  and  external  ear. 

Hairs  consist  of  an  insensible  excre- 
scence produced  from  the  cutis.  Each 
hair  grows  from  a  small  bulb,  and  is 
lengthened  by  means  of  additions  made 
to  it  in  the  bulb.  These  bodies  perforate 
the  cuticle. 

JVcwVs  are  portions  of  a  horny  substance, 
connected  to  the  ends  of  the  toes  and  fin- 
gers. Their  surface,  corresponding  l.o  the 
back  of  the  finger,  is  convex,  and  tolera- 
bly smooth ;  the  opposite  part  is  laminated 
and  concave.  These  laminae  adhere  to 
corresponding  ones  of  the  cutis.  The  in- 
teguments advance  for  some  length  over 
the  root  of  the  nail,  so  as  to,  cover  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  it ;  and  the  cuticle 
adheres  closely  to  its  surface.  The  nail 
grows  like  the  hair,  by  additions  from 
below. 

The  account  of  the  progress  of  the  em- 
bvyo  after  conception,  or  the  description 
of  the  gravid  uterus  and  its  contents,  toge- 
ther with  the  enumeration  of  those  circum- 


ANATOMY. 


stances  of  anatomical  structure,  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  foetus,  will  be  given  under 
the  article  FIETUS. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE    ANATOMICAL  PLATES. 

PLATE  I. 

Pig.  1.  JL  front  view  of  the  skeleton. 

1.  The  cranium. 

2.  Os  frontis. 

3.  3.  The  orbits. 

4.  Upper  jaw-bone. 

5.  Teeth. 

6.  Lower  jaw-bone. 

7.  The  seven  true  ribs. 

8.  The  five  false  ribs. 

9.  First  bone  of  the  sternum. 

10.  Second  bone  of  the  sternum. 

11.  Ensiform  cartilage. 

12.  The  five  lumbar  vertebrae. 

13.  Ilium,  or  haunch-bone. 

14.  Os  ischii. 

15.  Os  pubis. 

16.  Os  sacrum,  or  bone  of  the  rump. 

17.  Symphisis  pubis. 

18.  Thigh-bone. 

19.  Head  of  the  thigh-bone. 

20.  Trochanter  major. 

21.  Patella,  or  knee-pan. 

22.  23.  External  and  internal  condyles 
of  the  thigh. 

24.  Tibia. 

25.  Fibula. 

26.  Bones  of  the  tarsus. 

27.  Bones  of  the  metatarsus. 

28.  Bones  of  the  toes. 

a.  The  clavicle,  or  collar-bone. 

b.  Scapula,  or  shoulder-blade. 

c.  Humerus,  or  bone  of  the  arm. 

d.  Ulna. 

e.  Radius. 

f.  First  row  or  phalanx  of  carpal  bones. 
]§•.  Second   row  or  phalanx  of  carpal 

bones. 

h.  Bones  of  the  metacarpus. 

z.  First  phalanges  of  the  fingers. 

k.  Second  phalanges  of  the  fingers. 

I.  Third  phalanges. 

m.  Three  phalanges  of  the  thumb. 

Fig.  2.    View  of  the  right  ventricle  and  pul- 
monary artery  laid  open. 

These  parts  are  marked  A  a  in  Plate 
VI.  Fig.  1. 

a.  A  triangular  flap  of  the  fleshy  side 
of  the  ventricle,  turned  back,  to  expose 
the  cavity. 

b.  Columns  carnese  of  the  heart. 

c.  Tricuspidal  valve. 

rf.  The  three  semilunar  valves  in  the 


mouth  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  which  is 
slit  open. 

e,  e.  Cut  edges  of  the  ventricle. 

Fig.  3.    Vie~M  of  the  cavity  of  the  left  ventri- 
cle, and  mouth  of  the  aorta. 

n.  a.  Cut  edges  of  the  ventricle. 

b.  Columnae  earner. 

c.  Chordae  tending. 

d.  Mitral  valve. 

e.  Semilunar  valves  of  the  aorta. 

PLATE  II. 

Fig.  1.  Back  view  of  the  skeleton. 

1.  2.  Ossa  parietalia. 

3.  Os  occipitis. 

4.  Os  temporis. 

5.  Mastoid  process  of  the  temporal 
bone. 

6.  The  seven  cervical  vertebrae. 

7.  The  twelve  dorsal  vertebrae. 

8.  The  five  lumbar  vertebrae. 

11.  Os  sacrum,  or  rump-bone. 

12.  Os  coccygis,  or  crupper-bone. 

13.  Ilium. 

9.  Ischium. 

14.  Neck  of  the  thigh-bone. 

15.  Trochanter  major. 

16.  Trochanter  minor. 

17.  Condyles  of  the  thigh. 

18.  Malleolus  externus. 

19.  Malleolus  internus. 
'20.  Oscalcis. 


tympanum  of  the  ear. 

1.  Malleus. 

2.  Incus. 

3.  Os  orbiculare. 

4.  Stapes. 

Fig.  3.  JL  view  of  the  same  bones,  as  joinedto 
each  other,  and  as  connected  to  the  mem- 
brana  tympani. 

c.  Membrana  tympani  with  the  handle 
of  the  malleus  connected. 
f.  Head  of  the  malleus  joined  to 
§-,  which  is  the  body  of  the  incus. 
h.  Base  of  the  stapes. 

Fig.  4.  Jlvietu  of  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear. 

a.  Three  semicircular  canals  unopened. 

b.  Section  of  the  cochlea. 

c.  Auditory  nerve. 

d.  Branches  of  the  nerve  going  to  the 
vestibulum  and  semicircular  canals. 

e.  Trunk  of  the  nerve  most  beautifully 


ANATOMY. 


ramified  on  the  solid  axis,  and  projecting 
bony  plate  of  the  cochlea. 

Fig.  5.  Second  view  of  the  labyrinth;  repre- 
senting the  vestibulum  and  semicircular 
canals  laid  open,  and  the  branches  of  the 
auditory  nerve  terminating  on  those  parts. 

a.  Cavity  of  the  vestibulum. 
PLATE  HI. 

Fig.  1.  „?  front  view  of  the  muscks. 

The  right  side  of  the  figure  represents 
the  first  or  most  superficial  stratum :  on 
the  leftside  the  second  layer  is  exhibited. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  refer  to  all  the 
muscles  exhibited  in  this  and  the  follow- 
ing muscular  plates  :  we  must  therefore 
confine  ourselves  to  the  more  obvious  and 
important  ones. 

a.  Orbicularis  palpebrarum. 

b.  Orbicularis  oris. 

c.  Zygomatici. 

d.  Sterno-cleidomastoideus. 

1.  Platysma  myoides. 

2.  Pectoralis  major. 

e.  Latissimus  dorsi. 

3.  Obiiquus  externus  abdominis. 

4.  Rectus  abdominis. 
+  Pectoralis  minor. 

f.  Serratus  anticus. 

g.  Obli'quus  externus  abdominis. 

5.  Deltoid  muscle. 

6.  Biceps  flexor  cubiti. 
h.  vSupinator  radii  longus. 
i.  Pronator  radii  teres. 

k.  Flexor  carpi  radialis. 
I.  Extensors  of  the  thumb. 
m,  n.  Two  heads  of  the  biceps  flexor 
cubiti. 

o.  Opponens  pollicis. 
p.  Muscles  of  the  little  finger. 
q.  Flexor  tendons  of  the  fingers, 
r.  Flexor  digitorum  profundus. 
*.  Flexor  longus  pollicis. 

7.  Tensor  vaginae  femoris. 

8.  Sartorius. 

9.  Yastus  externus. 

10.  Rectus  extensor  femoris. 

11.  Vastus  internus. 

12.  Tibialis  anticus. 

13.  Extensor  muscles  of  the  toes. 

14.  Extensor  tendons  of  the  toes. 

Fig.  2.  Posterior  surface  of  the  eye-lids, 
ivith  the  laci'ymal  gland. 

a,  b.  Posterior  surface  of  the  eye-lids. 
The  perpendicular  parallel  lines  are  form- 
ed by  rows  of  the  sebaceous  or  meibomian 
glands. 


c.  c.  c.  c.  Cut  edge  of  the  tunica  con- 
junctiva, where  that  membrane  was  re- 
flected from  the  eye-lids  to  the  eye-ball. 

d.  Lacrymal  gland. 

e.  Openings  of  its  ducts  on  the  surface 
of  the  conjunctiva. 

/.  Puncta  lacrymalia. 
g.  Caruncula  lacrymalis. 

Fig.  3.  Front  view  of  the  eye-brow  and  eye- 
lids ,•  designed  to  shew  the  margins  of  the 
latter,  and  their  union  with  each  other. 

b.  Fold  of  the  skin  between  the  upper 
eye-lid  and  the  eye-brow. 

c.  Orifices  in  which  the  hairs  of  the 
eye-lash  were  implanted. 

/.  Openings  of  the  ducts  of  the  seba- 
ceous glands  along  the  margin  of  the 
eye-lid. 

d.  m.  Superior  and  inferior  punctum  la- 
crymale,  or  external  openings  of  the  ca- 
nals, by  which  the  tears  are  conveyed  to 
the  lacrymal  bag. 

h.  Caruncula  lacrymalis 

g.  External  canthus  or  angle  of  the 
eye ;  the  opposite  part  f  is  the  internal 
canthus. 

Fig.  4.   View  of  the  lacrymal  passages. 

a.  a.  Puncta  lacrymalia. 

b.  b.  Lacrymal  ducts,  commencing  from 
the  pun  eta,  and  terminating  in 

c.  The  lacrymal  bag. 

d.  Nasal  duct. 

e.  Its  termination  at  the  nose. 
/  Lacrymal  gland. 

PLATE  IV. 

Fig.  1.  A  posterior  view  of  the  muscles  ,•  in 
which  the  right  side  exhibits  the  superficial \ 
and  the  left  a  deeper-seated  stratum. 

a.  Temporal  muscle. 

b.  Supraspinatus. 
r.  Infraspinatus. 
d.  Teres  minor. 
<?.  Teres  major. 
/.  Pyriformis. 

g.  Vastus  externus. 
"h.  Biceps  flexor  cruris. 
i.  Semitendinosus. 
k.  Peronei  muscles,  &c. 
/.  Their  tendons. 
m.  Levator  Scapulae. 

1.  Trapezius. 

2.  Rhornboideus. 

3.  Latissimus  dorsi. 

4.  Splenius  capitis 

5.  Complexes. 


ANATOMY. 


6.  Serratus  inferior  posticus. 

7.  7.  Sacrolumbalis    and  longissimus 
dorsi. 

8.  Deltoid. 

9.  9.  Triceps  extensor  cubiti. 

11.  Gluteus  maximus. 

12.  Gluteus  medius. 

13.  Flexors  of  the  knee-joint. 
14  Gastro-cnemius. 

15.  Soleus. 

16.  Tendo  achillis. 

Fig.  2.  A  view  of  the  surface  of  the  brain, 
exposed  by  removing  the  skull-cap. 

On  the  right  side  the  brain  is  covered 
by  its  dura  mater :  that  membrane  is  cut 
through,  and  turned  aside,  so  as  to  ex- 
pose the  left  hemisphere. 

Fig.   3.  The  skull  and  brain  cut    through 
horizontally  in  about  the  middle. 

It  shews  the  difference  of  the  cortical 
and  medullary  substances,  and  the  union 
of  the  two  hemispheres  by  the  corpus 
callosum. 

d.  The  dura  mater,  which  covered  the 
brain,  and  formed  the  falx,  thrown  back. 

e.  e.  Cineritious  substance. 
g.  Medullary  substance. 

h.  Corpus  callosum. 

Fig.  4.   The  basis  of  the   brain,  -with    the 
origin  of  the  nerves. 

a.  a.  Anterior  lobes  of  the  brain. 

b.  b.  Middle  lobes. 

c.  c.  Posterior  lobes. 

d.  c?.  Two  lobes  of  the  cerebellum. 
/.  Ponsvarioli,  or  medulla  oblongata. 

e.  Medulla  spinalis. 

PLATE  V. 

Fig.  1 .   Superficial  view  of  the   contents  of 
the  abdomen. 

d.  d.  Omentum. 

c.  c.  Liver. 

/./././.  Various  convolutions  of  small 
intestine. 

«.  a.  a.  Transverse  arch  of  the  colon 
covered  by  the  omentum. 

Fig.  2-.  ig  a  scheme  to  represent  the  whole 
tract  of  the  intestinal  canal,  as  the  sto- 
mach and  some  other  parts  do  not  come 
into  view  in  the, preceding  figure.  The 
arrows  represent  the  course  of  the  aliment. 

a.  End  of  the  oesophagus. 
B.  The  stomach. 


h.  Pylorus. 

g.  i.  k.  I.  Various  convolutions  of  small 
intestine. 

e  Caput  coli. 

«i.  Appendix  vermiformis. 

/  Ascending  colon. 

a.  a.  a.  Transverse  arch  of  the  colon. 

b.  Sigmoid  flexure  of  the  colon. 

c.  Rectum. 

PLATE  VI. 

Fig.  1.  Jl  view  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  with 
the  adjacent  large  blood-vessels  of  the  tho- 
rax and  abdomen. 

A.  Right  ventricle  of  the  heart 
e.  Right  auricle. 

1. 2.  3.  The  three  lobes  of  the  right 
lung. 

4.  5.  Two  lobes  of  the  left  lung. 

a.  Origin  of  the  pulmonary  artery. 

b.  Arch  of  the  aorta. 
x.  Arteria  innominata. 

y.  y.  Right  and  left  carotid  arteries. 

u.  u.  Jugular  veins. 

E.  E.  Left  subclavian  vein. 

c.  Superior  venacava. 

k.  Descending  aorta,  sending  off  differ- 
ent branches  to  the  abdominal  viscera  ; 
as,  /,  the  caeliac ;  m.  superior  mesenteric  ; 
n.  inferior  mesenteric  ;  o.  p.  renal  arte- 
ries. 

h.  Trunk  of  the  inferior  vena  cava. 

r.  q.  Renal  veins. 

v.  Trunk  of  the  absorbing  system,  call- 
ed  the  thoracic  duct. 

d.  Termination  of  that  duct  in  the  an- 
gle formed  by  the  junction  of  the  left 
subclavian  and  jugular  veins. 

Fig.  2.  Jl  view  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen, 
representing  some  parts  not  seen  in  Plate 
V.  and  now  exposed  by  lifting  up  the 
liver. 

1.  Thyroid  gland. 

2.  Trachea.     The  large  blood  vessels 
correspond  to  those  of  ^the  preceding 
figure. 

3.  The  heart. 

4.  Left  lung. 

5.  Right  lung. 

6.  Under  surface  of  the  left  lob  e  of 
the  liver. 

7.  Under  surface  of  the  right  lobe. 

8.  The  stomach. 

9.  Great  omentum. 

10.  Small  intestines. 

11.  11.  The  coverings  of  the  abdome» 
cut  through  and  turned  aside. 

12.  Bladder  of  urine. 


ANA 


ANA 


13.  Lesser  omentum. 

14.  Gall-bladder. 

Fig1.  2.  Gall-bladder  and  biliary  duets,  and 
pancreas. 

K.  Hepatic  duct,  formed  by  various 
branches  coming  from  the  liver. 

L.  Cystic  duct. 

I.  Gall-bladder. 

N.  Ductus  communis. 

P.  Pancreas  with  its  duct. 

Q.  A  portion  of  the  intestines,  with  a 
longitudinal  slit,  the  opening-  of  the  unit- 
ed ducts. 

ANAXAGORAS,  in  biography,  a  cele- 
brated philosopher  among  the  ancients. 
He  was  born  in  Ionia  about  the  70th  olym- 
piad, became  the  disciple  of  Anaximenes, 
and  was  afterwards  a  lecturer  himself  at 
Athens.  In  this  city  he  was  cruelly  per- 
secuted, and  at  length  banished.  He 
went  to  Lampsacus,  where  he  was  greatly 
honoured  during  his  life,  and  still  more 
respected  after  his  death.  Statues  have 
been  erected  to  his  **.  ^^nory. 

Anaxagoras  was  a  nmhematician,  and 
wrote  during  his  imprisonment  at  Athens, 
upon  the  quadrature  of  the  circle.  As  a 
philosopher,  he  introduced  some  impor- 
tant innovations,  as  they  were  then  called, 
but  which  redound  much  to  his  honour  : 
he  maintained,  in  opposition  to  the  com- 
mon systems  of  a  plurality  of  Gods,  that  an 
Infinite  mind  is  the  author  of  all  motion  and 
life.  Plato  asserts,  that  Anaxagoras  taught 
that  "  mind  was  the  cause  of  the  world, 
and  of  all  order,"  and  that,  "while  all 
things  else  are  compounded,  this  alone  is 
pure  and  unmixed"  :  he  ascribes  to  this 
principle  two  powers,  viz.  to  know,  and  to 
move.  Testimonies  to  this  purpose  in  fa- 
vour of  Anaxagoras  are  numerous.  Plu- 
tarch, speaking  of  the  Ionian  philosophers 
who  flourished  before  this  great  man, 
says,  that  they  made  fortune,  or  blind  ne- 
cessity, the  first  principle  in  nature  ;  but 
Anaxagoras  affirmed,  that  a  pure  mind  go- 
verns the  universe .  By  Diogenes  Laerti- 
us  he  is  represented  as  the  first  person, 
"  who  superadded  mind  to  matter."  He 
died  in  the  year  428  before  Christ,  and 
throughout  his  life  he  supported  the  cha- 
racter of  a  true  philosopher.  Superior  to 
the  motives  of  avarice  and  ambition,  he 
resigned  in  early  life  a  patrimony,  that 
would  have  secured  him  distinction  and 
independence,  in  order  that  he  might 
give  himself  up  wholly  to  the  pursuits  of 
science,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune  preserved  an  equal  mind. 
Being  asked,  just  before  his  death,  whe- 
ther he  wished  to  be  carried  for  interment 


to  his  native  city,  he  replied,  "  it  is  unne- 
cessary: the  way  to  the  regionsbelow  is  ev- 
ery where  alike  open:"  and  in  answer  to  a 
message  sent  him  at  the  same  time  by  the 
senate  of  Lampsacus,  requesting  to  be  in- 
formed in  what  manner  they  might  honour 
his  memory  after  his  decease,  he  said, 
"  By  ordaining  the  day  of  my  death  to  be 
annually  kept  as  a  holiday  in  all  the 
schools  ot'Lampsacus."  This  request  was 
.complied  with,  und  a  festival  called  Anax- 
agoria  was  instituted  on  the  occasion. 

ANAXIMANDER,  in  biography,  »  very 
celebrated  Greek  philosopher,  was  born 
at  Miletus  on  the  42d  olympiad,  for  ac- 
cording to  Apollodorus,  he  was  64  years 
of  age  in  the  second  year  of  the  58th  olym- 
piad. He  was  one  of  the  first  who  pub- 
licly taught  philosophy,  and  wrote  upon 
philosophical  subjects.  He  was  the  kins- 
man, companion,  and  disciple  of  Thales. 
He  wrote  also  upon  the  sphere  and  geo- 
metry, and  framed  a  connected  series  of 
geometrical  truths  :  he  also  wrote  a  sum- 
mary of  his  doctrine,  and  carried  his  re- 
searches into  nature  very  far,  for  the  time 
in  which  he  lived.  It  is  said  that  he  dis- 
covered the  obliquity  of  the  zodiac;  that 
he  first  published  a  geographical  table  ; 
that  he  invented  the  gnomon,  and  set  up 
the  first  sun-dial  in  an  open  place  at  Lace- 
daemon.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  delineated  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  marked  the  divisions  of  land 
and  water  upon  an  artificial  globe.  He 
taught  that  an  infinity  of  things  was  the 
principal  and  universal  element ;  that  this 
infinite  always  preserved  its  unity,but  that 
its  parts  underwent  changes :  that  all 
things  came  from  it ;  and  that  all  were 
about  to  return  to  it.  He  held  that  the 
worlds  are  infinite  ;  that  the  stars  are 
composed  of  air  and  fire,  which  are  car- 
ried about  in  their  spheres,  and  that  these 
spheres  are  gods  ;  that  the  sun  has  the 
highest  place  in  the  heavens,  the  moon 
the  next,  and  the  planets  and  fixed  stars 
the  lowest;  that  the  earth  is  a  globe, 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  universe,  and 
remains  in  its  place,  and  that  the  sun  is 
28  times  larger  than  the  earth. 

ANCHOR,  in  maritime  affairs,  an  ex- 
tremely useful  instrument,  serving  to  re- 
tain a  ship  or  boat  in  its  place. 

It  is  a  very  large  and  heavy  iron  instru- 
ment, with  a  double  hook  atone  end,  and 
a  ring  at  the  other,  by  which  it  is  fasten- 
ed to  a  cable. 

It  is  cast  into  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  or 
rivers,  where,  taking  its  hold,  it  keeps 
ships  from  being  drawn  away  by  the  wind, 
tide,  or  currents. 

The  parts  of  an  anchor  are*  1.  The 


ANC 


AND 


ring1  to  which  the  cable  is  fastened  :  2. 
the  beam,  or  shank,  which  is  the  longest 
part  of  the  anchor  :  3.  the  arm,  which  is 
that  which  runs  into  the  ground  :  4.  the 
flouke  or  fluke,  by  some  called  the  palm, 
the  broad  and  peaked  part,  with  its  barbs, 
like  the  head  of  an  arrow,  which  fastens 
into  the  ground  :  5  the  stock,  a  piece  of 
wood  fastened  to  the  beam  near  the  ring, 
serving  to  guide  the  fluke,  so  that  it  may 
fall  right,  and  fix  in  the  ground. 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  the 
several  parts  of  an  anchor,  as  give-u  by 
M.  Bougier.  The  two  arms  generally  form 
the  arch  of  a  circle,  the  centre  of  which 
is  3-8ths  of  the  shank  from  the  vertex,  or 
point  where  it  is  fixed  to  the  shank  ; 
each  arm  is  equal  to  the  same  length  or 
radius,  so  that  the  two  arms  together 
make  an  arch  of  120  degrees  :  the  flukes 
are  half  the  length  of  the  arms,  and  their 
breadths  two  fifths  of  the  said  length. 
With  respect  to  the  thickness,  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  throat  or  vertex  of  the 
shank  is  generally  made  about  l-5th  part 
of  its  length,  and  the  small  end  two  thirds 
of  the  throat <  the  small  end  of  the  arms 
of  the  flukes  three  fourths  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  shank  of  the  throat. 

Cast  iron  anchors  have  been  proposed, 
and  indeed,  from  the  improvements  in 
this  metal,  it  is  probable  they  would  be 
cheap  and  serviceable.  But  when  we 
consider  the  great  importance  of  anchors 
to  the  lives  and  property  intrusted  in 
shipping,  it  would  not  be  an  act  of  pru- 
dence to  make  an  anchor  of  any  material 
but  the  very  best.  It  appears  reasonable, 
that  a  cast  iron  anchor  made  broad  in  the 
flukes,  and  strong  in  the  shank,  and  forti- 
fied with  a  kind  of  edge-bar,  knee,  or 
bracket,  in  each  angle,  between  the  arm 
and  the  shank,  might  prove  as  trust-wor- 
thy as  a  forged  anchor,  and  be  more  than 
equal  to  the  strain  of  any  cable  which  is 
made. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  anchors  :  1. 
the  sheet  anchor,  which  is  the  largest, 
and  is  never  used  but  in  violent  storms, 
to  hinder  the  ship  from  being  driven 
ashore  :  2.  the  two  bowers,  which  are 
used  for  ships  to  ride  in  a  harbour  :  3.  the 
stream  anchor  :  4.  the  grapnel.  The  iron 
of  which  anchors  are  made  ought  neither 
to  be  too  soft  nor  too  brittle;  for,  if  the 
iron  be  brittle,  the  anchor  is  apt  to  break, 
and  if  it  be  too  soft,  the  anchor  will 
bend.  In  order  to  give  them  a  proper 
temper,  it  is  the  practice  to  join  brittle 
with  soft  iron,  and  for  this  reason  the 
Spanish  and  Swedish  iron  ought  to  be 
preferred. 

The  shank  of  an  anchor  is  to  be  three 
times  the  length  of  one  of  its  flukes,  and 


a  ship  of  500  tons  hath  her  sheet  anchoi; 
of  2000  Wright;  and  so  proportionably 
for  others  smaller  or  greater,  although 
Awbin  observes,  that  the  anchors  of  a 
large  vessel  are  made  smaller  in  propor- 
tion than  those  of  a  small  one. 

The  anchor  is  said  to  be  a-peak,  when 
the  cable  is  perpendicular  between  the 
hawse  and  the  anchor. 

An  anchor  is  said  to  come  home,  when 
it  cannot  hold  the  ship.  An  anchor  is 
foul,  when,  by  the  turning  of  the  ship,  the 
cable  is  hitched  about  the  fluke.  To 
shoe  an  anchor,  is  to  fit  boards  upon  the 
fiukt-s,  that  it  may  hold  the  better  in  soft 
ground.  When  the  anchor  hangs  right 
up  and  down  by  the  ship's  side,  it  is  said 
to  be  acock  bell,  upon  the  ship's  coming 
to  an  anchor. 

The  inhabitants  of  Ceylon  use  large 
stones  instead  of  anchors  ;  and  in  some 
other  places  of  the  Indies,  th-e  anchors 
are  a  kind  of  wooden  machines  loaded 
with  stones. 

ANCHORAGE,  in  law,  is  a  duty  taken 
of  ships  for  the  use  of  the  port  or  harbour 
where  they  cast  anchor :  for  the  ground 
there  belonging  to  the  king,  no  man  can 
let  fall  anchor  thereon,  without  paying 
the  king's  officers  for  so  doing. 

ANCHUSA,  in  botany,  the  alkanet,  a 
genus  of  the  Pentandria  Monogynia  class 
of  plants,  the  calyx  of  which  is  an  oblong, 
cylindric,  acute  perianthium,  divided 
into  five  segments,  and  permanent;  the 
corolla  consists  of  a  single  petal;  the  tube 
is  cylindric,  and  of  the  length  of  the  cup  ; 
the  limb  is  lightly  divided  into  five  seg- 
ments, erecto-puient  and  obtuse ;  the 
opening  is  closed  by  five  oblong,  convex, 
prominent,  and  convenient  squamulae  : 
there  isnopericarpium  :  thecup  becomes 
larger,  and  serves  as  a  fruit,  containing  in 
its  cavity  four  oblong,  obtuse,  and  gib- 
bous seeds.  There  are  thirteen  species: 
though  according  to  Marty n  only  ten. 
They  are  mostly  biennial,  except  when 
they  grow  in  rubbish,  or  out  of  a  wall. 
They  may  all  be  easily  propagated  by 
seeds,  sown  in  the  autumn. 

ANCISTRUM,  in  botany  a  genus  of 
the  Diandria  Monogynia  class  and  order : 
calyx  four  leaved :  no  corolla :  stigma 
many-parted :  drupe  dry,  hispid,  one  cell- 
ed. There  are  three  species.  A.  de- 
cmnbens  resembles  burnet  in  the  herb 
and  manner  of  flowering :  it  is  remarka- 
ble for  the  yellow  awns  to  the  calyx,  re- 
sembling fox's  nails.  A  native  of  New- 
Zealand.  A.  lucidum  is  a  native  of  the  Falk- 
land islands,  introduced  here  in  1777  by 
Dr.  Fothergill;  it  flowers  in  May  and  June. 

ANDALUS1TE,  or  hardspar,  in  miner- 
alogy, a  species  of  the  Felspar  family,  dis- 


AND 


AiSD 


covered  by  Bournon  in  a  primitive  grani- 
tic mountain  in  Forez.  Colour  flesh  red, 
sometimes  approaching  to  rose  red.  Mas- 
sive, and  crystallized  in  rectangular  four- 
sided  prisms.  Specific  gravity  3.16.  In- 
fusible by  the  blow-pipe  without  addition. 
It  is  distinguished  from  felspar  by  its  great 
hardness  and  higher  specific  gravity,  and 
from  corundum,  by  its  inferior  specific 
gravity  and  its  form.  It  is  now  found  in 
the  primitive  mountains  in  Spain  and 
France,  with  quartz  and  mica,  and  some- 
times in  a  mica  state  at  Braunsdorf,  near 
Freyberg  in  Saxony. 

ANDRACHNE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Monoecia  Gynandria  class  of  plants  ; 
the  corolla  of  the  male  flower  is  formed 
of  five  emarginated  slender  petals,  shorter 
than  the  cup ;  the  female  flower  has  no 
corolla  ;  the  fruit  is  a  capsule,  containing 
three  cells,  with  two  obtuse  trigonal 
seeds,  roundish  on  one  side,  and  angular 
on  the  other.  There  are  three  species. 

ANDRJEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Cryptogamia  Musci  class  and  order.  Es- 
sen, char,  capsule  very  short,  turbinate  : 
fringe  simple,  of  four  incurved  concave 
teeth  united  at  their  tips,  and  bearing  the 
lid  and  veil.  There  are  two  species. 

ANDROIDES,  in  mechanics,  an  auto- 
maton in  the  figure  of  a  man,  which,  by 
virtue  of  certain  springs,  &c.  duly  con- 
trived, walks  and  performs  other  external 
functions  of  a  man.  Albertus  Magnus  is 
recorded  as  having  made  a  famous  an- 
droides,  which  is  said  not  only  to  have 
moved,  but  to  have  spoken.  Thomas 
Aquinas  is  said  to  have  been  so  frightened 
when  he  saw  this  head,  that  he  broke  it 
to  pieces ;  upon  which  Albert  exclaimed, 
"  Periitopustrigintaannorum."  Artificial 
puppets,  which,  by  internal  springs,  run 
upon  a  table,  and  as  they  advance,  move 
their  heads,  eyes,  or  hands,  were  common 
among  the  Greeks,  and  from  thence  they 
were  brought  to  the  Romans.  Figures, 
or  puppets,  which  appear  to  move  of 
themselves,  were  formerly  employed  to 
work  miracles  ;  but  this  use  is  now  super- 
seded, and  they  serve  only  to  display  in- 
genuity, and  to  answer  the  purposes  of 
amusement.  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
figures  of  this  kind  was  constructed  and 
exhibited  at  Paris,  in  1738 ;  and  a  particu- 
lar account  of  it  was  published  in  the  Me- 
moirs of  the  Academy  for  that  year.  This 
figure  represents  a  flute-player,  which 
\vas  capable  of  performing  various  pieces 
of  music,  by  wind  issuing  from  its  mouth 
into  a  German  flute,  the  holes  of  which  it 
opened  and  shut  with  its  fingers  :  it  was 
about  5-^  feet  high,  placed  upon  a  square 
pedestal  44  feet  high,  and  3$  broad.  The 


air  entered  the  body  by  three  separate 
pipes,  into  which  it  was  conveyed  by  nine 
pairs  of  bellows,  that  expanded  and  con- 
tracted in  regular  succession,  by  means 
of  an  axis  of  steel  turned  by  clock-work. 
These  bellows  performed  their  functions 
without  any  noise,  which  might  have  dis- 
covered the  manner  by  which  the  air 
was  conveyed  to  the  machine. 

The  three  tubes  which  received  the  air 
from  the  bellows  passed  into  three  small 
reservoirs  in  the  trunk  of  the  figure.  Here 
they  united,  and  ascending  towards  the 
throat,  formed  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
which  terminated  in  two  small  lips,  adapt- 
ed in  some  measure  to  perform  their  pro- 
per functions.  Within  this  cavity  was  a 
small  moveable  tongue,  which,  by  its  mo- 
tion at  proper  intervals,  admitted  the  air, 
or  intercepted  it  in  its  passage  to  the  flute. 
The  fingers,  lips,  and  tongue,  derived 
their  proper  movements  from  a  steel  cy- 
linder, turned  by  clock-work.  This  was 
divided  into  fifteen  equal  parts,  which,  by 
means  of  pegs  pressing  upon  the  ends  of 
fifteen  different  levers,  caused  the  other 
extremities  to  ascend.  Seven  of  these 
levers  directed  the  fingers,  having  wires 
and  chains  fixed  to  their  ascending  extre- 
mities, which,  being  attached  to  the  fin- 
gers, made  them  to  ascend,  in  proportion 
as  the  other  extremity  was  pressed  down 
by  the  motion  of  the  cylinder,  and  vice 
versa  ;  then  the  ascent  or  descent  of  one 
end  of  a  lever  produced  a  similar  ascent. 
or  descent  in  the  corresponding  fingers, 
by  which  one  of  the  holes  of  the  flute 
was  occasionally  opened  or  stopped,  as  it 
might  have  been  by  a  living  performer. 
Three  of  the  levers  served  to  regulate  the 
ingress  of  the  air,  being  so  contrived  as  to 
open  and  shut,  by  means  of  valves,  the 
three  reservoirs  above  mentioned,  so  that 
more  or  less  strength  might  be  given,  and 
a  higher  or  lower  note  produced,  as  oc- 
casion required.  The  lips  were,  by  a  si- 
milar mechanism,  directed  by  four  levers, 
one  of  which  opened  them  to  give  the  air 
a  freer  passage,  the  other  contracted  them^ 
the  third  drew  them  backward,  and  the 
fourth  pushed  them  forward.  The  lips 
were  projected  upon  that  part  of  the  flute 
which  receives  the  air,  and,  by  the  differ- 
ent motions  already  mentioned,  modified 
the  tune  in  a  proper  munner.  The  re- 
maining lever  was  employed  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  tongue,  which  it  easily  moves, 
so  as  to  shut  or  open  the  mouth  of  the 
flute.  The  just  succession  of  the  several 
motions,  performed  by  the  various  parts 
of  this  machine,  was  regulated  by  the  fol- 
lowing simple  contrivance.  The  extremi- 
ty of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  terminated 


ANDR01DES. 


on  the  right  side  by  an  endless  screw, 
consisting  of  twelve  threads,  each  placed 
at  the  distance  of  a  line  and  an  half  from 
the  other.  Above  this  screw  was  fixed  a 
piece  of  copper,  and  in  it  a  steel  pivot, 
which,  falling  in  between  the  threads  of 
the  screw,  obliged  the  cylinder  to  follow 
the  threads,  and,  instead  of  turning  di- 
rectly round,  it  was  continually  pushed  to 
one  side.  Hence,  if  a  lever  was  moved, 
by  a  peg  placed  on  the  cylinder,  in  any 
one  revolution,  it  could  not  be  moved  by 
the  same  peg  in  the  succeeding  revolu- 
tion, because  the  peg  would  be  moved  a 
line  and  a  half  beyond  it  by  the  lateral 
motion  of  the  cylinder. 

Thus,  by  an  artificial  disposition  of  these 
pegs  in  different  parts  of  the  cylinder,  the 
statue  wab  made,  by  the  successive  ele- 
vation of  the  proper  levers,  to  exhibit  all 
the  different  motions  of  a  flute-player, 
to  the  admiration  of  every  one  who  saw 
it.  Another  figure,  constructed  by  the 
same  artist, Vaucanson,  played  on  the  Pro- 
vencal shepherd's  pipe,  held  in  its  left 
hand,  and  with  the  right  beat  upon  a  drum. 

The  performances  of  Vaucanson  were 
imitated,  and  even  exceeded,  by  M.  de 
Kempelin,  of  Presburg,  in  Hungary.  The 
androides  constructed  by  this  gentleman, 
in  1760,  was  capable  of  playing  chess.  It 
was  brought  over  to  England  in  1783,  and 
remained  here  for  more  than  a  year.  It  is 
thus  described :  The  figure  is  as  large  as 
life,  in  a  Turkish  dress,  seated  behind  a 
table,  with  doors  3£  feet  long,  2  deep, 
and  2^  high.  The  chair  on  which  it  sits 
is  fixed  to  the  table,  which  is  made  to  run 
on  four  wheels.  It  leans  its  right  arm  on 
the  table,  and  in  its  left  hand  holds  a  pipe  ; 
with  this  hand  it  plays  after  the  pipe  is 
removed.  A  chess-board  of  18  inches  is 
fixed  before  it.  The  table,  or  rather  chest, 
contains  wheels,  levers,  cylinders,  and 
other  pieces  of  mechanism,  all  of  which 
are  publicly  displayed.  The  vestments  of 
the  figure  were  then  lifted  over  its  head, 
and  the  body  seen  full  of  similar  wheels 
and  levers.  There  is  a  little  door  in  its 
thigh,  which  is  likewise  opened:  and 
with  this,  and  the  table  also  open,  and  the 
figure  uncovered,  the  whole  is  wheeled 
about  the  room.  The  doors  are  then  shut, 
and  the  automaton  is  ready  to  play  ;  and 
it  always  takes  the  first  move.  At  every 
motion  the  wheels  are  heard,  the  image 
moves  its  head,  and  looks  over  every  part 
of  the  chess-board.  When  it  checks  vhe 
queen,  it  shakes  its  head  twice,  and  thrice 
in  giving  check  to  the  king.  It  likewise 
shakes  its  head  when  a  false  move  is  made, 
replaces  the  piece,  and  makes  its  own 
mo  ve,  by  which  means  the  adversary  loses 


one.  M.  de  Kempelin  exhibited  his  auto- 
maton at  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Paris,  and 
London,  before  thousands,  mun\  of  whom 
were  mathematicians  and  chess-players, 
and  yet  the  secret  by  which  he  governed 
the  motion  of  its  arih  was  never  discover- 
ed. He  valued  himself  upon  the  construc- 
tion of  a  mechanism,  by  which  the  arm 
could  perform  ten  or  twelve  moves.  It 
then  needed  to  be  wound  up  like  a  watch, 
after  which  it  was  capable  of  continuing 
the  same  number  of  motions.  This  auto- 
maton could  not  play  unless  M.  de  Kem- 
pelin, or  his  assistant,  was  near  it,  to  di- 
rect its  movements.  A  small  square  box 
was  frequently  consulted  by  the  exhibit- 
or during  the  game,  and  in  this  consisted 
the  secret,  which  the  inventor  declared 
he  could  communicate  in  a  moment.  Any 
person  who  could  beat  M.  de  Kempelin. 
at  chess,  was  sure  of  conquering  the  au- 
tomaton. 

Remark  by  the  British  Editor. — When 
this  piece  of  mechanism  was  exhibited  in 
London,  it  played  a  great  number  of 
moves  without  requiring  to  be  wound  up, 
and  it  was  worked  by  a  M.  Anthon,  who 
walked  about  the  room,  without  any  appa- 
rent communication,  during  the  perform- 
ance. The  chess-board  was  part  of  the  top 
of  the  square  counter,  or  table,  to  which 
the  figure  was  attached  in  a  leaning  pos- 
ture. When  the  back  of  the  figure  was 
opened,  an  upright  iron  axis  was  seen, 
with  two  strong  springs,  which  apparent- 
ly were  intended  to  restore  the  quiescent 
position  after  any  move;  and  when  the 
doors  of  the  counter  were  opened,  two 
compartments  were  seen,  formed  by  an 
upright  partition  in  the  interior  space.  In 
one  of  them  was  seen  a  brass  barrel,  re- 
sembling that  of  a  barrel  organ,  having 
sixteen  vertical  bars  or  levers,  so  placed 
as  if  to  be  tripped  by  the  barrel;  and 
there  was  also  some  wheel-work :  and  in 
the  other  compartment  there  was  little, 
except  a  brass  horizontal  arc,  or  quadrant, 
with  a  brass  radius,  most  'probably  capa- 
ble of  being  set  to  different  angular  situ- 
ations. The  hand  of  the  figure  lay  upon 
a  cushion,  and  every  approaching  move 
was  announced  by  the  discharge  of  a 
click,  and  the  buzzing  noise  of  a  fly  was 
heard,  until  the  move  was  completed. 
The  fore-arm  was  first  raised  about  two 
inches  by  a  vertical  motion  at  the  elbow  : 
it  was  then  carried  horizontally,  until  the 
hand  was  immediately  over  the  piece  to 
betaken  up,  at  which  time  the  fingers 
suddenly  opened,  the  hand  dropped, 
seized  the  piece,  rose  again,  made  the 
move,  and  dropped  the  piece  on  the 
square  to  which  it  had  arrived.  But  in. 


AND 


AXE 


case  the  adversary's  piece  were  to  be 
taken,  it  was  first  seized  in  the  manner 
here  described,  and  carried  clear  oft'  the 
board  and  dropped,  and  the  subsequent 
move  then  made  into  the  empty  square. 
After  the  game  was  played,  the  Baron 
Kempelin  gave  the  figure  a  knight,  and  it 
moved  the  piece  insuccession,withoutany 
pause,  by  the  proper  course,  till  it  had 
passed  every  square  in  the  board,  as  was 
shewn  by  an  assistant  placing  a  counter 
on  each  square,  as  the  knight  quitted  it. 

What  can  be  deduced  from  so  slight  and 
transient  a  public  view  of  this  apparatus? 
— very  little.  It  seems  as  if  the  greatest 
skill  had  been  exerted  in  producing  the 
mechanical  effects,  and  that  the  communi- 
cation of  the  player  (Anthon)  with  the  ap- 
paratus may  be  a  riddle  of  no  great  depth. 
The  sixteen  pulls  from  the  ban-el  m ay- 
bear  some  relation  to  the  eight  rows  of 
squares,  twice  taken  forthe  two  sides,  the 
white  and  the  black  ;  and  as  the  moves 
are  all  reducible  to  those  of  the  castle  of 
the  bishop,  from  which  they  differ  in  ex- 
tent of  shift  only,  (except  that  of  the 
knight,  which  is  an  immediate  combina- 
tion of  both,)  we  may  guess  that  the  pull 
might  determine  the  line  to  be  played  in, 
and  the  quadrant  the  distance  from  the 
back  row.  But  it  is  useless  to  extend  our 
conjectures,  with  such  scanty  means. 

The  same  Baron  Kempelin  exhibited, 
in  his  private  parlour,  a  small  speaking  in- 
strument or  organ,  which  he  said  was  not 
then  in  a  finished  state.  It  was  a  kind  of 
box,  which  he  brought  out  and  placed 
upon  a  table.  Speaking  without  notes 
from  the  recollection  of  four  and  twenty 
years  now  elapsed,  I  judge  its  dimensions 
were  about  two  feet  in  length,  one  foot 
wide,  and  eight  or  nine  inches  deep.  It 
was  open;  but  we  were  prevented  from 
seeing  the  inside  by  a  cloth  put  over  it. 
The  Baron  put  his  hands  under  the  cloth, 
so  that  his  right  arm  was  disposed  longitu- 
dinally in  the  box,  and  seemed  to  press  a 
pair  of  bellows :  the  other  hand  was  put 
in  crosswise  at  the  end,  near  the  place  of 
the  right  hand,  and  seemed  to  be  employ- 
ed w  th  keys,  or  some  apparatus,  or  per- 
haps both  hands  may  have  been  so  em- 
ployed. When  he  made  the  instrument 
speak,  he  raised  his  right  elbow,  and  gra- 
dually pressing  it  down,  the  sound  was 
heard.  It  was  monotonous,  as  if  from  a 
single  pipe,  about  the  pitch  of  D,  above 
the  middle  C,  concert  pitch  ;  and  the 
words  papa  and  mama  were  uttered  very 
distinctly,  in  a  slow  drawling  manner;  that 
is  to  say,  there  was  a  want  of  the  usual 
inflections  of  tone,  and  the  sound  fell  off 
in  intensity  towards  the  end.  After  seve- 


ral other  words  had  beer,  spoken,  a  lady 
asked  in  French,  if  it  could  not  speak 
sentences,  and  the  Baron  asked  what  it 
should  say.  She  answered  "  Qite  je  svis 
mechanic"  and  the  instrument  said  "  Vous 
etes  mechante,  mais  rmis  etes  aiissi  bonne" 

Kratzenstein  has  given  some  account  of 
the  principles  of  an  engine  of  this  kind, 
in  a  work  extracted  in  the  Journal  de 
Physique  :  and  Dr.  Young  has  cursorily 
mentioned  this  subject  in  his  lectures, 
with  some  diagrams. 

ANDROMEDA,  in  astronomy,  a  small 
northern  constellation,  consisting  of  twen- 
ty-seven stars,  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
behind  Pegasus,  Cassiopiea,  and  Perseus. 
The  number  of  stars  placed  in  this  con- 
stellation by  Ptolemy  is  27;  by  Tycho 
Brahe  23  ;  by  Hevelius  47 ;  and  by  Flam- 
stead  66.  The  constellation  has  been 
thought  to  resemble  a  woman  almost  na- 
ked, with  her  feet  at  a  distance  from  each 
other,  and  her  arms  extended  and  chained. 

AXDUOMEDA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Decandria  Monogynia  class  of  plants ; 
the  calyx  of  which  is  a  very  small  acute 
coloured  and  permanent  perianthium,  cut 
into  five  segments ;  the  corolla  consists 
of  a  single  petal,  of  an  oval  form,  inflated 
and  quinquefid;  the  fruit  is  a  roundish 
capsule,  containing  five  cells,  in  which 
are  several  roundish  shining  seeds.  There 
are  25  species. 

ANDROPOGON,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Polygamia  Monoecia  class  of  plants, 
the  calyx  of  which  is  a  bivalve,  oblong-, 
obtuse  glume ;  the  corolla  is  also  a  bi- 
valve glume,  smaller  and  thinner  than  the 
cup ;  there  is  no  pericarpium ;  the  seed, 
which  is  single,  oblong,  covered,  and  arm- 
ed with  the  arista  of  the  flower,  is  includ- 
ed in  the  glumes  of  the  calyx  and  corolla. 
There  are  32  species. 

ANEMOMETER,  among  mechanical 
philosophers,  an  instrument  contrived  for 
measuring  the  strength  of  the  wind. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  anemometers ; 
that  of  which  Wolfius  gives  the  structure 
is  moved  by  sails  like  those  of  a  v  ind- 
mill.  He  experienced,  he  says,  the  good- 
ness of  it,  and  affirms  that  the  inward 
structure  may  be  preserved  to  measure 
even  the  force  of  running  water,  or  that 
of  men  and  horses  when  they  draw.  In 
the  memoirs  of  the  academy  of  sciences 
is  described  a  new  anemometer,  winch 
expresses  on  paper,  not  only  tli  •  several 
winds  that  have  blown  during  the  space 
of  the  last  24  hours,  but  also  the  strength 
and  velocity  of  each.  In  the  Ph'!..sophi- 
cul  Transactions  for  the  year  1766,  Mr. 
Brice  has  described  a  method  of  measur- 
ing" the  velocity  of  the  wind,  by  means  of 


ANE 


1NE 


that  of  the  shadow  of  clouds  passing  over 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  This,  however, 
in  general  exceeds  that  near  the  ground. 
M.  d'Ons  en  Bray  invented  an  anemome- 
ter, which  of  itself  expresses  on  paper, 
not  only  the  several  winds  that  have 
blown  during  the  space  of  twenty-four 
hours,  and  at  what  hour  each  began  and 
ended,  but  also  the  strength  and  velocity 
of  each.  See  Memoirs  Acad.  Scien.  Anno 
1734. 

ANEMONE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Polyandria  Polygynia  class  and  order.  Its 
characters  are,  that  it  has  no  calyx  ;  that 
the  corolla  has  petals  in  two  or  three 
rows,  three  in  a  row,  somewhat  oblong; 
the  stamina  have  numerous  filaments,  ca- 
pillary, half  the  length  of  the  corolla : 
anthers,  twin  and  erect :  the  pistilluna 
has  numerous  germs  on  a  head,  styles 
acuminate,  and  stigmas  obtuse :  no  peri- 
carpium  ;  receptacle  globular  or  oblong  ; 
seeds  very  many,  acuminate,  retaining 
the  style ;  there  are  about  30  species. 
The  garden  anemones  are  natives  of  the 
east,  from  whence  their  roots  were  origi- 
nally brought ;  but  culture  has  so  improv- 
ed them,  that  they  are  become  the  chief 
ornaments  to  our  gardens  in  the  spring. 
To  prepare  the  soil  for  these  plants,  take 
a  quantity  of  fresh,  light,  sandy  loam,  or 
hazel-earth,  from  a  common  or  dry  pas- 
ture, not  dug  above  ten  inches  deep ; 
mix  this  with  a  third  part  of  its  quantity 
of  rotten  cow-dung,  and  lay  it  up  in  a 
heap ;  turn  this  over  at  least  once  a 
month,  for  eight  or  ten  months,  and  every 
lime  pick  out  the  stones,  and  break  the 
clods.  After  this  mixture  has  been  twelve 
months  made,  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  The 
beds  of  this  earth  must  be  prepared  in 
September,  and  should  be  made  six  or 
eight  inches  deep,  in  a  wet  soil :  but  in  a 
dry  one,  three  inches  will  be  sufficient ; 
lay  this  compost  at  least  2^  feet  thick, 
with  about  four  or  five  inches  of  rotten 
neat's  dung,  or  the  rotten  dung  of  an  old 
melon  orcucumber-bed,  at  the  bottom ;  in 
a  wet  soil  let  the  beds  be  rounded,  so  that 
the  water  may  run  off;  but  in  a  dry  soil  let 
them  be  nearer  to  a  level :  three  weeks 
after  the  compost  has  been  laid  in,  stir  it 
about  six  inches  deep  with  a  spade,  and 
then  with  a  stick  draw  lines  each  way  of 
the  bed,  at  six  inches  distance,  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  in  squares ;  then  make  a 
hole  three  inches  deep  in  the  centre  of 
each  square,  and  plant  a  root  in  each ; 
and  when  all  are  planted,  rake  the  earth 
of  the  whole  bed  smooth,  so  as  to  covef 
the  roots  two  inches  thick.  The  season 
of  planting  these  roots  for  forward  flow- 


ers is  the  latter  end  of  September;  and 
for  those  of  a  middle  season  is  October: 
this  is  best  done  at  a  time  when  there  are 
gentle  ruins.     Some  roots  should  also  be 
saved,  to  be  planted  after  Christmas,  for 
fear  of  accidents  to  the  former  from  very 
hard  weather.  These  usually  flower  three 
weeks  after    those    planted  in  autumn. 
They  are  propagated  two  ways,  either  by 
dividing  the  roots  or  by  sowing.     The 
roots  are  to  be  divided  as  soon  as  they  are 
taken  up  out  of  the  ground;  they  will  suc- 
ceed if  broken  into  as  many  parts  as  there 
are  eyes  or  buds  in  them  ;  but  they  flow- 
er most  strongly,  if  not  parted  too  small. 
The  way  by  sowing  is  this ;  choose  first 
some  good  kinds  of  single  anemones,  call- 
ed the  gardener's  poppy  anemones?  plant 
these   early,  and  they  will  produce  ripe 
seeds  three  weeks  after  the  flower  first 
blows.     This  must  be  carefully  gathered, 
and  in  August  it  should  be  sowed  in  pots 
or  tubs,  or  a  well  prepared  bed  of  light 
earth,  rubbing  it  between  the  hands  with 
a  little  dry  sand,  to  prevent  several  of  the 
seeds  from  clinging  together,  and  spread- 
ing them  as  even  as  possible  all  over  the 
bed;  after  this  a  light  hair  brush  should 
be  drawn  many  times  over  the  surface  of 
the  bed,  to  pull  asunder  any  lumps  of  seed 
that  may  yet  have  fallen  together;  observ- 
ing not  to  brush  off  the    seed,  and   as 
much  as  possible  not    to    brush  it  into 
lumps.    When  this  is  done,  some  light 
eai'th,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep, 
should  be   sifted  over  the  bed.     If  the 
weather  be  hot,  the  bed  must  be  at  times 
covered  with  mats  laid  hollow,  and  gently 
watered.     In  about  ten  weeks  after  sow- 
ing the  plants  will  appear,  if  the  season 
has  been  favourable,  and  they  are  to  be 
carefully  defended  from  the  hard  frosts 
by  proper  covering,  and  from  the  heat  of 
the  sun  afterwards,  by  a  moveable  reed 
fence.     As  the  spring   advances,  if  the 
weather  be  dry,  they  must  be  gently  wa- 
tered, and  when  their  green  leaves  decay, 
there  must  be  a  quarter  of  an  inch  more 
earth  sifted  over  them,  and  the  like  again 
at  Michaelmas;  and   the    bed   must  be 
kept  clear  from  weeds,  and  the  following 
spring  they  will  flower.    The  single  or 
poppy  anemones  will  flower  most  part  of 
the  winter  and  spring1,  when  the  seasons 
are  favourable,  and  in  a  warm  situation  ; 
and  they  require  little  culture,  for  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  take  up  the  roots  every 
other  year;  and  when  they  are  taken  up, 
they  should  be  planted  a'gaiv  very  early 
uciumn,  or  else  they  will  not  flow- 
er tili  ihe  spring*.     There  are  some  fine 
blue  Colours  among    these   single    ane- 


ANE 


ANG 


indues,  which,  with  the  scarlets  and  reds, 
form  a  beautiful  mixture  of  colours;  and 
as  these  beg-in  to  flower  in  January  or 
February,  when  the  weather  is  cold,  they 
will  continue  for  a  long1  time  in  beauty, 
provided  that  the  frost  is  not  too  severe. 
The  seeds  of  these  are  ripe  by  the  middle 
or  end  of  May,  and  must  be  gathered 
daily  as  they  ripen,  because  they  will 
soon  be  blown  away  by  the  winds.  The 
roots  of  wood  anemone  may  be  taken  up 
when  the  leaves  decay,  and  transplanted 
into  wildernesses,  where  they  will  thrive, 
and  in  the  spring-  have  a  good  effect  in 
covering  the  ground  with  their  leaves  and 
flowers.  The  blue  anemone  flowers  at 
the  same  time  with  the  foregoing,  and  in- 
termixed with  it,  makes  a  fine  variety. 
Double  flowers  of  both  these  sorts  have 
been  obtained  from  seeds.  This,  and  most 
of  the  other  wild  anemones,  may  be  pro- 
pagated by  offsets  from  the  root,  which 
they  put  out  plentifully;  and  they  will 
grow  in  most  soils  and  situations.  Vir- 
ginian anemone,  andsome  others,  produce 
plenty  of  seeds,  and  may  be  readily  in- 
creased also  that  way. 

ANEMOSCOPE,  a  machine  invented  to 
tell  the  changes  of  the  wind.  It  should 
consist  of  an  index  moving  about  a  circu- 
lar plate,  like  the  dial  of  a  clock,  on 
which  the  32  points  of  the  compass  are 
drawn,  instead  of  hours.  The  index, 
pointing  to  the  divisions  in  the  dial,  is 
turned  by  an  horizontal  axis,  having  an 
handle-head  at  its  outward  extremity. 
This  handle  head  is  moved  by  a  cog- 
wheel on  a  perpendicular  axis,  on  the  top 
of  which  is  fixed  a  vane,  that  moves  with 
the  course  of  the  wind,  and  gives  motion 
to  the  whole  machine.  The  contrivance 
is  simple,  the  number  of  cogs  in  the  wheel 
and  rounds  in  the  trundle-head  must  be 
equal,  because  it  is  necessary,  that  when 
the  vane  moves  entirely  round,  the  index 
of  the  dial  should  also  make  a  complete 
revolution.  A  different  anemoscope  is 
described  in  the  Phil.  Trans,  vol.  xliii. 
part  ii.  and  one  is  described  in  Martin's 
Phil.  Brit.  vol.  ii. 

ANETHUM,  in  botany,  dill,  a  genus  of 
the  Pentandria  Digynia  class  and  order, 
lessen,  char,  fruit  ovate,  somewhat  com- 
pressed, striate  :  petals  involute,  entire. 
There  are  three  species.  The  common 
dill  differs  from  fennel,  in  having  an  an- 
nual root,  a  smaller  and  lower  stem  ;  the 
leaves  more  glaucous,  and  of  a  less  plea- 
sant smell ;  the  seeds  broader  and  flatter. 
This  plant  grows  wild  among  the  corn  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  and  also  near  the  coast 
in  Italy,  and  near  Constantinople :  it  is  an 


annual,  and  has  been  cultivated  here  more 
than  200  years.  The  seeds  are  directed 
for  use  by  the  London  and  Edinburgh 
Pharmacopeias.  Common  fennel,  another 
species  of  anethum,  is  much  used  for  culi- 
nary purposes,  and  likewise  in  medicine. 

ANEURISM,  or  ANEUUYSM,  in  surgery, 
a  throbbing  tumour,  distended  with  blood, 
and  formed  by  a  dilatation  or  rupture  of 
an  artery. 

ANGEL,  in  commerce,  the  name  of  an 
ancient  gold  coin  in  England,  of  which 
some  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  cabinets  of 
the  curious.  It  had  its  name  from  the 
figure  of  an  angel  represented  upon  it.  It 
was  23f  carats  fine,  and  weighed  four  pen- 
ny-weights. Its  value  differed  in  different 
reigns. 

ANGELICA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Pentandria  Digynia  class  of  plants,  the  ge- 
neral umbel  of  which  is  roundish  and  mul- 
tiple ;  the  partial  umbel,  while  in  flower, 
is  perfectly  globose  ;  the  general  mvolu- 
crum  is  composed  of  either  three  or  five 
leaves;  the  partial  involucrum  is  small,  and 
composed  of  eight  leaves;  the  proper 
perianthium  is  small  and  quinquedentate  ; 
the  general  corolla  is  uniform  :  the  single 
flowers  consist  each  of  five  deciduous, 
lanceolated,  and  slightly  crooked  petals ; 
the  fruit  is  naked,  roundish,  angular,  and 
separable  into  two  parts ;  the  seeds  are 
two,  of  an  oval  figure,  plain  on  one  side, 
and  convex  or  striated  on  the  other. 

All  the  sorts  may  be  increased  by  seeds. 
The  common  angelica  delights  in  a  moist 
soil,  in  which  the  seeds  should  be  sown 
soon  after  they  are  ripe ;  and  when  the 
plants  are  about  six  inches  high,  they 
should  be  transplanted  at  a  large  distance, 
about  three  feet  asunder,  on  the  sides  of 
ditches  or  pools  of  water.  In  the  second 
year  they  will  flower,  and  their  stems  may 
be  cut  down  in  May,  and  heads  will  be 
put  out  from  the  sides  of  the  roots,  and 
thus  they  may  be  continued  for  three  or 
four  years;  but  if  they  have  been  permit- 
ted to  seed,  their  roots  would  perish  soon 
after. — The  stalks  of  garden  angelica  were 
formerly  blanched,  and  eaten  as  celery. 
The  young  shoots  are  in  great  esteem 
among  the  Laplanders.  In  Norway,  bread 
is  sometimes  made  of  ihe  roots.  The  gar- 
deners near  London,  who  have  ditches  of 
water  in  their  gardens,  propagate  great 
quantities  of  this  plant,  which  they  sell  to 
the  confectioners,  who  make  a  sweet- 
meat with  the  tender  stalks  cut  in  May. 
Bohemia  and  Spain  are  supposed  to  pro- 
duce the  best :  the  College  of  London 
fot  .ntriy  directed  the  roots  brought  from 
Spam  only  to  be  kept  in  the  shops.  Liu- 


ANG 


ANG 


usus,  however,  assures  us,  that  the  plant 
proves  most  vigorous  on  its  native  north- 
ern mountains,  and  gives  a  decided  pre- 
ference to  the  root  dug  here,  either  early 
in  the  spring  or  late  in  the  autumn.  The 
roots  of  angelica  are  one  of  the  principal 
aromatics  of  European  growth, though  not 
much  regarded  in  the  present  practice. 
They  have  a  fragrant  agreeable  smell,  and 
a  bitterish  pungent  taste  ;  on  being  chew- 
ed they  are  first  sweetish,afterwards  acrid, 
and  leave  a  glowing  heatin  the  mouth  and 
fauces,  which  continues  for  some  time. 
The  stalk,  leaves,  and  seeds,  appear  to 
possess  the  same  qualities,  though  in  an 
inferior  degree.  Dr.  Lewis  says,  that  on 
wounding  the  fresh  root  early  in  the  spring, 
it  yields,  from  the  inner  part  of  the  bark, 
an  unctuous,  yellowish,  odorous  juice, 
which,  gently  exsiccated,  retains  its  fra- 
grance, and  proves  an  elegant,  aromatic, 
gummy,  resin.  Rectified  spirit  extracts 
the  whole  of  the  virtues  of  the  root;  wa- 
ter but  very  little ;  and,  in  distillation  with 
the  latter,  a  small  portion  of  very  pungent 
essential  oil  may  be  obtained.  The  Lap- 
landers extol  the  utility  of  angelica,  not 
only  as  food  but  as  medicine.  For  coughs, 
hoarseness,  and  other  disorders  of  the 
breast,  they  eat  the  stalks,  roasted  in  hot 
ashes ;  they  also  boil  the  tender  flowers 
in  dairy  milk,  till  it  attains  the  consistence 
of  an  extract ;  and  they  use  this  to  pro- 
mote perspiration  in  catarrhal  fevers,  and 
to  strengthen  the  stomach  in  diarrhoea,  &c. 
According  to  the  explanations  of  Sir  John 
Pringle,  the  herb  is  antiseptic,  but  the 
efficacy  of  the  leaves  is  soon  lost  by  drying 
them.  The  seeds  also,  which  come  near- 
est to  the  roots,  can  scarce  be  kept  till  the 
spring  after  they  are  gathered,  without 
thekloss  of  their,vegetative  power,  as,  well 
as  a  diminution  of  their  medicinal  virtue. 
These  are  the  only  parts  of  the  plant 
which  are  ordered  by  the  London  College, 
and  that  only  in  compound  spirit  of  ani- 
seed. The  aromatic  quality  of  the  root  is 
more  considerable  than  that  of  any  other 
part ;  but  many  other  simples  surpass  an- 
gelica in  aromatic  and  carminative  pow- 
ers; it  is  seldom  employed  in  the  present 
practice.  All  the  parts  of  the  wild  angelica 
are  similar  in  quality  to  those  of  the  former 
species,  but  rather  weaker,  and  the  former 
may  be  morejeasily  procured.  Co\vs,goats, 
and  swine,  eat  it,  but  horses  refuse  it. 

ANGIOPTERIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Cryptogamia  Filices.  Essen,  char, 
fructification  oval,  sessile,  in  a  line  near 
the  margin  of  the  frond,  approximate  in  a 
•double  row,  one  celled. 

ANG1OSPERMIA,  in  botany,  a  term 
used,  by  Linnxus,  to  express  the  second 


order  of  the  Didynamise  plants,  which 
have  seeds  not  lodged  naked  within  the 
cup,  as  in  Gymnospermia,  but  inclosed  in 
a  capsule,  and  adhering  to  a  receptacle 
in  the  middle  of  a  pericarp.  The  class  of 
Didynamia  contains  the  labiated  and  per- 
sonated plants.  The  Angiospermia  are 
the  personated  ;  the  others  the  labiated 
kind.  In  this  order  many  of  the  corollas 
are  personate,  or  labiate,  with  lips  closed^ 
some,  however,  have  bell-shaped,  wheel- 
shaped,  or  triangular  corollas.  To  have 
seeds  inclosed  in  a  pericarp  is  common  to 
all ;  and  hence  the  name  of  the  order  An- 
giospermia. This  order  contains  87  genera. 

ANGLE,  in  geometry,  the  inclination 
of  two  lines  meeting  one  another  in.  a 
point,  and  called  the  legs  of  the  angle. 
See  GEOMETRY. 

ANGLING,  may  be  defined  the  art  of 
catching  fish  by  a  rod  and  line,  furnished 
with  a  hook  and  bait,  or  artificial  fly.  It 
is  divided  into  two  species  principally,  fly 
fishing  and  bait  fishing:  the  first  is  perform- 
ed by  the  use  of  artificial  flies,  which  are 
made  to  imitate  natural  flies  so  exactly, 
that  fish  take  them  with  equal  eagerness. 
The  second  species  of  angling  isefi'ected 
by  the  application  to  the  hook  of  a  variety 
of  worms,  grubs,  small  fish,  parts  of  fish, 
and  a  number  of  other  matters,  which  shall 
be  detailed  more  particularly. 

Fly  fishing  requires  more  skill  and  ad- 
dress than  bait  fishing;  and  the  formation 
of  the  artificial  flies,  for  it  is  an  art  in  itself 
of  so  much  nicety  ,that  to  give  any  just  idea 
of  it,  we  must  devote  an  article  to  it  par- 
ticularly.  See  FISHING  FLIES. 

To  constitute  a  good  angler,  a  know- 
ledge of  the  natural  history  of  the  fish  he 
desires  to  take  is  essentially  necessary; 
without  this,  he  cannot  perfectly  know  the 
bait  most  suitable  to  them  at  different  sea- 
sons, and  in  different  situations  ;  which  is 
so  far  from  being  obvious,  that  there  are 
many  small  rivers  which  are  considered  as 
totally  exhausted  of  their  fish,  by  the  ge- 
nerality of  anglers,  where,  however,  a  few 
of  extraordinary  skill  will  find  good  sportj 
and  take  many  fish  of  the  best  kinds. 

The  fish  caught  by  angling  in  this  part 
of  the  world  are,  the  salmon,  salmon-trout, 
cod,  bull-head,  flounder,  weak-fish,  sea- 
basse,  black-fish,  perch,  rock,  drum,  cat- 
fish, eel,  red  drum,  &c. 

Several  of  these  only  inhabit  the  salt 
waters,  others  migrate  regularly  from  the 
sea  up  the  rivers  to'deposit  their  eggs,ancl 
some  are  found  in  the  fresh  waters  only. 
In  the  lakes,  rivers,  and  other  streams  of 
the  interior,  are  caught  rock,  perch  of 
different  kinds,  a  salmon  trout,  gudgeon, 
carp,  chub,  roach,  redfin,  sucker,  minnow, 


ANGLING. 


(called  minny),  white  and  yellow-bellied 
catfish,  eel,  sunfish,  or  old  wife,  pike,&c. 
&c.  The  common  and  silver  minnow,  on 
account  of  their  diminutive  size,  are  used 
only  <is  bait. 

'i\>  this  list  a  very  large  addition  might 
be  ir.ade,  but  it  would  consist  of  names, 
like  several  of  the  above,  often  local,  and 
confined  exclusively  to  a  particular  state 
strict,  or  applied,  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  to  fish  in  every  respect  unlike 
each  other.  This  vague  nomenclature  is  a 
source  of  constant  error,  and  obviously  in- 
dicates the  convenience,  and  even  neces- 
sity, of  an  universal  language,  such  as  sci- 
entific natural  history  presents  us  with. 

Baits  for  fish  are  principally  natural ;  a 
few  art;ficial  ones  are  used,  chiefly  in 
fishing  for  pike  and  perch,  made  to  imi- 
tate small  fish,  frogs,  &c.  The  natural 
baits  arc  whatever  is  commonly  eaten  by 
fish,  as  worms,  maggots,  grubs,  caterpil- 
lars, snails,  small  fish,  frogs,  roe  of  fish, 
beetles,  butterflies,  moths,  wasps,  grass- 
hoppers. Vegetable  baits  are  sometimes 
used,  as  beans,  wheat,  barley,  and  peas, 
which  last  are  best  when  green,  and 
slightly  builcd  ;  paste  made  of  dough, 
bread,  or  flour,  mixed  with  oil,  and  a  little 
cotton  to  unite  it  together,  also  forms  bait. 
It  is  generally  best  to  colour  it  red,  parti- 
cularly for  smelts. 

Maggots  are  best  procurer!  by  hanging 
up  a  bullock's  liver,  scarified  pretty  deep- 
ly all  over,  covered  loosel),  so  as  to  ad- 
mit flies,  in  two  or  three  days,  living 
maggots  will  appear  on  it,  when  it  should 
be  taken  down  and  put  into  a  pan,  till 
the  gentles  attain  their  full  size  ;  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  fine  sand  and  bran  is 
then  to  be  put  over  the  liver  in  the  pan; 
and  the  maggots  will  in  a  few  days  come 
into  it  and  scour  themselves,  which  ren- 
ders them  tough,  clean,  and  fit  to  be  han- 
dled. Those  produced  in  autumn  will 
continue  in  that  state  all  the  winter,  if 
they  can  get  just  under  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  In  the  spring,  as  the  weather  be- 
comes warm,  they  change  into  flies. 

The  cadbate  is  a  very  excellent  bait. 
This  is  an  imperfect  insect,  resembling  a 
worm,  inclosed  in  a  tube  formed  of  ag- 
glutinated pebbles,  out  of  which  the  head 
and  six  feet  are  protruded  when  in  mo- 
tion ;  it  is  the  larva  of  the  genus  Phryga- 
nea,  ami  is  to  be  found  in  great  plenty  in 
gravelly  and  stony  rivulets,  and  by  the  side 
of  streams  in  large  rivers  a^-nong  stones  ; 
when  you  want  them,  turn  up  the  stones, 
and  you  will  find  the  best  sticking  to 
them.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
them  are  procured,  hang  them  up  in  a 


linen  bag,  and  dip  them,  in  the  bag,onct 
a"  day  into  water,  for  four  or  five  days. 
They  will  then  turn  yellow,  and  become 
tough  and  fit  for  use,  being  much  better 
than  when  they  first  came  out  of  the 
wrater. 

The  lob,  or  dew  worm,  is  found  in  gar- 
dens and  pastures,  late  in  summer  even- 
ings, by  using  a  lanthom  nml  candle. 
They  are  also  dug  up  in  fields,  and  by  the 
sides  of  drains  and  ditches.  To  scour  and 
preserve  them  for  use,  take  some  moss, 
dip  it  into  clean  water,  wring  it  dry,  put 
half  of  it  into  an  earthen  pot,  then  put  in 
the  worms,  and  the  rest  ofthe  moss  at  top; 
cover  it  close,  that  they  may  not  get  out, 
and  keep  it  in  a  cool  place  in  summer,  and 
in  a  warmer  in  winter;  the  moss  should 
be  changed  every  fifth  or  sixth  clay.  In 
a  week  the  worms  will  be  fit  for  use. 
These  directions  will  also  ansvverforother 
species  of  worms. 

Brandlings,  red-worms,  and  gilt-heads, 
are  found  in  the  same  dunghills  together/ 
which  consists  of  hogs'  dung,  horses'  dung, 
and  rotten  earth.  But  the  worms  which 
are  found  in  tanner's  bark,  after  it  has 
been  used  and  become  quite  rotten,  arc 
the  best  of  all ;  but  they  are  generally 
better  for  angling  without  any  scouring. 

Long  white  worms,  found  chiefly  in  tur- 
nip fields,  are  good  bait,  especially  in 
muddy  water.  They  are  preserved  best 
in  some  of  their  own  earth,  kept  damp, 
with  some  moss  over  it. 

Marsh  worms,  found  in  marshy  grounds 
and  rich  banks  of  rivers. 

The  red  worms,  found  in  cow  dung,  and 
dock  worms,  found  about  the  roots  of 
docks,  flags,  and  sedges,  are  all  good  bait. 
As  are  likewise  the  grubs  found  in  cow 
dung,  called  cow-dung  bobs,  which  are  of 
a  yellowish  white,  with  red  heads,  and  the 
short  bobs,  or  grubs,  found  in  mellow 
sandy  land,  which  have  pale  red  heads, 
yellowish  tails,  and  bodies  of  the  colour 
ofthe  earth  wherein  they  are  found,  but 
which  when  scoured  are  of  a  pale  white. 
These  last  are  an  excellent  winter  bait  ; 
the  best  way  to  render  them  tough  is,  to 
put  them  into  boiling  milk,  for  about  two 
minutes,  on  the  morning  which  they  are 
to  be  used. 

Caterpillars,  found  by  beating  the 
branches  of  oaks,  and  other  trees,  that 
grow  over  highwa)  s,  paths,  and  open  pla- 
ces, and  the  cabbage  grubs  found  on  and 
in  the  hearts  of  cabbages,  are  also  excel- 
lent bait;  these  last  are  to  be  fed,  and 
preserved,  with  the  same  kind  of  leaves  on 
which  they  are  found.  Shad-roe  is  like- 
wise a  good  bait;  but  the  numerous  pastes 


ANGLING. 


and  oils,  which  many  have  prescribed  for 
enticing  fish  to  bite,  are  in  the  opinion  of 
the  most  experienced  anglers,  only  idle 
chimseras. 

Worms  are  best  put  on  hooks,  by  run- 
ning the  hooks  in  at  the  head  of  one 
worm,  and  out  about  his  middle,  drawing 
it  up  over  the  shank,  and  putting  on  a  se- 
cond worm  beneath  the  first,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  whose  body  the  point  of  the  hook 
is  to  be  concealed;  the  tails  of  both 
worms  hanging  loose  will  entice  the  fish. 

Ground  bait  is  often  used  with  good 
effect,  particularly  for  barbel  and  for 
perch.  It  should  be  a  general  rule,  that 
the  ground  bait  should  be  always  inferior 
to  that  which  is  used  on  the  hook;  greaves 
therefore  should  not  be  used,  as  is  cus- 
tomary with  some  ;  but  for  this  purpose, 
malt  grains,  bran,  blood,  parts  of  lob- 
worms, and  clay,  all  worked  up  together 
and  made  into  small  balls,  is  the  most 
proper  composition ;  and  two  or  three 
of  these  balls,  thrown  into  the  place 
where  you  desire  to  '>sh,  is  sufficient  at  a 
time.  This  may  be  repeated  now  and 
then,  but  much  should  not  be  used  ;  for 
if  this  should  be  done,  the  fish  will  glut 
themselves,  and  become  less  eager  for  the 
bait  on  the  hook. 

A  good  ground  bait  is  made  for  perch, 
by  taking  three  or  four  balls  of  the  stiffest 
clay  that  can  be  procured,  making  holes 
in  them,  putting  one  end  of  a  lob- worm 
into  each  hole,  and  closingthe  clay  fast  on 
them.  These  balls  should  then  be  thrown 
into  the  water,  about  a  yard  from  each 
other,  when  the  worms,  being  alive  in  the 
balls,  will  move  and  twist  about,  which 
tempts  the  fish  to  feed  upon  them.  But 
by  angling  with  worms  of  a  superior  kind, 
the  fish  will  on  sight  of  them  leave  those 
in  the  clay,  and  seize  the  others  with  the 
greatest  avidity. 

The  tackle  necessary  for  fishing  con- 
sists of  fishing  rods,  lines,  links  of  hair,  and 
of  other  materials  usual ;  hooks,  floats, 
spare-caps,  split  shot,  bait  of  different 
sorts,  including  ground  bait,  shoemakers' 
wax,  twine,  silk,  a  clearing  ring,  which 
being  passed  over  the  rod,  when  the  hook 
is  entangled,  and  drawn  down  the  line  by  a 
strong  twine  attached  to  it  for  the  pur- 
pose, to  the  hook  or  below  it,  if  the  ob- 
struction is  caused  by  weeds,  will  either 
free  the  hook  or  break  the  line  near  it, 
and  prevent  its  being  strained  in  any  other 

£lace,  by  pulling  the  twine  with  sufficient 
>rce.     A  landing  net  is  also   useful   to 
land  large  fish  ;  and  a  gaff,  when  fishing 
for  salmon,  to  be  used  for  the  same  pur- 
VOL.  I, 


pose  ;  which  instrument  consists  of  a  large 
hook  attached  to  the  end  of  a  pliable 
stick  ;  by  passing  the  hook  into  the  nose 
or  gills  of  the  fish,  it  may  be  easily  lifted 
out  of  the  water,  for  which  purpose  a 
landing  net  is  too  small.  A  disgorger  is 
also  necessary,  to  put  down  the  throat  of 
a  fish,  when  he  has  gorged  the  hook,  till 
you  touch  it,  when  on  pulling  the  line  it 
will  be  free.  The  disgorger  is  formed 
by  a  piece  of  flat  wood,  about  six  inches 
long,  and  half  an  inch  wide,  forked  at  the 
ends.  To  these  articles  a  fish-basket 
should  be  added,  to  carry  the  iish  in. 

Fishing  rods  are  made  of  various 
lengths,  according  to  the  sort  of  fish  they 
are  intended  for;  those  for  salmon  are 
about  18  feet  long,  those  for  trout  14  or 
15  feet,  those  for  pike  the  same  as  for 
salmon ;  and  for  other  fish,  either  the 
trout  or  the  salmon,  rods  may  be  used  ac- 
cording to  their  size  and  strength.  All 
rods  should  be  made  to  taper  evenly  from 
the  buts;  and  when  not  formed  of  pieces 
of  the  natural  growth,  which  should  al- 
ways consist  of  ground  shoots,  they 
should  be  made  of  cleft,  timber,  as  sawed 
pieces  can  never  be  depended  on.  Ash 
or  hickory  are  best  for  the  lower  joints, 
yew  for  the  next,  and  the  extremity  of  the 
top  should  always  consist  of  whalebo  ne ; 
the  fewer  joints  used  in  the  rod  the  more 
equal  will  be  its  elasticity  in  every  part ; 
some  have  the  joints  formed  with  screw 
ferules,  and  some  with  sliding  connections 
retained  by  plain  ferules  ;  but  none  are 
better  for  the  elasticity  of  the  rod,  and 
for  security,  than  simple  spliced  joints, 
secured  by  well  waxed  twine  ;  some  re- 
commend those  latter  joints  to  be  previ- 
ously glued  together,  before  the  waxed 
twine  is  applied,  with  glue  prepared  with 
strong  lime  water :  but  it  is  obvious  that 
the  wet  to  which  rods  are  exposed  must 
render  glue  of  little  use :  thick  white 
paint,  or  some  of  the  varnish  hereafter 
mentioned,  would  probably  cement  the 
pieces  together  more  durably.  Whatever 
may  be  the  number  of  permanent  joints, 
the  long  rods  need  not  be  made  to  sepa- 
rate into  more  than  three  long  pieces,  and 
a  short  top  ;  and  the  short  rods  into  two 
pieces,  and  a  short  top  ;  the  lower  joint 
of  trout  rods  should  be  bored  hollow,  to 
contain  a  second  top  ;  for  every  trout  rod 
should  have  two  tops  made  for  it ;  one 
very  pliable  for  fly  fishing,  and  the  other 
stiffer  for  bait;  the  top  not  in  use  will  be 
conveniently  and  safely  kept  in  the  hol- 
low butt.  The  rod  should  be  furnished 
with  rings  for  the  line  to  pass  through, 
from  the  top  to  within  tw<>  feet  of  the 


ANGLING. 


reel ;  and  when  it  is  completed,  it  should 
be  well  varnished  over  with  a  varnish  form- 
ed by  boiling  a  little  scraped  Indian  rub- 
ber, or  coutchouc,  in  half  a  pint  of  drying1 
linseed  oil  till  it  dissolves ;  the  varnish 
should  be  skimmed,  and  be  used  warm. 
The  rod,  after  being-  varnished,  should  be 
laid  aside  till  quite  dry  ;  the  varnish  will 
then  appear  on  it  like  a  fine  thin  bark, 
will  be  very  durable,  and  will  preserve  it 
from  being-  worm  eaten,  and  from  other 
injuries.  The  hollow  part  of  the  rod 
should  be  rubbed  inside  with  linseed  oil, 
three  or  four  times  each  year,  which  may 
be  done  by  a  rag*  dipped  in  the  oil,  and 
tied  to  the  end  of  a  stick. 

Hair  lines  should  be  long,  round,  clear, 
and  free  from  knots,  frets,  or  scales.  For 
fly  fishing,  a  line  should  be  prepared  from 
nine  to  twelve  yards  long,  gradually  ta- 
pering to  the  extremity.  It  is  formed  of 
a  number  of  links  of  hair,  twisted  first, 
and  then  knotted  to  each  other.  The 
four  lowest  links  consist  of  three  hairs 
each,  with  the  weak  tops  cut  off  all  of  a 
length  ;  the  next  four  links  have  four  hairs 
each  ;  the  third  four  links  five  hairs;  and 
so  on  till  the  line  is  completed.  The 
links  are  to  be  knotted  together  with  the 
fisherman's  or  water  knot ;  the  short 
ends  of  the  hairs  are  to  be  cut  oflT pretty 
close  to  the  knots,  and  the  knots  to  be 
whipped  over  with  well-waxed  silk.  A 
loop  should  be  made  at  each  end  of  this 
line:  the  upper  loop  to  fasten  it  to  the 
end  of  the  running  line  at  the  top  of  the 
rod,  and  the  lower  loop  to  fasten  the 
lower  links  to,  which  should  never  con- 
sist of  more  than  two  or  three,  of  either 
gut  or  hair,  for  fly  or  bottom  fishing. 

The  best  colours  for  lines  are  pale 
bluish,  green,  or  watery  grey,  and  light 
bay. 

Running  hair  lines,  or  those  all  of  one 
thickness,  are  made  on  engines  prepared 
and  sold  at  the  fishing-tackle  shops.  They 
may  likewise  be  made  by  passing  hairs 
through  three  short  tubes  made  of  quills 
or  reeds,  secured  by  pegs  at  the  lower 
ends.  The  hairs  are  to  be  knotted  toge- 
ther at  the  top,  and  the  quills  being  then 
turned  round  all  together  between  the 
fingers  will  form  an  equal  twist  above 
them  ;  which  being  drawn  out,  according 
as  the  quills  are  turned  round,  make  the 
line,  fresh  hairs  being  still  put  into  the 
quills  at  the  lower  ends  as  the  upper  hairs 
are  worked  into  the  line. 

The  most  excellent  hooks  are  those 
made  of  the  best  tempered  fine  steel  wire, 
longish  in  the  shanks,  and  strong-  and  ra- 
ther deepish  in  the  bend  ;  the  barbs  well 
formed,  and  the  point  fine  and  straight, 


and  as  true  as  it  can  be  set  to  be  level  with 
the  shank,  which  last  for  fly  fishing  should 
be  tapered  off  to  the  end  of  it,  that  the  fly 
may  be  finished  the  neater.  Hooks  made 
in  this  manner  so  as  to  lie  all  in  one  plane, 
are  much  better  than  twisted  so  as  to  pro- 
ject at  one  si-.le:  they  do  not  make  so 
large  an  orifice  when  the  fish  is  hooked, 
nor  are  they  so  liable  to  break  the  hold  as 
the  others.  The  two  kinds  being  fairly 
tried  against  each  other  for  several  sea- 
sons, considerably  more  fish  were  missed 
in  the  rising,  and  in  biting  at  the  bottom, 
and  much  more  lost  after  being  hooked 
with  the  crooked  hooks,  than  with  those 
above  recommended.  The  best  hooks  of 
the  kind  are  made  in  Limerick. 

Floats  for  angling  are  mude  of  many 
kinds,  as  of  swan  quills,  goose  quills,  Mus- 
covy duck  quills,  and  porcupine  quills. 
The  first  is  the  best,  when  light  baits  are 
used  in  rivers  or  deep  waters,  and  the 
others  for  slow  water,  or  ponds  not  very- 
deep.  For  heavy  fishing,  with  worms  or 
minnows,  a  cork  float  is  best,  made  of  a 
pyramidical  form,  with  a  quill  placed  in  it 
lengthwise  for  the  line  to  pass  through. 
Quill  floats  must  carry  shot  enough  to  sink 
them,  so  as  that  the  top  may  appear  above 
water,  that  the  slightest  nibble  may  be 
better  perceived.  The  cork  floats  should 
have  sufficient  shot  placed  beneath  them 
on  the  line,  to  make  them  stand  upright 
when  the  shot  is  off  the  bottom,  by  which 
it  may  be  known  when  the  shot  is  on  the 
ground  ;  for  then  the  float  will  fall  on  one 
side,  and  no  longer  stand  upright. 

Anglinghasbeen  divided,  bythosewho 
have  written  on  the  subject,  into  many 
other  kinds  besides  those  mentioned.  Of 
these,  float  angling  and  ground  angling* 
may  be  easily  understood  from  what  has 
been  mentioned  already.  Night  angling  is 
performed  nearly  in  the  same  way  as  day 
angling;  but  in  it  the  larger  and  more 
conspicuous  bait,  such  as  garden  worms, 
snails,  and  minnows,  are  best.  Some  lay 
long  lines  in  rivers  at  night,  with  short 
lines  furnished  with  hooks  attached  to 
them  at  certain  intervals ;  and  some  use 
lines  fastened  to  floats  of  various  sorts  ; 
but  these  modes  of  fishing  can  scarcely  be 
called  angling,  properly  speaking.  The 
largest  and  finest  fish  are  often  caught  by 
these  methods. 

Sea  angling  has  nothing  particular  in  it, 
but  that  small  parts  of  fish,  clams  or  crabs, 
are  mostly  used  in  it  for  bait.  The  same 
fish  may  be  caught  at  the  heads  of  piers 
and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  by  the  same 
bait  as  at  sea,  therefore  fishing  in  such 
places  is  classed  with  sea  angling. 

Lastly,  trimmer  angling  is  a  spec.t 


ANG 


ANG 


float  angling.  The  fl  oat  consists  of  a  round 
piece  of  cork,  six  inches  in  diameter,  with 
a  groove  cut  at  its  edge,  in  which  the  line 
is  coiled,  except  so  much  next  the  hook 
as  to  allow  it  to  hang  in  mid-water,  and  so 
much  at  the  ether  end  as  will  reach  to  the 
bank.  When  a  fish  takes  the  bait,  and 
runs  with  it,  the  line  unwinds  off' the  trim- 
mer without  giving  any  check ;  but  it  will 
be  prudent  to  give  a  slight  jerk,  to  secure 
the  fish  when  you  come  to  take  up  the 
line.  This  method  is  very  successful  in 
canals,  large  ponds,  or  other  still  water. 

Before  concluding  this  article  it  will  be 
proper  to  notice,  that  the  weather  has 
much  influence  on  fish.  When  the  wind 
is  in  some  points,  few  fish  will  bite  ;  the 
most  unfavourable  is  the  eastern  quarter. 
A  warm  lowering  day,  with  flyin<  show- 
ers, and  a  slight  ripple  on  the  water,  is  the 
most  favourable.  Water  slightly  disturbed 
prevents  fish  from  seeing  the  tackle,  and 
in  in  they  take  the  bait  most  readily. 
Hence,  whatever  tends  to  disturb  it  so  as 
to  hide  the  line,  without  totally  obscuring 
the  bait,  is  of  advantage.  In  waters  affect- 
ed by  the  tide,  the  flood  is  the  best  time 
for  angling;  but  the  ebb  should  not  be 
neglected.  Whirlpools,  eddies,  mill-tails, 
sides  of  bridges,  and  beneath  their  arches, 
are  places  where  fish  more  readily  bite, 
chiefly  for  the  above  reason ;  and  in  gen- 
eral, a  certain  degree  of  darkness  in  the 
water,  whether  occasioned  by  the  shade  of 
buildings,  rocks,  or  other  bodies,  or  caus- 
ed by  the  agitation  of  its  surface,  or  by 
muddy  streams  flowing  into  it,  is  favoura- 
ble to  angling. 

The  proper  season  for  fishing  is  in  ge- 
neral from  the  beginning  of  spring  to  the 
end  of  autumn;  but  this  depends  much  on 
the  nature  of  the  fish  angled  for:  some 
may  be  caught  at  all  times  ;  others,  as 
those  of  passage,  are  only  to  be  met  with 
at  particular  seasons  ;  and  others,  though 
always  confined  to  one  piece  of  water, 
are  nearly  torpid  during  the  winter,  and 
are  found  only  in  deep  places. — See  Tay- 
lor's Angling. 

ANGUIS,  in  natural  history,  the  sloto- 
ivorm,  a  genus  of  serpents  :  the  generic 
character  is,  scales  both  on  the  abdomen 
and  beneath  the  tail.  There  are,  accord- 
ing to  Gmelin,  26  species.  This  genus  is 
easily  distinguished,  by  having  the  abdo- 
men and  under  part  of  the  tail  covered 
with  scales  of  a  similar  appearance  to 
those  on  the  rest  of  the  animal,  except 
that  in  some  few  instances  they  are  ra- 
ther larger.  The  body  is  of  a  shorter  and 
fclore  uniformly  cylindric  form  than  in  the 
sfenus  Coluber :  the  eyes  are  in  general 
small,  and  the  tail  rather  obtuse.  No  poi- 


sonous species  of  anguis  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered. A.fragilis,  or  common  slow-worm, 
is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  Europe,  in 
similar  situations  with  the  common  snake, 
and  is  a  perfectly  innoxious  animal,  living 
on  worms  and  insects.  It  is  about  10  or  12 
inches  long :  the  tail  measures  more  than 
half  the  length  of  the  animal,  and  termi- 
nates pretty  suddenly  in  a  slightly  acumi- 
nated tip.  The  slow-worm  is  a  viviparous 
animal,  and  produces  occasionally  anumer- 
ous  offspring:  like  other  serpents,  it  varies 
in  intensity  of  colours  at  different  periods, 
and  the  young  are  cftmmonly  of  a  deeper 
cast  than  the  parent  animal.  The  general 
motions  of  the  slow-worm  are  tardy,  ex- 
cept when  endeavouring  to  make  its  es- 
cape :  it  can,  however,  occasionally  exert 
a  considerable  degree  of  swiftness,  and 
can  readily  penetrate  the  loose  soil  in  or- 
der to  conceal  itself  from  pursuit.  They 
are  often  found  in  considerable  numbers 
during  winter,  at  some  depth  beneath  the 
surface,  and  lying  in  a  state  of  torpidity, 
and  again  emerging  from  their  conceal- 
ments on  the  approach  of  spring,  when 
they  cast  their  skin,  and  recover  their  for- 
mer liveliness.  If  struck  with  violence, 
the  body  of  this  animal  will  break  into 
pieces.  A.  corallina,  or  coral  slow-worm, 
is  a  very  elegant  species,  about  18  inches 
long,  and  of  a  considerable  thickness  : 
the  scales  are  moderately  large,  and  the 
head  and  tail  are  remarkably  obtuse.  It 
is  a  native  of  South  America,  where  it  is 
found  in  woods,  and  to  prey  on  the  larger 
insects,  as  the  scolopenclrae,  &c. :  in  colour 
it  sometimes  varies,  a  mixture  of  black 
being  blended  with  the  red  on  the  sides. 
(See  Plate  I.  Serpentes,  fig.  3.)  A.  ven- 
tralis,  or  glass  slow-worm,  is  a  handsome 
species,  about  two  feet  long  :  it  is  a  native 
of  sorth  America  ;  body  ashy-green,  stri- 
ate  ;  lateral  band  black  ;  belly  short,  ap- 
parently joined  by  a  hollow  suture  ;  tail 
verticillate,  three  times  as  long  as  the  bo- 
dy ;  it  takes  its  name  from  the  circum- 
stance of  breaking  to  pieces  in  two  or 
three  places  with  a  small  blow  of  a  stick, 
the  muscles  being  articulated  quite 
through  the  vertebrae.  A.  Jamaicensis,  or 
Jamaica  slow-worm,  found  in  Jamaica, 
about  the  roots  of  decayed  trees,  near 
ants'  nests,  &c.  and  though  it  has  general- 
ly been  deemed  poisonous,  yet  it  is  really 
innocuous;  its  colour  is  an  uniform  pale 
brown,  with  a  kind  of  silvery  gloss  on  the 
scales,  which  are  very  smooth. 

ANGULAR  motion,  in  mechanics  and 
astronomy,  is  a  motion  of  a  body  which 
describes  an  angle,  or  which  moves  cir- 
cularly round  a  point.  Thus  a  pendulum 
has  an  angular  motion  about  its  centre  of 


ANI 


AM 


motion,  and  the  planets  have  an  angular 
motion  about  the  sun.  The  angular  mo- 
tions of  revolving  bodies,  as  of  the  pla- 
nets about  the  sun,  are  reciprocally  pro- 
portional to  their  periodic  times  ;  and 
they  are  also  as  their  real  or  absolute  mo- 
tions directly,  and  as  their  radii  of  motion 
inversely. 

Angular  motion  is  also  composed  of  a 
right-lined  and  circular  motion,  or  in 
which  the  moveable  body  slides  and  re- 
volves at  the  same  time  :  such  is  the  mo- 
tion of  a  coach-wheel. 

ANGURIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monoecia  Diandria  class  snd  order ;  calyx 
five-cleft ;  corolla  five  petalled ;  pome  in- 
ferior, two-celled,  many-seeded. 

ANHYDR1LE,  in  mineralogy,  one  of 
the  sulphate  family,  found  at  Saltz  on  the 
Neckar,  in  Wirtemberg.  Colour  smalt 
blue,  which  passes  into  a  milk  white. 
Massive  :  not  very  brittle.  Specific  gra- 
vity 2.94.  It  differs  from  cube  spar  in  co- 
lour, fracture,  shape  of  fragments,  and  in 
having  a  higher  specific  gravity. 

ANIGOZANTHUS,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  Hexandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der :  corolla  six  parted,  with  unequal  in- 
curved segments :  stamina  inserted  in  the 
throat  of  the  corolla:  capsule  three-celled, 
many-seeded.  There  is  only  a  single  spe- 
cies; a  native  of  New-Holland.  The  stem 
is  leafy,  covered  at  the  top  with  reddish 
hairs,  leaves  linear ;  flowers  umbelled : 
corolla  clothed  with  reddish  hairs. 

ANIMAL,  in  natural  history,  an  orga- 
nised and  living  body,  endowed  with 
the  powers  of  sensation,  and  of  spontane- 
ous loco-motion.  Some  have  defined  ani- 
mals, from  their  loco-motion,  as  being 
capable  of  shifting  from  place  to  place, 
•whereas  plants  adhere  to  the  same  sub- 
ject. This  property  they  assume,  as  the 
great  characteristic  by  which  animals  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  other  orders  of 
beings.  On  this  principle,  however,  oys- 
ters, barnacles,  and  many  zoophytes, 
would  be  almost  excluded  from  the  class 
of  animals,  inasmuch  as  they  usually  ad- 
here or  grow  to  rocks.  8cc.  and  yet  it  is 
certain  that  these  creatures  are  real  ani- 
mals. But  loco-motion  alone  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  constitute  the  generic  difference 
of  animals ;  nor,  indeed,  does  it  sufficient- 
ly distinguish  an  animal  from  a  plant. 
Many  instances  are  produced  in  which 
plants  manifest  loco-motive  power.  This 
is  the  case  with  those  denominated  sensi- 
tive plants,  many  of  which,  upon  the 
Slightest  touch,  shrink  back  and  fold  up 
their  leaves ;  as  the  snail  on  the  slightest 
touch  retires  into  its  shell.  There  are 


some,  on  which  if  a  fly  perches,  instantly 
close  and  crush  the  insect  to  death. 
Plants  also  change  their  position  and  form 
in  different  circumstances  and  seasons: 
they  take  advantage  of  good  weather,  and 
guard  themselves  against  bad  weather; 
they  open  their  leaves  and  flowers  in  the 
day,  and  close  them  at  night ;  some  close 
before  sun-set,  and  some  after;  some 
open  to  receive  rain,  and  some  close  to 
avoid  it ;  some  follow  the  sun,  and  some 
turn  from  it;  the  leaves  of  some  plants 
are  in  constant  motion  during  the  day, 
and  at  night  they  sink  to  a  kind  of  rest 
or  sleep.  It  has  also  been  observed,  that 
a  plant  has  a  power  of  directing1  its  roots 
for  procuring  food ;  and  that  it  has  a  fa- 
culty of  recovering  its  natural  position 
after  it  has  been  forced  from  it.  A  hop- 
plant,  for  instance,  in  twisting  round  a 
pole,  directs  its  course  from  south  to 
west,  as  the  sun  does  ;  if  it  be  tied  in  the 
opposite  direction,  it  dies ;  but  if  it  be  left 
loose  in  this  direction,  it  will  regain  its 
natural  course  in  a  single  night.  A  ho- 
neysuckle proceeds  in  a  certain  direc- 
tion, till  it  be  too  long  to  sustain  itself; 
it  then  acquires  strength  by  shooting  into 
a  spiral  form  ;  and  if  it  meet  with  ano- 
ther plant  of  the  same  kind,  both  these 
coalesce  for  mutual  support,  one  twisting 
to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left. 
There  are  other  instances  in  which  plants 
manifest  a  faculty  of  loco  motion  ;  and, 
perhaps,  in  almost  as  eminent  a  degree 
as  some  animals.  Oysters,  e.  $.  are  fixed 
to  one  place  as  much  as  plants,  nor  have 
they  any  power  of  motion,  besides  that  of 
opening  and  shutting  their  shells ;  nor  do 
they  seem,  in  this  respect,  to  have  any 
superiority,  with  regard  to  the  powers  of 
motion,  to  the  sensitive  plant,  and  others 
of  a  similar  kind.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
form  a  complete  and  satisfactory  distinc- 
tion between  animals  and  vegetables,  as 
well  as  minerals,  it  is  necessary  to  com- 
bine with  spontaneous  loco-motion,  which 
they  unquestionably  possess  in  a  more 
perfect  degree  than  plants,  the  powers 
of  sensation.  These  seem  to  be  unexcep- 
tionably  distinguishing  and  characteristic. 
However,  M.  Buffon.  after  allowing  that, 
although  progressive  motion  constitute  a 
perceptible  difference  between  an  animal 
and  a  vegetable,  this  distinction  is  neither 
general  nor  essential,  proceeds  to  state, 
that  sensation  more  essentially  distinguish- 
es animals  from  vegetables.  But  he  adds, 
that  this  distinction  is  neither  sufficiently 
general  nor  decided.  If  sensation,  he  says, 
implied  no  more  than  motion  consequent 
upon  a  stroke  or  impulse,  the  sensitive 


ANIMAL. 


plant  enjoys  this  power ;  whereas,  if  by 
sensation  we  mean  the  faculty  of  perceiv- 
ing1, and  of  comparing  ideas,  it  is  uncer- 
tain whether  brute  animals  are  endowed 
with  this  faculty.  If  it  should  be  allowed 
to  dogs,  elephants,  &c.  whose  actions 
seem  to  proceed  from  motives  similar  to 
those  by  which  men  are  actuated,  it  must 
be  denied  to  many  species  of  animals, 
particularly  to  those  that  appear  not  to 
possess  the  faculty  of  progressive  motion. 
If  the  sensation  of  an  oyster,  e.  g.  differ  in 
degree  only  from  that  of  a  dog  why  do 
we  not  ascribe  the  same  sensation  to  ve- 
getables, though  in  a  degree  still  infe- 
rior ?  In  examining  the  distinction  which 
arises  from  the  manner  of  feeding,  he  ob- 
serves, that  animals  have  organs  of  ap- 
prehension, by  which  they  lay  hold  of 
their  food  :  they  search  for  pasture,  and 
have  a  choice  in  their  aliment.  But  it  is 
alleged,  that  plants  are  under  the  neces- 
sity of  receiving  such  nourishment  as  the 
soil  affords  them,  without  exerting  any 
choice  in  the  species  of  their  food,  or  in 
the  manner  of  acquiring  it.  However,  if 
we  attend  to  the  organization  and  action 
of  the  roots  and  leaves,  we  shall  soon  be 
convinced  that  these  are  the  external  or- 
gans, by  which  vegetables  are  enabled  to 
extract  their  food ;  that  the  roots  turn 
aside  from  a  vein  of  bad  earth,  or  from 
any  obstacle  which  they  meet  with,  in 
search  of  a  better  soil;  and  that  they 
split  and  separate  their  fibres  in  different 
directions,  and  even  change  their  form, 
in  order  to  procure  nourishment  to  the 
plant.  From  this  investigation,  he  con- 
cludes that  there  is  no  absolute  and  es- 
sential distinction  between  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms;  but  that  nature  pro- 
ceeds by  imperceptible  degrees,  from  the 
most  perfect  to  the  most  imperfect  ani- 
mal, and  from  that  to  the  vegetable  ;  and 
that  the  fresh  water  polypus  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  last  of  animals,  and  the  first 
of  plants.  After  examining  the  distinc- 
tions, this  author  proceeds  to  stafe  the 
resemblances  which  take  place  between 
animals  and  vegetables.  The  power  of 
reproduction,  he  says,  is  common  to  the 
two  kingdoms,  and  is  an  analogy  both 
universal  and  essential.  A  second  resem-  ( 
blance  may  be  derived  from  the  expan- 
sion of  their  parts,  which  is  likewise  a 
common  property,  for  vegetables  grow  as 
well  as  animals;  and  though  some  differ- 
ence in  the  manner  of  expansion  may  be 
remarked,  it  is  neither  general  nor  essen- 
tial. A  third  resemblance  results  from  the 
manner  of  their  propagation.  Some  ani- 
mals, he  says,  are  propagated  in  the  same 


manner,  and  by  the  same  means,  as  vegeta- 
bles. The  multiplication  of  the  sacceron, 
or  vine-fretter,  (see  Aphis,)  which  is,  he 
observes,  effected  without  copulation,  is 
similar  to  that  of  plants  by  seed  ;  and  the 
multiplication  of  the  polypus  by  cuttings 
resembles  that  of  plants  by  slips.  Hence 
it  is  inferred  that  animals  and  vegetables 
are  beings  of  the  same  order,  and  that  na- 
ture passes  from  the  one  to  the  other  by 
imperceptible  degrees;  since  the  proper- 
ties in  which  they  resemble  one  another 
are  universal  and  essential ;  while  those 
by  which  they  are  distinguished  are  limit- 
ed and  partial.  Dr  Watson,  Bishop  of 
Landaff,  has  examined,  with  his  usual 
judgment,  the  distinguishing  marks  be- 
tween animals  and  vegetables.  He  re- 
jects, as  insufficient,  both  figure  and 
spontaneous  motion  ;  and  if  perception 
be  substituted  in  their  stead,  it  will  be 
found  to  be  a  criterion  that  is,  in  many 
respects,  liable  to  exceptions.  However, 
the  ingenious  and  learned  prelate  pro- 
duces many  chemical,  physical,  and  meta- 
physical reasons,  which  serve  to  ren- 
der the  supposition  not  altogether  in- 
defensible, that  vegetables  are  endowed 
with  the  faculty  of  perception.  Dr.  Per- 
cival,  likewise,  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of 
Manchester,  produces  several  arguments 
to  evince  the  perceptive  power  of  vege- 
tables. From  the  reasoning  adduced  by 
both  these  ingenious  writers,  of  which  a 
more  particular  account  will  be  given  in 
the  sequel  of  this  work  (see  PLANTS  and 
VKGKTABLES)  ;  those  who  duly  advert 
to  it  will,  we  conceive,  incline  to  the  opi- 
nion, that  plants  are  not  altogether  desti- 
tute of  perception.  But  on  a  question 
that  has  perplexed  and  divided  the  most 
ingenious  and  inquisitive  naturalists,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  decide.  If  we  extend  to 
the  vegetable  kingdom  that  kind  of  vita- 
lity with  which  sensation  and  enjoyment 
are  connected,  there  will  remain  no  dis- 
cernible boundary  between  this  and  the 
animal  kingdom ;  and  that  which  has 
been  considered  as  the  distinctive  charac- 
teristic of  animals,  and  by  which  they  are 
separated  from  vegetables,  will  be  abolish- 
ed. We  shall  now  add,  that  the  princi- 
ple of  self-preservation  belongs  to  all  ani- 
mals ;  and  it  has  been  argued  that  this 
principle  is  the  true  characteristic  of  ani- 
mal life,  and  that  it  is  unquestionably  a 
consequence  of  sensation.  There  is  no 
animal,  when  apprehensive  of  danger, 
that  does  not  put  itself  into  a  posiure  of 
defence.  A  muscle,  when  it  is  touched, 
immediately  shuts  its  shell;  and  as  this 


ANIMAL. 


action  puts  it  into  a  state  of  defence,  it  is 
ascribed  to  a  principle  of  self-preserva- 
tion. Those  who  adopt  this  reasoning 
allege  that  vegetables  do  not  manifest 
this  principle.  When  the  sensitive  plant, 
for  instance,  contracts  from  a  touch,  it  is 
no  more  in  a  state  of  defence  than  be- 
fore, for  whatever  would  have  destroyed 
it  in  its  expanded  state,  will  also  destroy 
it  in  its  contracted  state.  They  add,  that 
the  motion  of  the  sensitive  plant  proceeds 
only  from  a  certain  property  called  irrita- 
bility ;  and  which,  though  possessed  by 
our  bodies  in  an  eminent  degree,  is  a  cha- 
racteristic neither  of  animal  nor  vegetable 
life,  but  belongs  to  us  in  common  with 
brute  matter.  The  sensitive  plant,  after 
it  has  contracted,  will  suffer  itself  to  be 
cut  in  pieces,  without  making  the  least 
effort  to  escape.  This  is  not  the  case 
with  the  meanest  animal.  An  hedge- 
hog, when  alarmed,  draws  its  body  toge- 
ther, and  expands  its  prickles,  thus  put- 
ting itself  in  a  posture  of  defence  :  when 
thrown  into  the  water,  the  same  principle 
of  self-preservation  prompts  it  to  expand 
its  body  and  swim.  A  snail,  when  touch- 
ed, withdraws  itself  into  its  shell;  but  if 
a  little  quick-lime  be  sprinkled  upon  it, 
so  that  its  shell  is  no  longer  a  place  of 
safety,  it  is  thrown  into  agonies,  and  en- 
deavours to  avail  itself  of  its  loco-motive 
power,  in  order  to  escape  that  danger. 
Muscles  and  oysters,  also,  though  they 
have  not  the  power  of  progressive  motion, 
constantly  use  the  means  which  nature 
has  given  them  for  self-preservation. 
We,  ourselves,  possess  both  the  animal 
and  vegetable  life,  and  ought  to  know 
whether  there  be  any  connection  between 
vegetation  and  sensation,  or  not.  We  are 
conscious  that  we  exist,  that  we  hear,  see, 
&c.  but  of  our  vegetation  we  are  abso- 
lutely unconscious.  We  feel  a  pleasure  in 
gratifying  the  demands  of  hunger  and 
thirst;  but  we  are  totally  ignorant  of  the 
process  by  which  our  aliment  is  formed 
into  chyle,  the  chyle  mixed  with  the 
blood,  the  circulation  of  that  fluid,  and  the 
separation  of  all  the  humours  from  it.  If 
we,  then,  who  are  more  perfect  than  other 
vegetables,  are  utterly  insensible  of  our 
own  vegetable  life,  why  should  we  ima- 
gine that  the  less  perfect  vegetables  are 
sensible  of  it  ?  We  have  within  ourselves 
a  demonstration,  that  vegetable  life  acts 
without  knowing  what  it  does  ;  and  if  ve- 
getables are  ignorant  of  their  most  saga- 
cious actions,  why  should  we  suppose  that 
they  have  any  sensation  of  their  inferior 
ones;  such  as  contracting  from  a  touch, 
turning  towards  the  sun,  or  advancing  to 


a  pole  ?  As  to  that  power  of  irritability 
which  is  observed  in  some  plants,  our  so- 
lids have  it,  when  deprived  both  of  animal 
and  vegetable  life ;  tor  a  muscle,  cut  out 
of  a  living  body,  will  continue  to  contract, 
if  it  be  irritated  by  pricking,  after  it  has 
neither  sensation  nor  vegetation.  Encyel. 
Brit.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  are 
of  opinion  that  plants  possess  powers  of 
perception,  allege  that  their  hypothesis 
recommends  itself  by  its  consonance  to 
those  higher  analogies  of  nature,  which 
lead  us  to  conclude  that  the  greatest  pos- 
sible sum  of  happiness  exists  in  the  uni- 
verse. The  bottom  of  the  ocean  is  over- 
spread with  plants  of  the  most  luxuriant 
magnitude ;  and  immense  regions  of  the 
earth  are  overspread  with  perennial  fo- 
rests. Nor  are  the  Alps  or  the  Andes 
destitute  of  herbage,  though  buried  in 
depths  of  snow  ;  and  can  it  be  imagined 
that  such  profusion  of  life  subsists  without 
the  least  sensation  or  enjoyment  ?  Let 
us  rather,  with  humble  reverence,  sup- 
pose that  vegetables  participate,  in  some 
low  degree,  of  the  common  allotment  of 
vitality ;  and  that  one  great  Creator  hath 
appointed  good  to  all  living  things,  in 
number,  weight,  and  measure. 

ANIMAL  flower,  a  name  given  to  a  va- 
riety of  creatures  of  the  Vermes  tribe, 
that  bear  some  resemblance  to  a  flower. 
These,  for  the  most  part,  belong  to  the 
order  Molluscae ;  the  name  is,  however, 
frequently  given  to  a  different  order,  viz. 
the  Zoophyte's. 

ANIMAL  manures,  in  agriculture,  are 
all  substances  that  are  formed  from  the 
decomposition  of  animal  substances  of 
any  kind;  as  the  muscles,  blood,  hair, 
wool,  bones,  fat,  &c  These  are  generally 
esteemed  as  more  powerful,  in  promoting 
vegetation,  than  such  as  are  derived  from 
vegetable  matters.  On  account,  however, 
of  their  being  but  seldom  procured  in 
large  quantities,  they  are  generally  made 
use  of  in  the  state  of  mixture  or  combi- 
nation with  other  materials.  By  the  ac- 
tion of  ammonia,  which  is  constantly 
formed  during  the  decomposition  of  ani- 
mal substances,  the  mould  is  made  more 
suitable  for  plants. 

AXIMAL,  parts  of,  substances  which 
compose  the  bodies  of  animals  may  be 
arranged  under  the  following  heads  : 

1.  Bones  and  Shells 

2.  Horns  and  Nails 

3.  Muscles 

4.  Skin 

5.  Membranes 

6.  Tendons  and  ligaments 


ANI 


ANI 


f.  Glands 

8.  Brain  and  nerves 

9.  Hair  and  feathers 

10.  Silk  and  similar  bodies. 

Besides  these  substances,  which  con- 
stitute the  solid  part  of  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals, there  are  a  number  of  fluids,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  the  blood, 
which  pervades  every  part  of  the  system 
in  all  the  larger  animals :  the  rest  are 
known  by  the  name  of  secretions,  because 
they  are  formed,  or  secreted,  as  the  ana- 
tomists term  it,  from  the  blood.  The 
Erincipal  animal  secretions  are  the  fol- 
>wing : 

1.  Milk 

2.  Eggs 

3.  Saliva 

4.  Pancreatic  juice 

5.  Bile 

6.  Cerumen 

7.  Tears 

8.  Liquor  of  the  pericardium 

9.  Humours  of  the  eye 

10.  Mucus  of  the  nose,  &c. 

11.  Sinovia 

»  12.  Semen  • 

13.  Liquor  of  the  amnios 

14.  Poisonous  secretions. 

Various  substances  are  separated  either 
from  the  blood  or  the  food,  on  purpose  to 
be  afterwards  thrown  out  of  the  body  as 
useless  or  hurtful.  These  are  called  ex- 
cretions. The  most  important  of  them 
are, 

1.  Urine. 

2.  Fxces. 

Besides  the  liquids  which  are  secreted 
for  the  different  purposes  of  healthy  ani- 
mals, there  are  others  which  make  their 
appearance  only  during  disease,  and 
which  may  therefore  be  called  morbid 
secretions.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  the  following : 

1.  Pus 

2.  The  liquor  of  dropsy 

3.  The  liquor  of  blisters. 

To  these  we  must  add  several  solid  bo- 
dies, which  are  occasionally  formed  in 
different  cavities,  in  consequence  of  the 
diseased  action  of  the  parts.  They  may 
be  called  morbid  concretions.  The  most 
remarkable  of  them  are  the  following : 

1.  Salivary  calculi 

2.  Concretions  in  the  lungs,  liver, 

brain,  &c. 

3.  Intestinal  calculi 


4.  Biliary  calculi 

5.  Urinary  calculi 

6.  Gouty  calculi. 

ANIMAL  substances,  or  those  which 
have  hitherto  been  detected  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  and  of  which  the  different  parts 
of  animals,  as  far  as  these  have  been  ana- 
lysed, are  found  to  be  composed,  may  be 
arranged  under  the  following  heads  : 

1.  Gelatine 

2.  Albumen 

3.  Mucus 

4.  Fibrin 

5.  Urea 

6.  Saccharine  matter 

7.  Oils 

8.  Resins 

9.  Sulphur 

10.  Phosphorus 

11.  Acids 

12.  Alkalies 

13.  Earths 

14.  Metals. 

Seethe  several  articles  in  their  alphabe- 
tical order. 

ANIMAL,  functions  of.  See  ASSIMILA- 
TION, DIGESTION,  PERSPIRATION,  RESPI- 
RATION, 8cc. 

ANIMALS,  generation  of.  See  the  arti- 
cle GENERATION. 

ANIMALS,  in  heraldry,  are  much  used, 
both  as  bearings  and  supporters.  It  is  to 
be  observed,  that  in  blazoning,  animals 
must  be  interpreted  in  the  best  s^nse, 
and  so  as  to  redound  to  the  greatest  ho- 
nour of  the  bearers.  For  exam  pie,  the  fox 
being  renowned  for  wit,  and  likewise  giv- 
en to  niching  for  his  prey ;  if  this  be  the 
charge  of  an  escutcheon,  we  must  con- 
ceive the  quality  represented  to  be  his 
wit,  and  not  his  theft.  All  beasts  must  be 
figured  in  their  most  noble  action  ;  as  a 
lion  rampant,  a  leopard  or  wolf  passant,  a 
horse  running  or  vaulting,  a  greyhound 
coursing,  a  deer  tripping,  and  a  lamb  go- 
ing with  a  smooth  pace.  In  like  manner, 
every  animal  must  be  moving  and  looking 
to  the  right  side  of  the  shield,  the  right 
foot  being  placed  foremost.  These  are 
the  precepts  given  by  Guillim,and  yet  we 
find  that  there  are  lions  passant,  couchant, 
and  dormant,  as  well  as  rampant. 

ANIMALCULE,  an  animal  so  minute 
in  its  size,  as  not  to  be  the  immediate  ob- 
ject of  our  senses. 

Animalcules  are  usually  divided  into 
two  distinct  sections,  visible,  and  micro- 
scopical. The  first,  though  visible,  can- 
not be  accurarely  discerned  without  the 
help  of  glasses  :  the  second  are  discover- 


ANIMALCULES. 


able  only  by  the  microscope.  Some  have 
supposed  there  are  others  invisible.  The 
existence  of  these  cannot  well  be  disput- 
ed, though  it  cannot  be  asserted,unless  we 
conclude  that  the  microscope  has  not  yet 
arrived  at  its  highest  degree  of  perfection. 
Reason  and  analogy  give  some  support  to 
the  conjectures  of  naturalists  in  this  re- 
spect: animalculesare  discerned  of  various 
sizes,  from  those  which  are  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  to  such  as  appear  only  like 
moving  points  under  the  microscopic  len- 
ses of  the  greatest  powers  ;  and  it  is  not 
unreasonable  to  imagine,  therefore,  that 
there  are  others,  which  may  still  resist  the 
action  of  the  microscope,  as  the  fixed  stars 
do  that  of  the  telescope,  with  the  greatest 
powers  hitherto  invented. 

Animalcules,  visible  ,•  amongst  these  are 
included  an  amazing  variety  of  creatures, 
by  no  means  of  analogous  natures  Those 
numerous  creatures  which  crowd  the  wa- 
ter in  the  summer  months,  changing  it 
sometimes  of  a  deep  or  pale  red  colour, 
green,  yellow,  &c.  are  of  this  description. 
The  large  kinds  are  chiefly  of  the  insect, 
or  vermes  tribes,  and  of  which  the  mono- 
culus  pulex  is  particularly  remarkable, 
being  found  sometimes  in  such  abundance, 
as  to  change  the  water  apparently  to  a 
deep  red.  A  simlar  appearance  is  like- 
wise occasioned  by  the  circaria  mutabilis, 
when  it  varies  in  colour  from  green  to 
red ;  vorticella  fasciculata  also  changes  it 
to  green  ;  and  rotatoria  to  yellow.  To 
this  section  we  must  also  refer  many  of 
the  acarus  and  hydrachna  genera,  and  a 
multitude  of  other  creatures  that  will  be 
noticed  hereafter. 

Animalcules,  microscopical  The  micro- 
scope discovers  legions  of  animalcules  in 
most  liquors,  as  water,  vinegar,  beer,dew, 
&c.  They  are  also  found  in  rain  and 
several  chalybeate  waters,  and  in  infu- 
sions of  both  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, as  the  seminal  fluids  of  animals, 
pepper,  oats,  wheat,  and  other  grain,  tea, 
&c.  &c.  The  contemplation  of  animal- 
cules has  made  the  ideas  of  infinitely 
small  bodies  extremely  familiar  to  us  A 
mite  was  anciently  thought  the  limit  of 
littleness  ;  but  we  are  not  now  surprised 
to  be  told  of  animals  twenty-seven  mil- 
lions of  times  smaller  than  a  mite.  Mi- 
nute animals  are  found  proportionably 
much  stronger,  more  active  and  vivacious 
than  large  ones.  The  spring  of  a  flea  in 
its  leap,  how  vastly  does  it  outstrip  any 
thing  greater  animals  are  capable  of!  A 
mite,  how  vastly  faster  does  it  run  than  a 
race-horse  !  M.  de  PIsle  has  given  the 
computation  of  the  velocity  of  a  little 


creature  scarcely  visible  by  its  smallness, 
which  he  found  to  run  three  inches  in  halt 
a  second  :  supposing  now  its  feet  to  be 
the  fifteenth  part  of  a  line,  it  must  make 
five  hundred  steps  in  the  space  of  three 
inches  ;  that  is,  it  must  shift  its  legs  five 
hundred  times  in  a  second,  or  in  the  ordi- 
nary pulsation  of  an  artery.  The  exces- 
sive minuteness  of  microscopical  animal- 
cules conceals  them  from  the  human  eye. 
One  of  tiie  wonders  of  modern  philosophy 
is,  to  have  invented  means  for  bringing 
creatures,  to  us  so  imperceptible,  under 
our  cognizance  and  inspection:  an  object 
a  thousand  times  too  little  to  be  able  to 
affect  our  sense  should  seem  to  have  been 
very  safe.  Yet  we  have  extended  our 
views  over  animals  to  whom  these  would 
be  mountains.  In  reality,  most  of  our  mi- 
croscopical animalcules  are  of  so  small  a 
magnitude,  that  through  a  lens,  whose 
focal  distance  is  the  tenth  part  of  an  inch, 
they  only  appear  as  so  many  points;  that: 
is,  their  parts  cannot  be  distinguished,  so 
that  they  appear  from  the  vertex  of  that 
lens  under  an  angle  not  exceeding  a  mi- 
nute. If  we  investigate  the  magnitude  of 
such  an  object,  it  will  be  found  nearly 
equal  to  TT^^  of  an  inch  long.  Sup- 
posing therefore,  these  animalcules  of  a 
cubic  figure,  that  is,  of  the  same  length 
breadth,  and  thickness,  their  magnitude 
w-.uld  be  expressed  by  the  cube  of  the 
fraction  ^^^  that  is,  by  the  number 

'  that  is'so  many  Parts  of 


1000,000.000,000.000  . 

a  cubic  inch  is  each  animalcule  equal  to. 
Leeuwenhoek  calculates,  that  a  thousand 
millions  of  animalculi,  which  are  disco- 
vered in  common  water,  are  not  altoge- 
ther so  large  as  a  ;  rain  of  sand.  This 
author,  upon  examining  the  male  sperm 
of  various  animals,  discovered  in  many 
infinite  numbers  of  animalculi  not  larger 
than  those  above  mentioned.  In  the  milt 
of  a  single  codfish  there  are  more  animals 
than  there  are,  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
upon  the  whole  earth  ;  for  a  grain  of  sand 
is  bigger  thanfour  millions  of  them.  The 
white  matter  that  sticks  to  the  teeth  also 
abounds  with  animalcules  of  various 
figures,  to  which  vinegar  is  fatal  ;  and  it 
is  known  that  vinegar  contains  animal- 
cules in  the  shape  of  eels.  In  short,  ac- 
cording to  this  author,  there  is  scarcely 
any  thing  which  corrupts  without  produc- 
ing food  to  myriads  or  animalcules.  Ani- 
malcules are  said  to  be  the  cause  of 
various  disorders.  The  itch  is  known  to 
be  a  disorder  arising  from  the  irritation  of 
a  species  ot  acarus,  or  tick,  found  in  the 
pustules  of  the  aliment  :  when  the  com- 


ANI 


ANN 


Maunication  of  it  by  contact  from  one  to 
another  is  easily  conceived,  as  also  the 
reason  of  the  cure  being1  effected  by  cu- 
taneous applications.  In  the  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions,  vol.  lix.,  is  a  curious  ac- 
count of  the  animalcules  produced  from 
an  infusion  of  potatoes,  and  another  of 
hempseed,  by  the  late  Mr.  Ellis.  "  On  the 
25th  of  May,  1768,  Fahrenheit's  thermom- 
eter 70°,  1  boiled  a  potatoe  in  the  New 
River  water,  till  it  was  reduced  to  a  mealy 
consistence.  I  put  part  of  it,  with  an  equal 
proportion  of  the  boiling-  liquor,  into  a  cy- 
lindrical glass  vessel,  that  held  something1 
less  than  half  a  wine-pint,  and  covered  it 
close  immediately  with  a  glass  cover.  At 
the  same  time  I  sliced  an  unboiled  pota- 
toe, and,  as  near  as  1  could  judge,  put 
the  same  quantity  into  a  glass  vessel  of 
the  same  kind,  with  the  same  proportion 
of  New  River  water  not  boiled,  and  co- 
vered with  a  glass  cover,  and  placed  both 
vessels  close  to  each  other."  "On  the 
26th  of  May,  24  hours  afterwards,  I  exa- 
mined a  small  drop  of  each  by  the  first 
magnifier  of  Wilson's  microscope,  whose 
focal  distance  is  reckoned  at  l-50th  part 
of  an  inch ;  and,  to  my  amazement,  they 
were  both  full  of  animalcula,  of  a  linear 
shape,  very  distinguishable,  moving  to 
and  fro  with  great  celerity,  so  that  there 
appeai-ed  to  be  more  particles  of  animal 
than  vegetable  life  in  each  drop."  "  This 
experiment  I  have  repeatedly  tried,  and 
always  found  it  to  succeed  in  proportion 
to  the  heat  of  the  circumambient  air;  so 
that  even  in  winter,  if  the  liquors  are  kept 
properly  warm,  at  least  in  two  or  three 
days  the  experiment  will  succeed."  "I 
procured  hemp-seed  from  different  seeds- 
men  in  different  parts  of  the  town.  Some 
of  it  I  put  into  the  New  River  water,  some 
into  distilled  water,  and  some  into  very 
hard  pump-water.  The  result  was,  that 
in  proportion  to  the  heat  of  the  weather, 
or  warmth  in  which  they  were  kept,  there 
was  an  appearance  of  millions  of  minute 
animalcula  in  all  the  infusions;  and,  some 
time  after,  oval  ones  made  their  appear- 
ance. These  were  much  larger  than  the 
first,  which  still  continued :  these  wrig- 
gled to  and  fro  in  an  undulatory  motion, 
turning  themselves  round  very  quick  all 
the  time  they  moved  forwards*. 

ANIME,  a  resin  obtained  from  the  hy- 
menaea  cburbaril,  or  locust  tree,  which  is 
a  native  of  North-America.  It  resembles 
copul  very  much  in  its  appearance,  but  is 
readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  which  copal  is 
not.  It  is  used  as  a  varnish.  Alcohol  dis- 
solves it  completely  ;  and  distilled  over, 

VOL.  I. 


it  acquires  both  the  smell  and  taste  of 
anime. 

ANNALS,  in  matters  of  literature,  a 
species  of  history,  which  relates  events  in 
the  chronological  order  wherein  they 
happened.  They  differ  from  perfect  his- 
tory in  this,  that  annals  are  a  bare  relation 
of  what  passes  every  year,  as  a  journal  is 
of  what  passes  every  day ;  whereas  histo- 
ry relates  not  only  the  transactions  them- 
selves, but  also  the  causes,  motives,  and 
springs  of  actions.  Annals  require  no- 
thing but  brevity,  history  demands  orna- 
ment. Cicero  informsus  of  the  origin  of 
annals :  to  preserve  the  memory  of  events, 
the  pontifex  maximus,  says  he,wrote  what 
passed  each  year,  and  exposed  it  on  tab- 
lets in  his  own  house,  where  every  one 
was  at  liberty  to  read :  this  they  called 
annaks  maxirni;  and  hence  the  writers 
who  imitated  this  simple  method  of  nar- 
rating facts  were  called  annalists. 

ANNATES,  among  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ters, a  year's  income  of  a  spiritual  living. 
These  were,  in  ancient  times,  given  to 
the  pope  throughout  all  Christendom, 
upon  the  decease  of  any  bishop,  abbot,  or 
parish-clerk,  and  were  paid  by  his  suc- 
cessor. In  England,  the  pope  claimed 
them  first  of  such  foreigners  as  he  con- 
ferred benefices  upon,  by  way  of  provi- 
sion ;  but  afterwards  they  were  demanded 
of  all  other  clerks,  on  their  admission  to 
benefices.  At  the  reformation  they  were 
taken  from  the  pope,  and  vested  in  the 
king;  and,  finally,  queen  Anne  restored 
them  to  the  church,by  appropriating  them 
to  the  augmentation  of  poor  livings. 

ANNEALING,  or  NEALING,  the  burn- 
ing or  baking  glass,  earthen-ware,  &c.  in 
an  oven  or  furnace.  See  GLASS. 

ANNOTATION,  in  matters  of  litera- 
ture, a  brief  commentary,  or  remark,  upon 
a  book  or  writing,  in  order  to  clear  up 
some  passage,  or  draw  some  conclusion 
from  it :  thus  the  critics  of  the  last  age 
have  made  learned  annotations  upon  all 
the  classics. 

ANttOTTO,  in  commerce,  a  kind  of 
red  dye,  brought  from  the  West-Indies. 
This  is  otherwise  denominated  arnatto. 
It  is  procured  from  the  pulp  of  the  seed 
capsules  of  a  shrub  called  achiotte  and 
urucu ;  the  bixa  orellana  of  Linnaeus, 
which  grows  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  and 
produces  oblonghairv  pods,  somewhat  re- 
sembling those  of  a  chesnut.  Within  each 
of  these  are  thirty  or  forty  irregularly 
figured  seeds,  which  are  enveloped  in  a 
pulp  of  a  bright  red  colour  and  unpleasant 
smell,  somewhat  resembling1  the  paint 

Hh 


ANN 


ANN 


called  red  lead  when  mixed  up  with  oil ; 
and  it  was  used  as  paint  by  some  of  the 
Indians,  in  the  same  mannner  as  woad  was 
used  by  the  ancient  Britons.  The  seeds, 
together  with  the  red  tough  matter  that 
surrounds  them,  are  softened  in  a  wooden 
trough  with  water,  until,  by  a  kind  offer- 
mentation,  which  spreads  a  very  nauseous 
smell,  and  by  diligent  stirring1  and  pound- 
ing, the  kernels  are  separated  from  the 
pulp.  This  mass  is  then  strained  through 
a  sieve,  and  boiled ;  and  upon  which  a 
thick  reddish  scum,  which  is  the  pigment, 
separates.  When  skimmed  oft",  it  is  care- 
fully inspissated  in  another  kettle;  and 
after  being  repeatedly  cool,  is  moulded 
in  roundish  lumps,  wrapt  round  with 
leaves  of  trees,  and  packed  for  sale.  It 
seems  to  partake  of  the  nature  of  vegeta- 
ble albuminous  matter.  The  method  of 
extracting  the  pulp,  and  preparing  it  for 
market,  is  simply  by  boiling  the  seeds  in 
clear  water,  till  they  are  perfectly  extri- 
cated; after  which  the  seeds  are  taken 
out,  and  the  water  left  undisturbed  for  the 
pulp  to  subside.  It  is  then  drained  off, 
and  the  sediment  distributed  into  shallow 
vessels,  and  dried  generally  in  the  shade. 
The  annotto  is  now  only  prepared  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  English  had  formerly  a 
manufacture  at  St.  ^ng-elo,  now  ruined. 
This  drug  is  preferred  by  the  dyers  to 
indigo,  and  sold  one  fourth  dearer.  The 
double  Gloucester  cheese  is  coloured  with 
this  dye,  not  with  marygolds.  Some  of 
the  Dutch  farmers  use  it  to  give  a  rich 
colour  to  their  butter,  and  great  quantities 
are  said  to  be  applied  to  the  same  purpose 
in  the  English  dairies.  The  poor  people 
use  it  instead  of  saffron ;  and  it  is  some- 
times mixed  as  an  ingredient  in  chocolate, 
during  the  grinding  of  the  cocoa,  in  the 
quantity  of  about  two  drams  to  th,e  pound, 
in  order  to  give  it  a  reddish  colour;  but  the 
opinion  of  its  being  an  earth  has  brought 
it  into  disrepute,  and  this  use  of  it  has 
been  discontinued.  To  water  it  gives  on- 
ly a  pale  brownish  j  ellow  colour,  and  is 
not  soluble  in  that  liquid,  nor  in  spirit  of 
wine;  but,  in  order  to  be  fit  for  dyeing,  it 
requires  an  alkaline  menstruum,  to  which 
it  gives  a  bright  orange  colour;  andhence 
it  is  useful  as  an  ingredient  in  varnishes 
and  lacquers,  and  in  dying  wax  of  a  ver- 
million  colour.  Wool  and  silk,  boiled  in 
a  solution  of  it  by  alkaline  salts  and  water, 
acquire  a  deep,  but  not  a  durable  orange 
dye ;  for  though  it  is  not  changed  by  alum 
or  acids,  it  is  discharged  by  soaps,  and  de- 
stroyed by  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  said 
to  be  an  antidote  to  the  poisonous  juice 
of  manihot,  or  cassada.  The  liquid,  sold 


under  the  name  of  "  Scott's  nankeen 
dye,"  seems  to  be  nothing  but  annotto 
dissolved  in  alkaline  ley. 

ANNOYANCE,  in  law,  any  injury  done 
to  a  public  place,  as  a  high-way,  bridge, 
or  common  river ;  or  to  a  private  way,  as 
laying  any  thing  that  may  breed  infection, 
by  encroaching,  Sec. 

ANNUAL  plants,  generally  called  an- 
nuals, in  gardening,  signify  such  plants  as 
are  of  one  year's  duration,  or  which  con- 
tinue for  a  few  months  only.  Plants  that 
rise  from  seed  sown  in  the  spring  arrive 
at  maturity  in  the  summer  or  autumn  fol- 
lowing, producing  flowers  and  ripe  seed, 
and  which  afterwards  perish  in  their  tops 
and  roots,  are  commonly  regarded  as  an- 
nuals. The  plants  of  this  tribe  are  very 
numerous,  as  most  of  those  of  the  herba- 
ceous kinds,  consisting  of  uncultivated 
plants, weeds,  &c.  and  also  a  great  number 
of  cultivated  garden  and  field  plants,  both 
of  the  esculent  and  flowery  ornamental 
kinds,  are  of  this  description.  The  last  sort 
are  often  termed  simply  annuals.  These 
are  divided  into  the  hardy  and  tender 
kinds;  the  former  are  sown  in  places  where 
they  are  designed  to  remain  without  trans- 
planting, but  the  latter  are  usually  sown 
in  hot-beds,  in  order  to  be  transplanted  in 
the  spring,  either  into  pots  or  borders. 

ANNUITIES,  any  income  of  a  certain 
yearly  amount,  payable  at  particular  peri- 
ods, which  may  be  either  yearly,  half- 
yearly,  quarterly,  monthly,  weekly,  or  at 
any  other  intervals.  They  are  usually  dis- 
tinguished into  annuities  certain,  and  con- 
tingent annuities,  or  such  as  are  for  an  un- 
certain period,  being  determinable  by 
some  future  event,  such  as  the  failure  of 
a  life  or  lives. 

The  present  value  of  an  annuity  is  that 
sum,  which,  if  improved  at  compound  in- 
terest, would  be  sufficient  to  pay  the  an- 
nuity ;  the  present  value  of  an  annuity 
certain,  payable  yearly,  and  of  which  the 
first  payment  is  to  be  made  at  the  end  of 
a  year,  may  therefore  be  calculated  in  the 
following  manner. 

Suppose  a  person  has  1001.  due  to  him 
a  twelve  month  hence,  and  he  wishes  to 
have  the  value  of  the  same  advanced  im- 
mediately, the  sum  which  ought  to  be  giv- 
en as  an  equivalent  thereto,  allowing  5  per 
cent  interest,  is  951.  4s.  9$d.  for  this  is  the 
sum,  which,  put  out  to  interest,  at  the  rate 
of  5  per  cent,  will,  at  the  end  of  the  year, 
amount  to  100 1.  So  also,  if  a  person  has 
1001.  due  to  him  at  the  end  of  two  years, 
and  he  wishes  to  have  the  value  of  the 
same  advanced  immediately,  the  sum 
which  ought  to  be  given  as  an  equivalent 


ANNUITIES. 


thereto  is  901.  Us.0$d.  for  this  isthe  sum, 
which,  put  out  at  the  same  rate  of  interest, 
will,  at  the  end  of  two  years,  amount  to 
1001.  In  like  manner,  if  a  person  has  1001. 
due  to  him  at  the  end  of  three  years,  and 
lie  wishes  to  have  the  same  advanced  im- 
mediately, the  sum  which  ought  to  be 
given  as  an  equivalent  thereto  is  86/.  7s. 
8d.  for  this  is  the  sum  which,  at  the  same 
rate  of  interest,  will  at  the  end  of  three 
years  amount  to  1001.  And  if  these  three 
ralues  are  added  tog-ether,  they  will  make 
272/.  6s.  6d.  being  the  sum  which  ought 
to  be  paid  down  for  an  annuity  of  1001.  for 
three  years  ;  as  this  sum  improved  at  the 
given  rate  of  interest  is  just  sufficient  to 
make  the  three  yearly  payments. 

As  the  amount  or  present  worth  of  17. 
for  any  given  term  is  usually  adopted  as 
the  foundation  of  calculations  relating  to 
annuities,  let  r  represent  the  amount  of 
17.  in  one  year;  that  is,  one  pound  in- 
creased by  a  year's  interest;  then  r«,  or  r 
raised  to  the  power  whose  exponent  is 
any  given  number  of  years,  will  be  the 
amount  of  II.  in  those  years  ;  its  increase 
in  the  same  time  is  r"  —  1  :  now  the 
interest  for  a  single  year,  or  the  annui- 
ty corresponding  with  the  increase,  is  r  — 
1  ;  therefore  as  i  --  1  is  to  r"  —  1,  so  is  u 
(any  given  annuity)  to  a  its  amount: 
hence  we  have 


EXAMPLE.  —  To  what  sum  will  an  an- 
nuity of  50/.  amount  in  6  years,  at  5  per 
cent,  per  annum,  compound  interest  ? 

50  x"TO-S">6"1=  340J.  19s.  Id. 

"~705~~ 

In  this  manner  the  amount  of  an  annuity 
for  any  number  of  years,  at  any  given  rate 
of  interest,  may  be  found.  But  when  the 
term  of  years  is  considerable,  it  will  be 
more  convenient  to  work  by  logarithms, 
by  which  the  labour  of  all  calculations  re- 
lating to  compound  interest  is  greatly 
abridged.  There  is,  however,  little  occa- 
sion in  general  to  calculate  the  amount,  or 
present  worth  of  annuities,  except  for 
particular  rates  of  interest,  as  the  follow- 
ing tables,  and  others  of  a  similar  nature, 
for  different  rates  of  interest,  which  are 
given  in  most  books  on  compound  inter- 
est, save  much  time  and  labour  in  com- 
mon practice,  and  are  therefore  in  gene- 
ral use. 

TABLE  I. 

Shewing  the  amount  of  an  annuity  of  17. 
in  any  number  of  years  not  exceeding 
100,  at  5  per  cent,  per  annum,  com- 
pound interest. 


Yrs 

Amo. 

Yrs. 

Amount. 

Vrs 

Amount. 

1 

1,0000 

35 

90,3203 

69 

559,5510 

2 

2,0500 

36 

95,8363 

70 

588,5285 

3 

3,1525 

37 

101,6281 

71 

618,9549 

4 

4,3101 

38 

107,7095 

72 

650,9027 

5 

5,5256 

39 

114,0950 

73  S  684,4478 

6 

6,8019 

40 

120,7998 

74i  719,6702 

7 

8,1420 

41 

127,8398 

75  756,6537 

8 

9,5491 

42 

135,2317 

76!  795,4864 

9 

11,0266 

43 

142,9933 

77*  836,2607 

10 

12,5779 

44 

151,1430 

78J  879,0738 

11 

14,2u68 

45 

159,7002 

791  924,0274 

12 

15,9171 

46 

168,6852 

80!  971,2288 

13 

17,7130 

47 

178,1194!  81  '1020,7903 

14 

19,5986 

48 

188,0254 

82:1  072,8298 

15 

21,5786 

49 

198,4267 

83.1127,4713 

16 

23.6575 

50 

209,3480 

84'  11  84,8448 

17 

25,8404 

51 

220,8154 

85  1245,0871 

18 

28,1328 

52 

232,8562 

86  1308,3414 

19 

30,5390 

53 

245,4990 

87 

1374,7585 

20 

33,0659 

54 

258,7739 

88 

1444,4964 

21 

35,7192 

55 

272,7126 

89 

1517,7212 

22 

38,5052 

56 

28f,3482 

90 

1594,6073 

23 

41,4305 

57 

302,7157 

91 

1675,3377 

24 

44,5020 

58 

318,8514 

92 

1760,1045 

25 

47,7271 

59 

335,7940 

93 

1849,1098 

26 

51,1135 

60 

353,5837 

94 

1942,5653 

27 

54,6691 

61 

372,2629 

95 

2040,6935 

28 

58,4026 

62 

391,8760 

96 

2143,7282 

29 

62,3227 

63  1412,4698 

97 

2251,9146 

30 

66,4388 

64  '434,0933 

98 

2365,5103 

31 

32 

70,7608 
75,2988 

65  456,7980 
66  480,6379 

99 
100 

2484,7859 
2610,0250 

33 

80,0638 

67 

505,6698 

34  (85,0670 

68 

531,9533 

EXAMPLE  1. — To  what  sum  will  an  an- 
nuity of  1051.  amount,  in  19  years,  at  5 
per  cent,  compound  interest  ? 

The  number  in  the  table  opposite  to  19 
years  is  30,5390,  which  multiplied  by  105 
gives  the  answer,  3206/.  11s.  lOd 

EXAMPLE  2. — In  what  time  will  an  an- 
nuity of  251.  amount  to  3575Z.  at  5  per 
cent,  compound  interest? 

Divide  35751.  by  25/.  the  quotient  is  143; 
the  number  nearest  to  this  in  the  table  is 
142,9933,  and  the  number  of  years  cor- 
responding, or  43  years,  is  the  answer. 

The  present  worth  of  an  annuity,  or  the 
sum  to  be  given  in  one  present  payment 
as  an  equivalent  for  an  annuity  for  any 
given  number  of  years,  is  found  on  simi- 
lar principles  ;  for  as  11.  is  the  present 
value  of  r"  (its  amount  in  n  years,)  and  as 
the  present  value  of  any  other  amount, 
and  consequently 

it  X  fn  —  1 

of : —  must  bear  the  same  propor- 
tion to  that  amount,  we  have 


ANNUITIES. 


EXAMPLE.  —  What  is  the  present  value 
of  50/.  per  annum  for  6  years,  at  5  per 
cent,  compound  interest  ? 


. 

Put  such  questions  are  much  more  readi- 
ly answered  by  the  following  table. 

TABLE  II. 

Shewing"  the  present  value  of  an  annuity 
of  11.  for  any  number  of  years  not  ex- 
ceeding 100,  at  5  per  cent,  per  annum 
compound  interest. 


Y. 

Value. 

Y. 

Value. 

Y. 

Value. 

1 

,952381 

35 

16,374194 

6919,309810 

2 

1,8594H 

36 

16,546852|  7019,342677 

3 

2,723248 

37 

16,711287  7119,373978 

4 

3,545950 

38 

16,8678931  72!  19,403788 

5 

4,329477 

39 

17,017041 

7319,432179 

6 

5,075692 

40 

17,159086 

7419.459218 

7 

5,786373 

41 

17,294368 

75:19,484970 

8 

6,463213 

42 

17,423208 

7619,509495 

9 

7.107822 

43 

17,545912 

77j  19,532853 

10 

7,721735 

44 

17,662773 

78119,555.98 

11 

8,306414 

45 

t7,774070 

79|19,5762U 

12 
13 

8,86325246 
9,39357  J  47 

17,8800o6 
17,981ui6 

80 

81 

19.599460 
19,615677 

14 

9,898641 

48 

18,077158 

82 

19,633978 

15 

10,379658 

49 

18,168722 

83 

16,651407 

16 

10,837770 

50 

18,255925 

84 

19,668007 

17 

11,274066 

51 

18,338977 

85 

19,683816 

18 

11,689587 

52 

18,418073 

86 

19,698873 

19 

12,085321 

53 

18,493403 

87 

19,713212 

20 

12,462210 

54 

18,565146 

88 

19,726869 

21 

12,821153 

55 

18,633472 

9 

19,739875 

22 

13,163003 

56 

18,698545 

:-o 

19,752262 

23 

13,488574 

57 

18,760519 

1 

19,764059 

24 

13,797642 

58 

18,819542 

92 

19,775294 

25 

14,093945  59 

18,875754 

93 

19,785994 

26 

14,375185  60 

18,929294 

94 

19,796185 

27 

14,643034  61 

18,980276 

95 

19,805821 

28 

14,898127  62 

19,028830 

96 

19,815834 

29 

15,14107463 

19,075  84 

97 

19,823937 

3015,372451,64 

19,119124 

98 

19,832321 

31  15,592810  65 

19,161070 

99119,840406 

32  15,802677  66 
3316,002549  67 
34  16.192904  68 

19,201019 
19,239066 
19,275301 

100J19,837910 

EXAMPLE  1.— What  is  the  present  val- 
ue of  an  annuity  of  63/.  to  continue  for  21 
years  ? 

The  value  in  the  table  against  21  years 


is  12,821153,  which  multiplied  by  §3 
gives  the  answer,  807/.  14s  7d. 

EXAMPLE  2. — What  present  sum  is 
equivalent  to  a  nett  rent  of  20^.  per  an- 
num for  69  years  ? 

The  value  in  the  table  against  69  years 
is  19,309,810,  which  multiplied  by  20 
gives  the  answer,  386Z.  3s.  lid. 

If  any  of  the  annuities  in  the  above  ta- 
ble, instead  of  being  for  an  absolute  term 
of  years,  had  been  subject  to  cease,  if  a 
given  life  should  fail  during  the  term,  it 
is  evident  that  the  value  would  have  been 
lessened  in  proportion  to  the  probability 
of  the  life  failing;  and  that  if,  instead  of 
being  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  the 
annuity  depended  wholly  on  the  uncer- 
tain continuance  of  a  given  life  or  lives, 
its  value  must  be  ascertained  by  the  pro- 
bable duration  of  such  life  or  lives.  In 
order  to  compute  the  value  of  LIFE  AN- 
NUITIES, therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  recourse  to  tables  that  exhibit  the 
number  of  persons,  which,  out  of  a  cer- 
tain number  born,  are  found  to  be  living 
at  the  end  of  every  subsequent  year  of 
human  life,  which  thus  shew  what  are 
termed  the  probabilities  of  life. 

Various  tables  or'  this  kind  have  been 
formed  by  the  different  writers  on  this 
subject,  as  Dr.  Halley.  Mr.  Thomas  Simp- 
son, M.  Kersseboom,  M.  de  Parcieux, 
Dr  Price,  Dr.  Havgarth,  Mr-  Waryentin, 
M.  Susmilch,  and  others ;  and  the  true 
method  of  computing  the  value  of  life  an- 
nuities, according  to  the  probabilities  of 
any  table  of  mortality,  is  laid  down  by 
Mr.  William  Morgan  as  follows : 

**  Was  it  certain  that  a  person  of  a  given 
age  would  live  to  the  end  of  a  year,  the 
value  of  an  annuity  of  II.  on  such  a  life 
would  be  the  present  sum  that  would  in- 
crease in  a  year  to  the  value  of  a  life  one 
year  older,  together  with  the  value  of  the 
single  payment  of  II.  to  be  made  at  the 
end  of  a  year ;  that  is,  it  would  be  II.  to- 
gether with  the  value  of  a  life  aged  one 
year  older  than  the  given  life,  multiplied 
by  the  value  of  I/,  payable  at  the  end  of 
a  year.  Call  the  value  of  a  life  of  one 
year  older  than  the  given  life  N,  and  the 
value  of  II.  payable  at  the  end  of  a  year 

—  ;  then  will  the  value  of  an  annuity  on 
the  given  life,  on  the  supposition  of  a  cer- 
tainty, be  i  -f  *X  N  =  i  X  1+Ni  But 

the  fact  is,  that  it  is  uncertain  whether  the 
given  life  will  exist  to  the  end  of  the  year 
or  not ;  this  last  value,  therefore,  must  be 
diminished  in  the  proportion  of  this  un- 


ANNUITIES. 


certainty,  that  is,  it  must  be  multiplied 
by  the  probability  that  the  given  life  will 

b 

survive  one  year,  or  supposing^  to  ex- 
press this  probability,  it  will    be  —  X 


1-N." 

The  values  of  annuities  on  the  joint  con- 
tinuance of  two  lives  are  found  by  reason- 
ing in  a  similar  manner ;  and  such  values, 
both  for  single  and  joint  lives,  are  given 
in  the  following  tables. 

TABLE  III. 

Shewing  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  II. 
on  a  single  life,  at  every  age,  according 
to  the  probabilities  of  the  duration  of 
life  at  Northampton,  reckoning  inter- 
est at  5  per  cent,  per  annum. 


Age. 

Value. 

\ge. 

ralue. 

Age. 

Value. 

Birth. 

8,863 

33 

^,740 

66 

7,034 

lyear 

1,563 

34 

2,6^3 

67 

6,787 

2 

13,4:0 

35 

2,502 

68 

6,536 

3 

14,135 

36 

-',377 

69 

6,281 

4 

4,613 

37 

2,249 

70 

6,023 

5 

14,827 

38 

2,116 

71 

5,764 

6 

15,041 

39 

1,979 

72 

5,504 

7 

15,166 

40 

1,837 

73 

5,245 

8 

15,2J6 

41 

11,695 

74 

4,990 

9 

15,210 

42 

11,551 

75 

4,744 

10 

15,139 

43 

11,407 

76 

4,511 

11 

15,043 

44 

11,258 

77 

4,277 

12 

14,937 

45 

11,105 

78 

4,035 

13 

14,826 

46 

10,947 

79 

3,776 

14 

'14,710 

47 

10,784 

80 

3,515 

15 

14,588 

48 

10,616 

81 

3,263 

16 

14,460 

49 

10,443 

82  3,020 

17 

14,334 

50 

10,269 

83  !2,797 

18 

14,217 

51 

10,097 

84  '2,627 

19 

14,108 

52 

9,925 

85  |2,47l 

20 

14,007 

53 

9,748 

86 

2,328 

21 

13,917 

54 

9,567 

87 

2,193 

22 

13,833 

55 

9,382 

88 

2,080 

23 

13,746 

56 

9,193 

89 

1,924 

24 

13,658 

57 

8,999 

90 

1,723 

25 

13,567 

58 

8,801 

91 

1,447 

26 

27 

13,473 
13,377 

59 

60 

8,599 
8,392 

92 
93 

1,153 

0,816 

28 

13,278 

61 

8,181 

94 

0,524 

29 

13,177 

62 

7,966 

95 

0,238 

30 

13,072 

63 

7,74;j.  96 

0,000 

31 

12,965 

64 

7,5  ;.4| 

32 

12,854 

65 

7,276|( 

The  values  in  this  and  the  following 
tables  suppose  the  payments  to  be  mude 
yearly,  and  to  begin  at  the  end  of  a  year  ; 
but  it  all  the  payments  are  to  be  half- 
yearly  payments,  and  to  be  made  at  the 
end  of  every  half  year  from  the  time  of 
purchase,  the  value  will  be  increased 
about  one-fifth  of  a  year's  purchase. 

The  above  table  is  formed  from  the  pro- 
babilities of  life,  as  deduced  from  the  re- 
gister of  mortality  at  Northampton  for  46 
years,  from  1735  to  1780 ;  and  as  it  gives 
the  mean  values  of  lives  between  the 
highest  and  lowest,  it  is  better  adapted 
for  general  use  than  any  other  extant.  It 
has  of  late  years  been  generally  adopted 
for  calculating  the  rates  of  assurance  on 
lives,  and  is  well  suited  to  this  purpose ; 
but  it  is  by  no  means  a  proper  table  for 
individuals  or  societies  to  grant  life  annul- 
ties  from  ;  for,  having  been  formed  from  a 
register  comprehending  persons  of  all 
ages  and  conditions,  it  cannot  give  a  cor- 
rect representation  of  the  duration  and 
value  of  such  lives  as  usually  form  a  body 
of  annuitants,  such  persons  being  gene- 
rally a  selection  of  the  best  lives  from  the 
common  mass,  the  interest  of  every  per- 
son who  purchases  an  annuity  on  any  life 
requiring  that  he  should  take  care  that  it 
is  a  good  life.  The  best  table  for  regula- 
ting the  grant  of  life  annuities  is  that 
formed  from  the  table  of  mortality  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  D.  Parcieux,  from  the  lists 
of  the  French  tontines,  but  even  this  ta- 
ble gives  the  values  of  the  advanced  ages 
considerably  too  low. 


ANNUITIES. 


TABLE  IV. 


Shewing  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  11.  on  a  single  life,  at  every  age,  according  to  the 
probabilities  of  life,  in  Mr.  De  Parcieux's  table  of  the  mortality.  Interest  at  5  per  cent. 


Age 

Value 

Age.;  Value. 

Age 

Value. 

Age 

Value. 

|Age.|  Value. 

0 

11,083 

18 

15,631 

36 

14,065 

54 

10,418 

72 

5,540 

1 

14,620 

19 

15,550 

37 

13,930 

55 

10,168 

73 

5,232 

2 

15,135 

20 

15,474 

38 

13,786 

56 

9,930 

74 

4,942 

3 

15,509 

21 

15,401 

39 

13,632 

57 

9,682 

75 

4,674 

4 

15,750 

22 

15,328 

40 

13,466 

58 

9,431 

76 

4,429 

5 

15,324 

23 

15,256 

41 

13,296 

59 

9,177 

77 

4,190 

6 

16,041 

24 

15,184 

42 

13,116 

60 

8,923 

!  78 

3,953 

7 

16,118 

25 

15,112 

43 

12,931 

61 

8,669 

1  79 

3,719 

8 

16,169 

26  j  15,040 

44 

12,738 

62 

8,413 

80 

3,501 

9 

16,204 

27  I  14,969 

45 

12,539 

63 

8,155 

81 

3,283 

10 

16,210 

28  i  14,893 

46 

12,333 

64 

7,893 

82 

3,0)72 

11 

16,194 

29 

14,810 

47 

12,119 

65 

7,626 

83 

2,868 

12 

16,145 

30 

14,722 

48 

11,897 

66 

7,351 

84 

2,668 

13 

16,077 

31  i  14,627 

49 

11,666 

67 

7,069 

85 

2,461 

14 

15,994 

32     14,527 

50 

11,425 

68 

6,778 

86 

2,237 

15 

15,901 

33      14,421 

51 

11,178 

69 

6,479 

87 

1,976 

16 

15,807 

34     14,306 

52 

10,926 

70 

6,171 

88 

1,688 

17 

15,716 

35 

14,189 

53 

10,673 

71 

5,586 

89 

1,409 

• 

90 

1,164 

The  calculation  of  the  values  of  joint 
lives  from  any  given  table  of  mortality, 
for  every  combination  of  age,  is  so  labo- 
rious a  task,  that  no  such  table  has  yet 
been  published.  Mr.  Simpson,  in  his  se- 
lect exercises,  gave  a  table  of  the  values 
of  two  joint  lives,  agreeable  to  the  proba- 
bilities'of  life  in  London  ;  but  the  tables 
founded  on  the  London  bills,representing 
the  rate  of  mortality  among  the  inhabi- 

TABLE  V. 

Shewing  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  I/,  on  the  joint  continuance  of  two  lives,  accord- 
ing to  the  probabilities  of  life  at  Northampton.     Interest  at  5  per  cent. 


tants,  taken  in  the  gross,  give  the  values 
of  lives  much  too  low  for  the  middling  and 
superior  classes  of  the  people  in  London 
itself  j  and  are  wholly  improper  for  gene- 
ral use.  A  much  more  comprehensive 
table  of  the  value  of  joint  lives  has  since 
been  calculated  by  Dr.  Price  from  the 
Northampton  table  of  mortality,  from 
which  the  following  table  is  taken. 


Ages. 

Value. 

Ages. 

Value. 

Ages,  i  Value. 

Ages. 

Value.  II  Ages. 

Value. 

Ages.l  Value. 

5-5 

11,984 

10-45 

9,900 

20-25(10,989 

25-80 

3,308  40-45 

8,643 

55-55|  6,735 

5-10 

12,315 

0-50 

9,260 

20-30  10,707 

30-30 

10,255j|40-50 

8,177 

55-60  6,272 

5-15 

11,954 

10-55 

8,560 

20-35 

10,363 

30-35 

9,954i  140-55 

7,651 

55-65  5,671 

5-20 

11,561 

10-60 

7,750 

20-40 

9,937 

30-40 

9,576  40-60 

7,015 

55-70!  4,893 

5-25 

11,281 

10-65 

6,803 

20-45    9,448 

30-45 

9,135  140-65 

6,240 

55-75 

4,006 

5-30 

10,959 

10-70 

5,700 

20-50    8,861 

30-50 

8,596;  40-70 

5,298 

55-80 

3,076 

5-35 

10,572 

10-75 

4,522 

20-55|  8,216 

30-55 

7,999  140-75 

4,272 

60-60 

5,888 

5-40 

10,102 

10-80 

3,395 

20-60!  7,463 

30-60 

7,292'  40-80 

3,236 

60-65 

5,372 

5-45 

9,571 

15-15 

11,960 

20-65i  6,576 

30-65 

6,447,  45-45 

8,312 

60-70 

4,680 

5-50 

8,941 

15-20 

11,585 

20-70|  5,532 

30-70 

5,442:  45-50 

7,891 

60-75 

3,866 

5-55 

8,256 

15-25 

11,324 

20-75    4,424 

30-75 

4,365 

45-55 

7,411 

60-80 

2,992 

5-60 

7,466 

15-30 

11,021 

20-80    3,325 

30-80 

3,290 

;45-60 

6,822 

65-65 

4,960 

5-65 

6,546 

15-35 

10,655 

25-25'  10,764 

35-35 

9,680 

45~65 

6,094 

65-70 

4,378 

5-70 

5,472 

15-40 

10,205 

25-3010,499 

35-40 

9,331 

45-70 

5,195 

65-75 

3,665 

5-75 

4,362 

15-45 

9,690 

25-35;  10,175 

35-45 

8,921 

4575 

4,206 

65-80 

2,873 

5-80 

3,238 

15-50 

9,076 

25-40)  9,771 

35-50 

8,415 

45-80 

3,197 

70-70 

3,930 

10-10 

12,665  15-55 

8,403 

25-45,'  9,304 

35-55 

7,849 

50-50 

7,522 

70-75 

3,347 

10-15 

12,302 

15-60 

7,622 

25-50!  8,739 

35-60 

7,174 

50-55 

7,098 

70-80 

2,675 

10-20 

11,906 

15-65 

6,705 

25-55    8,116 

35-65 

6,360 

50-60 

6,568 

75-75 

2,917 

10-25 

11,627 

15-70 

5,631 

25-60 

7,383 

35-70 

5,382 

50-65 

5,897 

75-80 

2,381 

10-30 

11,304 

15-75 

4,495 

25-65 

6,515 

35-75 

4,327 

50-70 

5,054 

80-80 

2,018 

10-35 

10,916 

15-80 

3,372 

25-70 

5,489 

35-80 

3,268 

50-75 

5,112 

85-85 

1,256 

10-40 

10,442 

20-20 

11,232 

25-75 

4,396 

40-40 

9,016 

50-80 

3,140 

90-90 

0,909 

ANNUITIES. 


To  find  the  value  of  any  annuity  during 
the  continuance  of  a  life  of  any  given 
age,  or  during  the  joint  continuance  of 
two  lives,  it  is  only  necessary  to  multiply 
the  value  in  the  table,  against  the  given 
age,  by  the  annuity ;  or  to  find  the  annui- 
ty equivalent  to  any  certain  sum,  divide 
the  sum  by  the  value  in  the  table  against 
the  given  age. 

EXAMPLES. — What  is  the  difference  in 
value  between  an  annuity  of  50/.  during 
the  life  of  a  person  aged  35,  and  an  annui- 
ty of  60/.  during  two  lives  of  30  and  35, 
to  cease  when  either  of  the  two  lives  shall 
fail  ? 

The  value  in  Table  III.  against  the  age 
of  35  is  12,502,  which  multiplied  by  50 
gives  625.11.  the  value  in  table  V.  against 
the  ages  of  30  and  35  is 9.954,  which  mul- 
tiplied by  60  gives  597.24^.  the  value  of 
the  former  annuity,  therefore  exceeds  the 
latter  by  27/.  17s.  2rf. 

What  annuity  during  his  life,  ought  a 
person  aged  45  to  receive  in  lieu  of  an 
annuity  of  201.  certain  for  the  term  of  18 
years  ? 

The  value  of  an  annuity  certain  for  18 
years,  is  by  table  11.  11.689587,  which 
multiplied  by  20  gives  233.7917/.  this  sum 
divided  by  11. 105,  the  value  of  an  annuity 
during  a  life  of  45,  by  table  HI.  gives  the 
answer  of  211.  Is. 

What  annuity,  during  his  life,  ought  a 
person  aged  40"  to  recieve  for  500/.  ? 

The  value  of  an  annuity  during  a  life  of 
40  years  of  age,  is  by  table  III.  11.837, 
and  5001.  divided  by  this  sum  gives  42/. 
4*.  9d.  per  annum  ;  but  if  the  value  of  the 
life  is  taken,  as  in  table  IV.  (or  13.466,) 
the  sum  to  be  received  will  be  37/.  2s.  7d. 
For  the  values  of  annuities  which  are 
not  to  commence  till  after  a  certain  peri- 
od, or  after  a  given  life  or  lives.  See  RE- 
VEKSIOSS. 

Annuities  are  frequently  granted  by 
parishes,  trusts,  and  public  societies,  for 
the  purpose  of  raising-money  for  the  erec- 
tion or  repair  of  churches,  chapels,  work- 
houses, bridges,  or  other  expensive  build- 
ings, it  being  often  found  practicable  to 
obtain  money  in  this  way,  when  it  could 
not  be  procured  at  the  ordinary  rate  of 
interest;  it  has  likewise  the  recommenda- 
tion of  gradually  extinguishing  the  debt, 
which  might  otherwise  often  remain  a 
permanent  burthen.  Life  annuities  are 
also  frequently  granted,  for  money  bor- 
rowed by  persons  possessing  life  estates, 
and  who,  therefore,  cannot  give  the  lend- 
er a  permanent  security.  As  such  annui- 
ties depend  on  the  life  of  the  grantor,  few 
persons  are  disposed  to  purchase  them, 


unless  they  can  be  obtained  on  such  terms, 
as,  after  allowing  for  the  expense  of  as- 
suring the  grantor's  life,  leaves  an  income 
somewhat  greater  than  the  common  rate 
of  interest.  It  also  frequently  happens 
that  the  annuities  are  not  very  punctually 
paid,  -which,  with  other  risks  attending 
them,  causes  annuities  of  this  description 
always  to  sell  considerably  under  their 
real  value  ;  and  in  some  instances  the  ne- 
cessities of  the  borrowers  have  led  them 
to  make  grants  of  this  kind  on  the  most 
exorbitant  terms.  To  throw,  however, 
some  check  upon  improvident  transac- 
tions of  this  kind,  which  are  usually  car- 
ried on  with  great  privacy,  the  statute  17 
Geo.  III.  c.  26,  usually  called  the  Annuity 
Act,  has  directed,  that  upon  the  sale  of 
any  life  annuity  of  more  than  the  value  of 
10/  (unless  on  a  sufficient  pledge  of  lands 
in  fee  simple,  or  stock  in  the  public  funds) 
the  true  consideration,  which  shall  be  in 
money  only,  and  the  names  of  the  parties, 
shall  be  set  forth  and  described  in  the  se- 
curity itself,  in  words  at  length  ;  and  a 
memorial  of  the  date,  the  names  of  the 
parties,  and  of  all  the  witnesses,  and  of 
the  consideration  money,  shall,  within 
twenty  days  after  its  execution,  be  enrol- 
led in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  else  the  se- 
curity shall  be  null  and  void.  All  con- 
tracts for  the  purchase  of  annuities  from 
persons  under  21  years  of  age  are  utterly 
void,  and  incapable  of  confirmation  after 
the  party  becomes  of  age.  Procuring  or 
soliciting  a  minor  to  grant  any  life-annuity, 
or  to  promise  or  engage  to  ratify  it  when 
he  becomes  of  age,  is  an  indictable  mis- 
demeanor, and  punishable  by  fine  and  im- 
prisonment; as  is  likewise  the  taking  more 
than  ten  shillings  per  cent,  for  procuring 
money  to  be  advanced  for  any  life  annui- 
ty. This  act  does  not  extend  to  annuities 
granted  by  any  body  corporate,  or  under 
any  authority  or  trust  created  by  act  of 
parliament. 

Notwithstanding  these  regulations,  per- 
sons having  occasion  to  raise  money  by  the 
grant  of  life  annuities  were  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  most  disadvantageous  terms, 
as  it  seldom  happened  that  individual  pur- 
chasers would  give  for  such  annuities 
more  than  eight  years  purchase,  on  lives 
above  30  years  of  age ;  or  7  years  pur- 
chase on  lives  above  40  ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  persons  desirous  of  investi  ng 
money  in  an  annuity  on  their  own  life 
were  generally  under  the  necessity  of  ac- 
cepting" private  security,  or  of  waiting  till 
an  opportunity  offered  of  obtaining1  the 
security  of  some  local  toll  or  rates.  To 
remedy  these  inconveniences,  an  act  was 


ANO 


ANS 


passed  in  1793,  authorising  the  Royal  Ex- 
change Assurance  Company  to  grant  and 
purchase  annuities  on  lives,  either  imme- 
diate or  in  reversion  ;  the  rates  according 
to  which  transactions  of  this  kind  are  re- 
gulated  necessarily  vary,  in  proportion  to 
the  current  rate  of  interest  at  which  mo- 
ney can  be  improved  :  a  short  specimen 
therefore  of  the  present  (1808)  rates,  at 
which  the  Royal  Exchange  Assurance 
grant  life  annuities,  will  be  sufficient. 


Age. 

per  cent.; 

Age. 

per  cent. 

per  ann.j 

per  ann. 

15.  .. 

.  51  18s.  Od. 

50. 

...71  16s.  Od. 

20  ... 

.600 

55  . 

..  .8     6     0 

25  ... 

.620 

60  . 

..  .9    4    0 

30.  .. 

.6      60 

65. 

.  .  10    4    0 

35... 

.6    10     0 

70. 

.  .  11     8    0 

40.  .. 

.6    16    0 

75. 

..  12  18    0 

45..  . 

.760 

80. 

..14    8  10 

Several  other  societies,  as  the  Globe 
Insurance,  the  Albion,  the  Rock,  and  the 
Eagle  Insurance  Companies,  have  lately 
granted  life  annuities,  but  it  is  presumed 
they  vary  their  grants  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, as  they  none  issue  a  printed 
table  of  their  rates. 

ANOMALIES,  in  music,  are  those  false 
scales  or  intervals,  which  exist  necessari- 
ly in  all  keyed  instruments,  from  their  in- 
capacity of  a  true  and  perfect  tempera- 
ment. 

ANOMALISTIC  AL  year,  in  astronomy, 
the  time  that  the  earth  takes  to  pass 
through  her  orbit :  it  is  also  called  a  peri- 
odical year.  The  space  of  time  belonging 
to  this  year  is  greater  than  the  tropical 
year,  on  account  of  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes. 

ANOMALOUS  verbs,  ingrammer,  such 
as  are  not  conjugated  conformably  to  the 
paradigm  of  their  conjugation  :  they  are 
found  in  all  languages;  in  Latin,  the  verb 
lego  is  the  paradigm  of  the  third  conjuga- 
tion, and  runs  thus,  lego,  legis,  legit ;  by  the 
same  rule  it  should  be,fero,feris,ferit,  but 
we  say,  fer o,fers,  fert  ;fero  then  is  an  ano- 
malous verb.  In  English,  the  irregularity 
relates  often  to  the  pveter  tense  and  pas- 
sive participle  ;  for  example,  give,  were 
it  formed  according  to  rule,  would  make 
gived  in  the  preter  tense  and  passive  par- 
ticiple ;  whereas,  in  the  former,  it  makes 
gave,  and  in  the  tetter  given. 

ANOMALY,  in  grammer,  that  quality 
in  words  which  renders  them  anomalous  . 
See  the  preceding  article. 

ANOMALY,  in  astronomy,  an  irregularity 
in  the  motion  of  the  planets,  whereby 
they  deviate  from  the  aphelion  or  apogee  .- 


which  inequality  is  either  mean,  eccen- 
tric, or  coequate  and  true. 

ANOMIA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus 
of  worms,  of  the  order  Testacea.  Animal 
an  emarginate  ciliate  strap-shaped  body, 
with  bristles  affixed  to  the  upper  valve  ; 
two  arms,  linear,  longer  than  the  body, 
connivent,  projecting  alternate  on  the 
valve,  and  ciliate  each  side,  the  fringe  af- 
fixed to  each  valve ;  shell  bivalve,  ine- 
quivalve  ;  one  of  the  valves  flattish,  the 
other  gibbous  at  the  base,  with  a  produc- 
ed beak,  generally  curved  over  the  hinge  ; 
one  of  the  valves  often  perforated  near  the 
base  ;  hinge  with  a  linear  prominent  cica- 
trix  and  a  lateral  tooth  placed  within,  but 
in  the  flat  valve  on  the  very  margin  ;  two 
bony  rays  for  the  base  of  the  animal. 
There  are  nearly  fifty  species  enumerated 
by  Gmelin,  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  A.  ephippium  has  a  shell,  round- 
ish, pellucid,  with  wrinkled  plaits  ;  the  flat 
valve  perforated.  It  inhabits  European 
and  American  seas,  and  is  frequently 
found  sticking  to  the  common  oyster. 
About  two  inches  long,  2£  broad  ;  the 
outside  rugged  and  filmy,  the  inside 
smooth  and  pearly  :  varies  in  colour,  but 
generally  with  a  silvery  hue. 

ANONA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  Polyandria  Polygynia 
class  of  Linnxus.  The  perianthium  is 
composed  of  three  cordated,  hollowed, 
and  acuminated  leaves  :  the  corolla  con- 
sists of  six  cordated,  sessile  petals,  three 
alternately  interior  and  smaller  ;  the  sta- 
mina are  scarce  visible,  but  the  anthersc 
are  numerous  ;  the  fruit  is  a  large  berry, 
of  an  oval  figure,  covered  with  a  squa- 
mose  punctuated  bark ;  the  seeds  are  nu- 
merous, hard,  of  an  oblong  figure,  and 
are  placed  circularly. 

ANSERES ,  in  natural  history,  the  third 
order  of  birds,  according  to  the  Linnxan 
system  :  they  are  distinguished  by  a 
smooth  bill,  covered  with  a  soft  skin,  and 
broader  at  the  point ;  feet  formed  for 
swimming  ;  toes  palmate,  connected  by  a 
membrane ;  shanks  short,  and  compress- 
ed ;  body  fat  and  downy ;  flesh  mostly 
tough;  their  food  is  fish,  frogs,  aquatic 
plants,  worms,  &c.  They  make  their 
nests  generally  on  the  ground;  the  mo- 
ther takes  but  little  care  in  providing  for 
the  young.  They  are  frequently  poly- 
gamous. They  are  divided  into  those 
genera  having  bills  with,  and  those  with- 
out, teeth  :  of  the  former  are  the 


Anas, 
Mergus, 


Phaeton,  and 
Plotus 


ANT 


ANT 


Qf  the  latter  are  the 

Alea,  Pelecanus, 

Aptenodytes,  Procellaria, 
Colymbus,  Prynchops, 
Diomedia,  and 

Larus,  Sterna. 

This  ordercomprehends  all  kinds  of  wa- 
ler-fowl  whose  feet  are  palmated.  The 
webbed  feet  of  these  birds  are  admirably 
adapted  to  aid  them  in  swimming;  and 
the  greater  quantity  of  oil  secreted  by  the 
glands  near  the  tail,  and  rubbed  by  means 
of  their  bills  over  all  the  feathers  of  their 
body,  enable  them  to  live  on  the  water, 
without  ever  being  wet.  They  live  most- 
ly on  fish,  and  some  of  them  have  been 
occasionally  tamed  to  the  catching  offish 
for  the  use  of  their  masters.  In  some  of 
the  lakes  of  China,  where  the  water-fowl 
abound,  the  natives  have  the  following  in- 
genious mode  of  catching  them  :  For  se- 
veral days  before  they  attempt  to  take 
them,  many  empty  gourd-shells  are  set 
afloat  on  the  water,  to  habituate  the  birds 
to  their  appearance  ;  and  when  they  are 
observed  to  take  no  notice  of  these  shells, 
but  to  swim-  among  them,  a  man,  with 
one  of  the  same  kind  upon  his  head,  goes 
into  the  lake,  and  wades  or  swims  among 
the  birds,  with  nothing  but  his  head  above 
the  water.  He  now  begins  his  sport,  and 
taking  the  birds  by  their  legs,  draws  them 
under  water,  breaks  their  necks,  and  fas- 
tens them  to  his  girdle,  one  after  another, 
till  he  is  sufficiently  loaded,  and  then  re- 
turns to  the  shore. 

ANSWER,  in  law :  On  an  indictment 
for  perjury,  in  an  answer  in  Chancery,  it  is 
a  sufficient  proof  of  identity,  if  the  name 
subscribed  be  proved  to  be  the  hand-writ- 
ing of  the  defendant;  and  that  the  same 
was  subscribed  by  the  master,  on  being 
sworn  before  him. 

ANT.     See  FOIIMICA. 

ANTECEDENCE,  in  astronomy,  an  ap- 
parent motion  of  a  planet  towards  the 
west,  or  contrary  to  the  order  of  the  signs, 
viz.  from  Taurus  towards  Aries,  &c. 

ANTECEDENT,  in  grammar, the  word 
to  which  a  relative  refers:  thus,  God 
whom  we  adore,  the  word  God  is  the  an- 
tecedent to  the  relative  whom. 

ANTECEDENT  term,  in  mathematics,  the 
first  one  of  any  ratio  :  thus,  if  the  ratio  be 
a  :  ft,  a  is  the  antecedent  term. 

ANTEDATE,  among  lawyers,  a  spuri- 
ous or  false  date,  prior  to  the  true  date  of 
a  bond,  bill,  or  the  like. 

ANTKLOPE,  in  natural  history,  of  the 
Mammalia  class  of  animals,  of  the  order 
Glires.  The  generic  character  is,  horns 

TOT,  1. 


hollow,  seated  on  a  bony  core,  growing 
upwards,  annulated,    or  wreathing,  per- 
manent.    Front  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw 
eight,  and  no  canine  teeth.     Antelopes 
constitute  a  very  numerous   race:  they 
were  formerly,  even  by  Linnaeus,  ranged 
under  the  genus  Capra,  but  now  have  ob- 
tained a  rank  for  themselves  :  their  habits 
and  manners  are  thus  described.     They 
inhabit,  two  or  three  species  excepted, 
the   hottest  parts  of  the  globe  ;    or,  at 
least,  those  parts  of  the  temperate  zone 
that  lie  so  near  the  tropics  as  to  form  a 
doubtful  climate.     None,   therefore,  ex- 
cept the  Saiga  and  the  Chamois,  are  to  be 
met  with  in  Europe  ;  and  notwithstanding 
the  warmth  of  South  America  is  suited  to 
their  nature,  but  one  or  two  species  has 
yet  been  discovered  in  the  new  World. 
Their  proper  climates  seem,  therefore, 
to  be  those  of  Asia  and  Africa,  where  the 
species  are  very  numerous.     "  As  there 
appears  a  generalpgreement  inthe  nature 
of  the  species  that  form  this  great  genus, 
it  will  prevent  needless  repetition  to  ob- 
serve, that  the  antelopes  are  animals  ge- 
nerally of  a  most  elegant  and  active  make ; 
of  a  restless  and  timid  disposition ;   ex- 
tremely watchful,  of  great  vivacity,  re- 
markably swift  and  agile,   and   most  of 
their  boundings  so  light  and  elastic,  as  to 
strike  the  spectator  with   astonishment. 
What  is  very  singular  is,  that  they  will 
stop  in  the  midst  of  their  course,  gaze  for 
a  moment  at  their  pursuers,  and  then  re- 
sume their  flight.     As  the  chase  of  these 
animals  is  a  favourite  amusement  with  the 
eastern  nations,  from  that  may  be  collect- 
ed proofs  of  the  rapid  speed  of  the  ante- 
lope tribe.     The  greyhound,  the  fleetest 
of  dogs,  is  usually  unequal  in  the  course, 
and  the  sportsman  is  obliged  to  call  in 
the  aid  of  the  falcon,  trained  for  the  pur- 
pose, to  seize  on  the  animal,  and  impede 
its  motions,  in  order  to  give  the  dogs  an 
opportunity  of  overtaking  it.  In  India  and 
Persia  a  species  of  leopard  is  made  use  of 
in  the  chase  :  this  is  an  animal  that  takes 
its  prey,  not  by  swiftness  of  foot,  but  by 
the  greatness  of  its  springs,  by  motions 
similar  to  those  of  the   antelope  ;    but, 
should  the  leopard  fail  in  its  first  essay, 
the  game  escapes.     The  fleetness  of  the 
antelope  was  proverbial  in  the  country  it 
inhabited,  even  in  the  earliest  times  :  the 
speed  of  Asahel  (2  Sam.  ii.  18.)  is  beauti- 
fully compared  to  that  of  the  Tzebi ;  and 
the  Gadites  were  said  to  be  as  swift  as  the 
antelopes  upon  the  mountains.  The  sacred 
writers  took  their  similies  from  such  ob- 
jects as  were  before  the  eyes  of  the  peo- 
ple to  whom  they  addressed  themselves; 


ANTELOPE. 


There  is  another  instance  drawn  from  the 
same  subject :  the  disciple  raised  to  life 
at  Joppa,  was  supposed  to  have  been  call- 
ed Tabitha,  i.  e.  Dorcas,  or  the  antelope, 
from  the  beauty  of  her  eyes  ;  and  to  this 
day  one  of  the  highest  compliments  that 
can  be  paid  to  female  beauty,  in  the  eastern 
regions,  is  Jline  el  Czazel,  '  You  have  the 
eyes  of  an  antelope.'  Some  species  of  an- 
telopes form  herds  of  two  or  three  thou- 
sands, while  others  keep  in  troops  of  five 
or  six.  They  generally  reside  in  hilly 
countries,  though  some  inhabit  plains : 
they  often  brouse  like  the  goat,  and  feed 
on  the  tender  shoots  of  trees,  which  gives 
their  flesh  an  excellent  flavour.  This  is 
to  be  understood  of  those  which  are  taken 
in  the  chase  ;  for  those  which  are  fatten- 
ed in  houses  are  far  less  delicious.  The 
flesh  of  some  species  are  said  to  taste  of 
musk,  which  perhaps  depends  on  the 
qualities  of  the  plants  they  feed  upon." 
This  preface  (says  Mr.  Pennant)  was 
thought  necessary,  to  point  out  the  dif- 
ference in  nature  between  this  and  the 
goat  kind,  with  which  most  systematic 
writers  have  classed  the  antelope :  but 
the  antelope  forms  an  intermediate  ge- 
nus, a  link  between  the  goat  and  the  deer; 
agreeing  with  the  former  in  the  texture 
of  the  horns,  which  have  a  core  in  them, 
and  are  never  cast ;  and  with  the  latter 
in  elegance  of  form  and  swiftness. 

The  Common  Antelope. — The  Ante- 
lope, properly  so  called,  abounds  in  Bar- 
bary,  and  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  Afri- 
ca. It  is  somewhat  less  than  the  fallow- 
deer  :  its  horns  are  about  sixteen  inches 
long,  surrounded  with  prominent  rings  al- 
most to  the  top,  where  they  are  twelve 
inches  distant  from  point  to  point.  The 
horns  of  the  antelope  are  remarkable  for 
a  beautiful  double  flexion,  which  gives 
them  the  appearance  of  the  lyre  of  the 
ancients.  The  colour  of  the  hair  on  the 
back  is  brown,  mixed  with  red ;  the  belly 
and  inside  of  the  thighs  white ;  and  the 
tail  short. 

The  Striped  Antelope,— is  a  beautiful, 
tall  gazelle,  inhabiting  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ;  has  long,  slender  shanks ;  its  horns 
are  smooth,  twisted  spirally,  with  a  pro- 
minent edge  or  rib  following  the  wreaths; 
they  are  three  feet  nine  inches  long,  of  a 
pale-brown  colour  close  at  the  base,  and 
at  the  points  round  and  sharp.  The  colour 
of  this  animal  is  a  rusty  brown ;  along 
the  ridge  of  the  back  there  is  a  white 
stripe  mixed  with  brown  ;  from  this  are 
eight  or  nine  white  stripes  pointing  down- 
wards; the  forehead  and  the  fore  part  of 
the  nose  arc  brown;  a  white  stripe  runs 


from  the  corner  of  each  eye,  and  meets 
just  above  the  nose;  upon  each  cheek-bone 
there  are  two  small  white  spots ;  the  in- 
ner edges  of  the  ears  are  covered  with 
white  hair,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck 
is  adorned  with  a  brown  mane,  an  inch 
long;  beneath  the  neck,  from  the  throat 
to  the  breast,  are  some  long  hairs  hang- 
ing down ;  the  breast  and  belly  are  grey, 
the  tail  is  two  feet  long,  brown  above, 
white  beneath,  and  black  at  the  end. 

The  Gnu,  the  Hottentot  name  for  a  sin- 
gular animal,  which,  with  respect  to  its 
form,  is  between  the  horse  and  the  ox. — 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  galloway, 
the  length  of  it  being  somewhat  above  five 
feet,  and  the  height  rather  more  than 
four.  This  animal  is  of  a  dark  brown  co- 
lour; the  tail  and  mane  of  a  light  grey  -f 
the  shag  on  the  chin  and  breast,  and  the 
stiff  hairs  which  stand  erect  on  the  fore- 
head and  upper  part  of  the  face,  are  black; 
the  curvature  of  the  horns  is  singular ; 
and  the  animal  is  represented  in  the  figure 
in  the  attitude  of  butting,  to  give  an  idea 
of  their  form  and  position.  The  legs  of 
the  gnu  are  small ;  its  hair  is  very  fine  ; 
and  it  has  a  cavity  beneath  each  eye,  like 
most  of  the  antelope  kind. 

The  Chevrotain  and  Meminna. — The 
Chevrotain,  or  little  Guinea  Deer,  is  the 
smallest  of  all  the  antelope  kind,  the  least 
of  all  cloven-footed  quadrupeds,  and,  we 
may  add,  the  most  beautiful.  Its  legs  at 
the  smallest  part  are  not  much  thicker 
than  a  tobacco-pipe  ;  it  is  not  more  than 
seven  inches  in  height,  and  about  twelve 
from  the  point  of  the  nose  to  the  insertion 
of  the  tail;  its  ears  are  broad,  and  its 
horns,  which  are  straight,  and  scarcely  two 
inches  long,  are  black,  and  shining  as  jet;, 
the  colour  of  the  hair  is  a  reddish  brown; 
in  some  a  beautiful  yellow,  very  short  and 
glossy.  These  elegant  little  creatures  are 
natives  of  Senegal  and  the  hottest  parts  of 
Africa ;  they  are  likewise  found  in  India, 
and  in  many  of  the  islands  belonging  to 
that  vast  continent.  In  Ceylon,  there  is 
an  animal  of  this  kind,  called  Meminna, 
which  is  not  larger  than  a  hare,  but  per- 
fectly resembling  a  fallow-deer.  It  is  of  a 
g'-ey  colour;  the  sides  and  haunches  are 
spotted  and  barred  with  white ;  its  ears 
are  long  and  open ;  and  its  tail  short. 
None  of  these  small  animals  can  subsist 
but  in  a  warm  climate.  They  are  so  ex- 
tremely delicate,  that  it  is  with  the  utmost 
difficulty  they  can  be  brought  alive  into 
Europe,  where  they  soon  perish.  They 
are  gentle,  familiar,  most  beautifully  form- 
ed, and  their  agility  is  such,  that  they  will 


ANTELOPE. 


fefcund  over  a  wall  twelve  feet  high.  In 
Guinea  they  are  called  Guevei.  The  fe- 
male has  no  horns. 

The  Springer  Antelope,—is  an  elegant 
species,  weighs  about  fifty  pounds,  and  is 
rather  less  than  a  roe-buck  ;  inhabits  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope;  called  there  the 
Springbock,  from  the  prodigious  leaps  it 
takes  on  the  sight  of  any  body.  When 
alarmed,  it  has  the  power  of  expanding 
the  white  space  about  the  tail  into  the 
form  of  a  circle,  which  returns  to  its  li- 
near form  when  the  animal  is  tranquil. 
They  migrate  annually  from  the  interior 
parts  in  small  herds,  and  continue  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Cape  for  two  or 
three  months ;  then  join  companies  and 
go  off  in  troops,  consisting  of  many  thou- 
sands, covering  the  great  plains  for  seve- 
ral hours  in  their  passage  :  are  attended 
in  their  migrations  by  numbers  of  lions, 
hyaenas  and  other  wild  beasts,  which  make 
great  destruction  among  them  :  are  excel- 
lent eating,  and  with  other  antelopes,  are 
the  venison  of  the  Cape.  Mr.  Masson  in- 
forms us,  that  they  also  make  periodical 
migrations,  in  seven  or  eight  years,  in 
herds  of  many  hundred  thousands,  from 
the  north,  as  he  supposes  from  the  interi- 
or parts  of  Terra  de  Natal.  They  are  com- 
pelled to  it  by  the  excessive  drought 
which  happens  in  that  region,  when 
sometimes  there  does  not  fall  a  drop  of 
rain  for  two  or  three  years.  These  animals, 
in  their  course,  desolate  Caffraria,  spread- 
ing over  the  whole  country,  and  not  leav- 
ing a  blade  of  grass.  Lions  attend  them  : 
where  one  of  these  beasts  of  prey  are,  the 
place  is  known  by  the  vast  void  visible  in 
the  midst  of  the  timorous  herd.  On  its  ap- 
proach to  the  Cape,  it  is  observed  that  the 
avant  guard  is  very  fat,  the  centre  less  so, 
and  the  rear  guard  almost  starved,  being 
reduced  to  live  on  the  roots  of  the  plants 
devoured  by  those  which  went  before  ; 
but  on  their  return  they  become  the  avant 
guard,  and  thrive  in  their  turn  on  the  re- 
newed vegetation ;  while  the  former,  now 
changed  into  the  rear  guard,  are  famish- 
ed, by  being  compelled  to  take  up  with 
the  leavings  of  the  others.  These  animals 
are  quite  fearless,  when  assembled  in  such 
mighty  armies,  nor  can  a  man  pass 
through,  unless  he  compels  them  to  give 
way  with  a  whip  or  stick.  When  taken 
young  they  are  easily  domesticated ;  the 
males  are  very  wanton,  and  are  apt  to  butt 
at  strangers  with  their  horns.  The  expan- 
sile white  part  on  the  end  of  the  back  of 
this  animal  is  a  highly  singular  circum- 
stance. It  is  formed  by  a  duplicature  of 
the  skin  in  that  part,  the  inside  and  edges 
being  milk-white  ;  when  the  uniinul  is  ai 


rest,  the  edges  alone  appear,  resembling 
a  white  stripe,  but  when  alarmed,  or  in 
motion,  the  cavity,  or  white  intermediate 
space,  appears  in  form  of  a  large  oval 
patch  of  that  colour. 

The  Scythian  Antelope,  or  Saiga, — 
which  is  the  only  one  of  the  species  that 
is  to  be  found  in  Europe.  The  form  of 
its  body  resembles  the  domestic  goat,  but 
its  horns  are  those  of  an  antelope,  be- 
ing marked  by  very  prominent  rings, 
with  furrows  between ;  they  are  a  foot 
long,  the  ends  smooth,  of  a  pale  yellow 
colour,  almost  transparent.  The  male  is 
covered  with  rough  hair,  like  the  he-goat, 
and  has  a  strong  scent ;  the  female  is 
smoother,  hornless,  and  timid.  The  gene- 
ral colour  is  a  dirty  white.  \Vhen  they  are 
attacked  by  wolves  or  dogs,  the  males 
stand  round  the  females,  forming  a  circle, 
with  their  heads  towards  the  enemy,  in 
which  posture  they  defend  their  charge.. 
Their  common  pace  is  a  trot ;  when  they 
go  faster,  it  is  by  leaps ;  and  are  swifter 
than  roe-bucks.  When  they  feed,  they 
are  obliged  to  go  backward,  owing  to  the 
length  of  the  upper  lip,  which  they  lift 
up.  Their  skin  is  soft,  and  excellent  for 

f loves,  belts,  &c.  They  are  found  in 
ocks  from  six  to  ten  thousands,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tanais  and  Boristhenes.  The 
young  are  easily  tamed,  and  will  readily 
return  to  their  master  when  turned  out 
on  the  desert. 

The  Nilgau,  or  White-footed  Antelope, 
— is  a  large  and  beautiful  species,  known 
only  within  the  space  of  a  few  years  past. 
Its  height  is  four  feet  one  inch  to  the  top 
of  the  shoulders,  and  its  length,  from  the 
bottom  of  the  neck  to  the  base  of  the  tail, 
four  feet.  The  colour  of  the  nilgau  is  a 
fine  dark  grey,  or  slate  colour,  with  a  large 
spot  of  white  beneath  the  throat,  and  two 
white  bands  or  marks  above  each  foot : 
the  ears  are  large,  white  within,  and  edged, 
with  the  same  colour,  and  marked  inter- 
nally by  two  black  stripes ;  along  the  top 
of  the  neck  runs  a  slight  mane  of  black 
hair,  which  is  continued  to  some  distance 
down  the  back,  and  on  the  breast  is  a 
much  longer  mane  or  hanging  tuft  of  a 
similar  colour;  the  tail  is  moderately  long, 
and  terminated  by  a  tuft  of  black  hair:  the 
horns  are  short,  pointed,  smooth,  triangu- 
lar at  their  base,  distant  from  each  other, 
bent  very  slightly  forwards,  and  of  a 
blackish  colour.  The  female  resembles 
the  male  in  general  appearance,  but  is 
considerably  smaller,  of  a  pale  brown  co- 
lour, and  is  destitute  of  horns  :  the  mane, 
pectoral  tuft,  and  ears,  resemble  those  of 
the  male,  and  the  feet  are  marked  above 
the  hoof's  bv  three  transverse  bars  of  black 


ANT 


AJST 


and  two  of  white.  The  nilgau  is  a  native 
of  the  interior  parts  of  India.  According 
to  Mr  Pennant,  it  abounded  in  the  days 
of  Aurengzebe  between  Delhi  andLahor, 
on  the  way  to  Cashmire,  and  was  called 
»ylgau,  or  the  blue  or  grey  bull.  It  was 
one  of  the  objects  of  the  chase  with  that 
mighty  monarch  during  his  journey :  they 
were  inclosed  by  his  army  of  hunters  with- 
in nets,  which  being  drawn  closer  and 
closer,  at  length  formed  a  small  precinct, 
into  which  the  king  and  his  omrahs  and 
hunters  entered,  and  killed  the  nilgaus 
with  arrows,  spears,  and  muskets  ;  and 
that  sometimes  in  such  numbers,  that  Au- 
rengzebe  used  to  send  quarters  as  pre- 
sents to  all  his  great  people.  The  nylgau 
has  of  late  years  been  often  imported  into 
Europe,  and  has  bred  in  England.  In 
confinement  it  is  generally  pretty  gentle, 
but  is  sometimes  seized  with  fits  of  sudden 
caprice,  when  it  will  attack  with  great 
violence  the  objects  of  its  displeasure. 
When  the  males  fight,  they  drop  on  their 
knees  at  some  distance  from  each  other 
and  gradually  advance  in  that  attitude, 
and  at  length  make  a  spring  at  each  other 
with  their  heads  bent  low.  This  action, 
however,  is  not  peculiar  to  the  nilgau,  but 
is  observed  in  many  others  of  the  antelope 
tribe.  The  nilgau  is  said  to  go  with 
young  about  nine  months,  and  to  produce 
sometimes  two  at  a  birth  :  the  young  is  of 
the  colour  of  a  fawn. 

Antelope  Leucoryx,or  White  Antelope, 
— is  entirely  milk-white,  except  the  mark- 
ings on  the  face  and  limbs.  It  is  an  inha- 
bitant of  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Bassora. 
See  Plate  Mammalia,  fig.  1 — 6. 

ANTHEM,  achurch  song  performed  in 
cathedral  service  by  choristers,  who  sing 
alternately.  It  was  formerly  used  to  de- 
note both  psalms  and  hymns,  when  sung 
in  this  manner.  But  at  present,  anthem  is 
used  in  a  more  confined  sense,  being  ap- 
plied to  certain  passages  taken  out  of  the 
scriptures,  and  adapted  to  a  particular  so- 
lemnity. 

ANTHEMIS,  in  botany,  chamomile,  a 
genus  of  the  Syngenesia  Superflua  class 
and  order.  Receptacle  chaffy  ;  seeds 
generally  crowned  with  a  slight  border  ; 
calyx  hemispherical,  nearly  equal;  florets 
of  the  ray  more  than  five,  oblong.  There 
are  two  divisions  of  this  genus,  namely,  A. 
with  a  differently  coloured  or  white  ray ; 
andB.  ray  the  colour  of  the  disk,  or  yel- 
low :  there  are  about  forty  species. 

ANTHERJE,  among  botanists,  denote 
the  little  roundish  or  oblong  bodies,  on 
the  tops  of  the  stamina  of  plants. 

The  anthers  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
male  organ  of  generation  in  plants,  an- 


swering the  glans  penis  in  animals.  It  is 
tumid  and  hollow,  containing  a  fine  pow- 
der, called  farina  frccundans. 

ANTHERICUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  Hexandria  Monogynia  class 
and  order.  Cor.  six-petalled,  spreading, 
permanent;  filament .9  uniform;  capsule 
superior,  seeds  angular.  There  are  three 
divisions.  A.  leaves  channelled;  filaments 
mostly  beardless  :  B.  leaves  fleshy  ;  fila- 
ments bearded  :  C.  stamina  dilated  in  the 
middle  ;  root  bulbous.  There  are  be- 
tween 50  and  60  species. 

ANTHERYLIUM,  a  genus  of  the  Ico- 
sandria  Monogynia  class  and  order.  Ca- 
lyx inferior,  four-parted ;  petals  four ; 
capsule  one-celled,  three-valved,  many- 
seeded.  There  is  but  a  single  species,  a 
tree  found  at  St.  Thomas's  Island, 

ANTIIISTERL\,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Polygamia  Monoecia  class  and  order, 
Hermaphrodite  ;  florets  sessile,  male  flo- 
rets pedicelled ;  calyx  four-valved,  three 
or  four  flowered,  coriaceous;  corol.  glume 
two-valved,  awnless  ;  filaments  three ; 
styles  two  ;  stigmata  clavate ;  seed  one. 
There  is  but  a  single  species. 

ANTHOCEROS,  a  genus  of  the  Cryp- 
togamia  Hepaticse.  Male;  six  parted  or 
entire  ;  antherre  three  to  eight,  obovate, 
in  the  bottom  of  the  calyx.  Female  ;  ca- 
lyx sessile,  cylindrical  and  entire.  There 
are  four  species. 

ANTHOLOMA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Polyandria  Monogynia  class  and  or- 
der. Calyx  two  to  four-leaved  ;  cor.  cup- 
shaped  ;  many  seeded.  There  is  but  a  sin- 
gle species,  a  shrub  found  in  Caledonia. 

ANTHOLYZA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Triandria  Monogynia  class  and  order. 
Corol.  tubular,  six-cleft,  unequal,  recurv- 
ed; capsule  inferior.  There  are  six  spe- 
cies, ail  found  at  the  Cape, 

ANTHOSPERMUM,  in  botany,  the 
amber-tree,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  Tetrandria  class  and  order.  It  is  male 
and  female,  in  different  plants,  and  some 
are  hermaphrodites.  The  androgynous 
flower  is  of  one  leaf,  with  two  pistils  and 
four  stamina,  with  the  germ  en  below  the 
flower.  The  male  flowers  are  the  same 
with  these,  wanting  only  the  pistis  and 
germen.  The  female  flowers  have  the 
pistils  and  germen,  but  want  the  stamina. 
There  are  three  species. 

ANTHOXANTHUM,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  Dyandria  Uigynia  class  and  ol- 
der. Gen.  char,  calyx,  glume  two-valved> 
one  flowered  ;  corol.  glume  two-valved, 
pointed,  awned;  seed  one.  There  arc 
four  species. 

ANTHRENUS,   in   natural  history,  a 


ANT 


ANT 


genus  of  insects  of  the  order  Coleoptera. 
Essen,  char,  antennae  clavate,the  club  so- 
lid ;  feelers  unequal,  filiform  ;  jaws  mem- 
branaceous,  linear,  bifid  ;  lip  entire  ;  head 
hidden  under  the  thorax.  There  are  13 
species,  of  which  the  muscoreum  is  very 
destructive  to  collections  of  perserved 
animals,  insects,  &c. 

ANTHROPOMORPHA,  in  the  Linnx- 
an  system  of  Zoology,  a  class  of  animals, 
resembling  in  some  degree  the  human 
form  ;  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
which  is,  that  all  the  animals  comprehend- 
ed in  it  have  four  fore  teeth  in  each  jaw, 
and  the  teats  are  situated  on  the  breast. 
Besides  the  human  species,  which  stands 
at  the  head  of  this  class,  it  likewise  com- 
prehends the  monkey  and  sloth  kinds. 

ANTHYLL1S,  the  bladder  lotus,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  Diadelphia  Decan- 
dria  class  of  plants,  the  corolla  whereof 
is  papilionaceous ;  the  fruit  is  a  small 
roundish  legume,  composed  of  two  valves, 
and  containing  one  or  two  seeds.  This 
genus  is  separated  into  the  A.  herbace- 
ous, and  B.  shrubby  ;  there  are  of  the  for- 
mer 12  species,  of  the  latter  nine. 

A1ST1CHORUS,  inbotany,  a  genus  of 
the  Octandria  Monogynia  class  and  order. 
Calyx  four-leaved ;  petals  four ;  capsule 
superior,  subulate,  four-celled,  four-valv- 
ed ;  seeds  numerous.  There  is  only  one 
species,  found  in  Arabia. 

ANT1DESMA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Dioecia  Pentandria class  of  plants,  the 
calyx  of  which  is  a  perianthium,  consist- 
ing of  five  oblong,  concave  leaves ;  there 
is  no  corolla;  the  fruit  is  a  cylindric  ber- 
ry, containing  one  cell,  in  which  is  lodg- 
ed a  single  seed.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies, found  in  the  East  Indies  and  China. 

ANTIMONY,  in  mineralogy,  one  of  the 
metals  that  is  brittle  and  easily  fused.  No 
metal  has  attracted  so  much  of  the  atten- 
tion of  physicians  as  antimony.  One  par- 
ly has  extolled  it  as  an  infallible  specific 
for  every  disease  :  while  another  decried 
it  as  a  most  virulent  poison,  which  ought 
to  be  expunged  from  the  list  of  medicines. 
Antimony,  as  it  occurs  under  that  name 
in  the  shops,  is  a  natural  compound  of 
the^netal  with  sulphur.  To  obtain  it  in  a 
metallic  state,  the  native  sulphuret  is  to 
be  mixed  with  two-thirds  its  weight  of 
acidulous  tartrite  of  potash,  (in  the  state 
of  crude  tartar,)  and  one-third  of  nitrate 
of  potash  deprived  of  its  water  of  crystal- 
lization. The  mixture  must  be  projected, 
by  spoonfuls,  into  a  red-hot  crucible ;  and 
the  detonated  mass  poured  into  an  iron 
mould  greased  with  a  little  fat.  The  anti- 
mony, on  account  of  its  specific  gravity, 


will  be  found  at  the  bottom,  adhering  to 
the  scoriae,  from  which  it  may  be  separated 
by  the  hammer.  Or  three  parts  of  the 
sulphuret  may  be  fused  in  a  covered  cru- 
cible, with  one  of  iron  filings.  The  sul- 
phur quits  the  antimony,  and  combines 
with  the  iron.  Antimony  in  its  metallic 
state  (sometimes  called  regulus  of  anti- 
mony) is  of  a  silvery  white  colour,  very 
brittle,  and  of  a  plated  or  scaly  texture. 
It  is  fused  by  a  moderate  heat ;  and  crys- 
tallizes, on  cooling,  in  the  form  of  pyra- 
mids. In  close  vessels  it  may  be  vola- 
tilized, and  collected  unchanged.  It  un- 
dergoes little  change  when  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere  at  its  ordinary  temperature  ; 
but  when  fused,  with  the  access  of  air, 
it  emits  white  fumes,  consisting  of  an 
oxide  of  the  metal.  This  oxide  had  for- 
merly the  name  of  flowers  of  antimony. 
Antimony  combines  with  phosphorus  and 
sulphur.  With  the  latter,  an  artificial 
sulphuret  is  formed,  exactly  resembling 
the  native  compound,  which  last  may  be 
employed,  on  account  of  its  cheapness, 
for  exhibiting  the  properties  of  this  com- 
bination of  antimony.  Antimony  is  dis- 
solved by  most  of  the  acids.  Sulphuric 
acid  is  decomposed,  sulphurous  acid  be- 
ing disengaged,  and  an  oxide  formed, 
of  which  a  small  proportion  only  is  dis- 
solved by  the  remaining  acid.  Nitric 
acid  dissolves  this  metal  with  great  vehe- 
mence ;  muriatic  acid  acts  on  it  by  long 
digestion;  but  the  most  convenient  sol- 
vent is  the  nitro-muriatic  acid,  which, 
with  the  aid  of  heat,  dissolves  it  from 
the  native  sulphuret.  With  oxygenized 
muriatic  acid,  it  forms  a  compound  of  a 
thick  consistence,  formerly  called  butter 
of  antimony.  This  may  be  formed  by 
exposing  black  sulphuret  of  antimony  to 
the  fumes  of  oxygenized  muriatic  acid, 
and  subsequent  distillation  ;  or  by  distill- 
ing the  powdered  regulus  with  twice  its 
weight  of  corrosive  muriate  of  mercury. 
The  metal  becomes  highly  oxydized,  and 
unites  with  muriatic  acid  in  its  simple 
state.  On  pouring  this  compound  into 
water,  a  white  oxide  falls  down,  called 
powder  of  algaroth.  Antimony  is  sus- 
ceptible of  various  states  of  oxydizement. 
The  first  oxide  may  be  obtained  by  wash- 
ing algaroth  powder  with  a  little  caustic 
potash.  It  is  composed  of  18£  oxygen, 
and  81  f  metal.  That  formed  by  the  ac- 
tion of  nitric  acid  on  antimony  contains 
77  metal,  and  23  oxygen.  See  OHES, 
analysis  of. 

ANTINOMIANS,  in  church  history,  a 
sect  of  Christians,  who  reject  the  moral 
law  as  a  rule  of  conduct  to  believers. 


ANT 


AiNT 


disown  personal  and  progressive  sancti- 
fication,  and  hold  it  to  be  inconsistent  for 
a  oeiiever  to  pray  for  the  forgiveness  of 
sins.  Although  these  principles  will,  by 
some,  be  thought  to  lead  to  mischievous 
consequences  and  practice,  yet  there  are, 
unquestionably,  worthy  men  and  virtuous 
Christians,  who  avow  Antinomian  tenets. 
To  the  young,  the  giddy,  and  the  thought- 
less, such  sentiments  might,  if  acted  upon, 
be  the  source  of  much  evil ;  but  these, 
like  the  doctrine  of  necessity,  are  rarely 
believed,  but  by  persons  who  have  alrea- 
dy attained  to  virtuous  habits. 

ANT1PATHES,  in  natural  history,  a 
genus  of  worms  of  the  order  Zoophyta. 
An  animal  growing  in  the  form  of  a  plant: 
stem  expanded  at  the  base,  internally 
hovny,  beset  with  small  spines,  externally 
covered  with  a  gelatinous  flesh,  beset 
with  numerous  polype-bearing  tubercles. 
Their  are  lo  species.  A.  spirahs  inha- 
bits the  Indian,  Mediterranean,  and  North 
seas  ;  of  a  hard,  horny,  black  substance, 
exceedingly  brittle,  very  long,  and  va- 
riously twisted,  about  the  size  of  a  writ- 
ing pen.  A.  alopecuroides,  with  spinous 
setaceous  closely  panicled  branches  ;  in- 
habits South  Carolina  ;  about  two  feet 
high,  and  rises  from  a  broad  spread  base, 
dividing  into  several  large  branches,  flat 
on  one  side,  with  a  groove  along  the  mid- 
dle ;  it  then  subdivides  into  smaller 
branches,  forming  close  panicles,  not  un- 
like the  fox-tail  grass :  the  outside  grey- 
ish, the  inside  black,  and  very  brittle. 

ANTIPODES,  in  geography,  a  name 
given  to  those  inhabitants  of  the  globe  that 
Jive  diametrically  opposite  to  one  another. 
They  lie  under  opposite  parallels,  and 
opposite  meridians.  They  have  the  same 
elevation  of  their  different  poles.  It  is 
mid-night  with  the  one,  when  it  is  noon- 
day with  the  other;  the  longest  day  with 
one  is  the  shortest  with  the  other  ;  and 
the  length  of  the  day  with  the  one  is 
rqual  to  the  night  of  the  other.  See 
GLOBKS,  use  of. 

ANTIQUARY,  a  person  who  studies 
and  searches  after  monuments  and  re- 
mains of  antiquity 

There  were  formerly,  in  the  chief  cities 
of  Greece  and  Italy,  persons  of  distinc- 
tion, called  antiquaries,  who  made  it  their 
business  to  explain  the  ancient  inscrip- 
tions, and  give  every  other  assistance  in. 
their  power  to  strangers,  who  were  lovers 
of  that  kind  of  learning.  Foundations  of 
this  kind  have  existed  in  England.  Sir 
II.  Spehnan  speaks  of  a  society  of  anti- 
quaries in  his  time,  which  had  been  insti- 
tuted in  1572,  by  Archbishop  Parker, 


Camdcn,  Sir  Robert  Cotton,  Stowe,  and 
others.  Application  was  made  in  1589 
to  Queen  Elizabeth  for  a  charter,  and 
house,  in  which  they  might  hold  their 
meetings,  erect  a  library,  &c.  But  the 
death  of  the  sovereign  put  an  end  to  the 
design.  In  1717,  this  society  was  revived 
again,  and  has  continued  without  inter- 
ruption ;  and  at  present,  it  is  in  a  very 
flourishing  state,  consisting  of  learned 
men  in  every  rank  of  life.  The  society 
was  incorporated  in  1751,  and  began  to 
publish  an  account  of  its  discoveries  in 
1770,  under  the  title  of  "  Archseologia:" 
fifteen  volumes  in  quarto  are  already  pub- 
lished. 

ANTIQUITIES,  a  term  implying  all 
testimonies  or  authentic  accounts,  that 
have  come  down  to  us  of  ancient  nations. 
According  to  Lord  Bacon,  antiquities  may 
be  considered  as  the  wrecks  of  history,  or 
such  particulars  as  industrious  and  learn- 
ed persons  have  collected  from  genealo- 
gies, inscriptions,  monuments,  coins, 
names,  etymologies  archives,  instru- 
ments, fragments  of  history,  &c.  :  in  this 
sense,  the  study  of  antiquities  leads  us  to 
inquire  into  the  origin  and  early  epochas 
of  every  nation  and  people,  whether  an- 
cient or  modern.  Hence  the  study  of  an- 
tiquities, as  a  science,  has  become,  in  al- 
most every  civilized  country,  an  interest- 
ing pursuit  to  men  of  leisure  and  curiosi- 
ty. By  many  persons  it  has  been  sufficient 
to  investigate  the  ancient  remains  of 
Greece  and  Rome  ;  but  others,  who  have 
taken  a  more  enlarged,  and,  what  we 
deem,  a  more  proper  view  of  the  subject, 
include  in  the  science  the  antiquities  of 
the  Jews,  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Cartha- 
ginians, and,  in  short,  all  those  principal 
nations  mentioned  in  ancient  history.  Our 
view  of  the  subject  must  necessarily  be 
contracted,  and  the  most  we  can  aim  at 
is,  to  excite  a  laudable  curiosity  in  the 
young,  and  to  direct  them  to  objects  that 
may  engage  their  attention,  and  to  the 
authors  most  likely  to  furnish  information 
under  the  several  heads  of  inquiry  and 
research. 

This  study  has  for  its  chief  objects  the 
ceremonies,  customs,  and  usages,  which 
obtained  in  ancient  times,  either  with  re- 
gard to  persons,  places,  or  things.  Writ- 
ers have  accordingly  divided  antiquities 
into  civil  and  ecclesiastisal ;  including 
under  the  former  head  whatever  relates 
to  political,  military,  literary,  and  domes- 
tic concerns  ;  and  under  the  latter,  the 
subjects  connected  with  religion,  as  the 
worship,  discipline,  and  faith  of  ancient 
times  and  people,  Christians  have  usually 


ANTIQUITIES. 


separated  their  antiquities  into  those 
which  relate  to  the  ancient  state  of  the 
Christian  church  ;  and  into  whatever  be- 
longs to  the  ancient  laws,  ceremonies, 
events,  &c.  that  occur  in  the  scriptures, 
These,  indeed,  form  a  branch  of  ecclesi- 
astical antiquities,  and  bear  a  near  rela- 
tion to  the  Jewish  antiquities,  concerning 
which  we  have  many  respectable  authori- 
ties. There  are  persons  who  would  de- 
duce most  of  the  heathen  antiquities  from 
the  manners  and  customs  described  in  the 
Bible  ;  while  others,  as  Spencer,  take  the 
opposite  course,  and  deduce  the  antiqui- 
ties of  the  Bible  from  those  of  heathenism. 
Perhaps  a  middle  course  would  be  nearer 
the  truth,  as  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  in 
interpreting-  scripture,  to  attend  to  the 
heathen  antiquities  alluded  to  in  them  ; 
and  these  not  only  such  as  are  directly 
aimed  at  or  approved,  but  also  such  as  are 
purposely  opposed.  National  antiquities 
are  those  employed  in  tracing  the  origin, 
ancient  actions,  usages,  monuments,  re- 
mains, &c.  of  some  nation  or  people:  and 
it  may  be  observed,  that  almost  every  na- 
tion lays  claim  to  a  greater  degree  of  an- 
tiquity  than  the  rest  of  its  neighbours. 
The  Scythians,  the  Phrygians,  the  Chal- 
deans, Egyptians,  Greeks,  Chinese,  &c. 
pretend  each  to  have  the  honour  of  being 
the  first  inhabitants  of  the  earth:  several 
of  these  nations,  lest  they  should  be  sur- 
passed in  their  pretensions  by  any  of  the 
rest,  have  traced  up  their  origin  to  ages 
long  before  the  received  account  of  the 
creation.  Hence  the  appellations  "  abo- 
rigines," "  indigenae,"  "  terraegenx," 
"  antelunares,"  &c. 

The  history  and  antiquities  of  nations 
and  societies  have  been  objects  of  inquiry: 
inasmuch  as  they  enable  the  mind  to  se- 
prrate  truth  from  falsehood,  and  tradition 
from  evidence ;  to  establish  what  had  pro- 
bability for  its  basis,  or  to  explode  what 
rested  only  on  the  vanity  of  the  inventors 
and  propagators:  of  this  we  have  a  strik- 
ing instance  in  the  Chaldeans,  who  pre- 
tend to  astronomical  observations  of  near- 
ly 500,000  years.  They  mention  the  king 
who  reigned  over  them  at  the  time  of  the 
deluge,  and  attribute  to  him  several  things 
which  we  ascribe  to  Noah.  The  Chaldaic 
antiquities  of  Berosus  are,  however,  lost, 
except  a  few  fragments,  which  have  been 
collected  by  Joseph  Scaliger  and  Fabri- 
cius.  To  supply  the  chasm,  Annius  Viter- 
bo,  a  Dominican  monk,  towards  the  close 
of  the  15th  century,  forged  the  work  of 
Berosus,  which  he  published  at  Rome  in 
1498.  Fie  went  farther,  and  produced  a 
supplement  to  Berosus,  supposed  to  have 


been  written  by  Manetho,  containing  de- 
tails of  what  happened  from  the  time  of 
.Egyptus,  king  of  Egypt,  to  the  origin  of 
the  Roman  state.  Unfortunately  for  the 
credit  of  the  industrious  monk,  Manetho 
lived  before  Berosus,  by  which  the  fraud 
was  detected. 

The  first  traces  of  every  history  were 
rude  and  imperfect,  which  renders  the 
office  of  the  antiquarian  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  the  faithful  and  diligent  histo- 
rian. Better  methods  of  preserving  facts 
succeeded.  The  unchiseled  stone,  or  the 
rudest  hieroglyphic,  accompanied  the 
songs  of  the  bards,  to  perpetuate  the 
achievements  of  a  whole  nation,  or  a  few 
individuals ;  till  the  use  of  letters,  and  the 
complicated  transactions,  claims,  and  in- 
terests of  men,  taught  them  to  multiply 
memorials,  and  draw  them  up  with  more 
skill  and  accuracy. 

The  history  contained  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament is  unquestionably  the  most  ancient 
well-authenticated  collection  of  facts,  that 
has  come  down  to  the  present  times. 
These  records  go  much  beyond  the  flood, 
the  boundary  to  the  annals  of  every  other 
nation  that  lays  a  just  claim  to  'credit. 
The  Jews,  who  are  closely  connected  with 
this  part  of  history,  trace  back  their  an- 
cestry to  the  common  parents  of  the  hu- 
man race.  The  antiquities  of  this  won- 
derful nation  have  been  treated  of  by  nu- 
merous  writers,  whose  works  are  monu- 
ments of  great  learning  and  indefatigable 
industry ;  and  it  will  be  admitted,  that 
the  fate  of  a  people  scattered  over  the 
globe,  who  have  been  subject  to  persecu- 
tions, more  or  less  severe,  for  so  many 
centuries,  who  have  never  amalgamated, 
if  we  may  so  speak,  with  any  other  nation 
under  heaven,  but  have  remained  distinct, 
for  wise  and  important  ends,  cannot  but 
interest  the  curious  inquirer.  The  history 
of  their  origin,  ordinances,  and  vicissi- 
tudes, previously  to  the  Christian  aera,  is 
to  be  had  in  the  Old  Testament :  their 
subsequent  ruin  and  dispersion  are  pre- 
dicted by  Christ  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  treated  of  at  large  by  Josephus,  who 
flourished  at  Rome  under  Vespasian,  Ti- 
tus, and  Domitian,and  who  published  his 
great  work  on  the  Jewish  Antiquities 
during  the  life  and  reign  of  the  latter.  On 
the  same  subject  we  have  a  multitude  of 
more  modern  writers,  from  Ugolinus' 
Thesaurus,  consist'iig  of  more  than  thir- 
ty volumes  folio,  and  comprising  all  the 
best  works  written  previously  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century,  to  the  octavos  Dr. 
Jennings  evidently  intended  as  a  mere  in- 
troduction to  the  subject.  The  antiquities 


ANTIQUITIES. 


of  the  Jews  are  supposed  to  be  connected 
with  those  of  Egypt,  since  Moses,  their 
great  lawgiver,  was  educated  in  the 
schools  of  Egyptian  learning,  and  was 
deeply  conversant  in  all  their  sciences. 
Many  of  the  metaphors  and  other  allu- 
sions, found  in  the  first  five  books  of  the 
Bible,  are  supposed  to  have  some  refer- 
ence to  the  symbols  of  the  Egyptian 
priests.  If  we  were,  therefore,  able  to 
come  at  a  faithful  account  of  the  antiqui- 
ties of  Egypt,  we  might  hope  to  attain  an 
illustration  of  many  things  which  are  still 
obscure  and  dark,  belonging  to  the  Jewish 
economy,  both  civil  and  sacred.  Of  Egypt, 
alas  !  once  renowned  for  its  laws,  the 
commerce  of  her  cities,  the  grandeur  of 
her  buildings,  and  the  fertility  of  her  ter- 
ritory, little  is  left  to  gratify  the  laudable 
curiosity  of  moderns.  Those  who  have 
spent  much  time  and  labour  in  appreciat- 
ing the  worth  and  merits  of  the  ancients, 
admit  that  the  earliest  nations  of  the 
world  were  fed  with  the  produce  of  Egyp- 
tian soil,  and  enriched  with  the  wealth 
and  wisdom  obtained  in  that  portion  of 
Africa.  Upper  Egypt  furnished  the  mate- 
rials of  marble  and  porphyry,  with  which 
the  most  stupendous  works  of  art  were 
reared :  and  to  Hermes  Trismegistus,  or, 
as  he  is  sometimes  called,  Thoth,  are 
ascribed,  among  the  Egyptians,  the  inven- 
tions of  chief  use  in  human  life.  Their 
priests  maintained,  that  from  their  hiero- 
glyphic characters  upon  the  pillars  which 
he  erected,  and  the  sacred  books,  all  the 
philosophy  and  learning  of  the  world  has 
been  derived. 

Egypt  seems  itself  to  have  been  in- 
debted for  its  original  population  to  the 
northern  parts  of  Arabia  and  Syria,  the 
Egptians  and  Abyssinuins  having  been 
always  wholly  distinct  from  the  native  na- 
tions of  Africa.  The  Copts,  or  original 
inhabitants,  it  has  been  observed  by  tra- 
vellers, have  no  resemblance  whatever  of 
the  negro  features  or  form  ;  but  a  strong 
likeness  may  be  traced  between  the  make 
of  the  visage  in  the  modern  Copts,  and 
that  presented  in  the  ancient  mummies, 
paintings,  and  statues.  Their  complexion, 
like  that  of  the  Arabs,  is  of  a  dusky 
brown.  It  is  represented  of  the  same  co- 
lour in  the  paintings  which  may  be  seen 
in  the  tombs  of  Thebes.  The  chief  anti- 
quities are,  the  pyramids,  and  the  tombs 
near  Thebes,  recently  disclosed,  with  ma- 
ny ruins  of  temples,  and  other  remains  of 
ancient  cities.  Dr.  White,  in  the  "  Egyp- 
tiaca,"  a  work  which  contains  much  valu- 
able information  on  the  subject,  says,  the 
celebrated  column  ascribed  to  Pompey 


ornamented  a  space  opposite  the  temple 
of  Serapis,  in  which  was  a  great  public 
library.  Besides  the  ancient  remains  al- 
ready noticed,  we  may  mention  the  co- 
lossal sphynx;  Cleopatra's  needle;  the 
marble  Sarcophagus,  reputed  to  be  Alex- 
ander's tomb  ;  and  the  triple  inscription 
from  Rosetta,  in  the  hieroglyphic,  the  ver- 
nacular Egyptian,  and  the  Greek  charac- 
ters. The  writers  on  Egyptian  antiquities 
are  very  numerous.  Among  the  ancients 
may  be  noted,  Herodotus,  Pausanias, 
Strabo,  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  Plutarch. 
Herodotus,  Thales,  and  Pythagoras,  were 
initiated  into  all  the  mysteries  of  the 
Egyptian  priests.  The  mythology  of  the 
country  is  fully  explained  in  Joblonski's 
"  Pantheon  Egyptiacum."  On  the  Egypt 
of  modern  times,  we  have  the  works  of 
Pocock,  Niebuhr,  Sonnini,  and  Denon, 
which  may  be  consulted  with  advantage. 
Greaves  and  Nordon  have  written  on  the 
pyramids,  and  the  mummies  are  describ- 
ed by  the  celebrated  Kircher. 

The  illustration  of  the  antiquities  of  In- 
dia is  more  difficult,  but  discoveries  are 
still  making  in  that  vast  extent  of  coun- 
try. To  that  great  patriot,  philosopher, 
and  legislator,  Sir  William  Jones,  we  are 
greatly  indebted  for  much  valuable  infor- 
mation on  this  subject.  Mr.  Halhed,  in- 
deed, in  1776,  gave  the  first  specimen 
which  appeared  of  the  early  wisdom  of 
the  Indians,  and  their  extensive  skill  in 
jurisprudence.  In  the  year  1785,  the 
Bhagvat  Geeta  was  edited  by  Mr.  Wilkins. 
The  theological  and  metaphysical  doc- 
trines of  this  work  were  represented  to 
be  of  the  prof oundest  kind,  and  it  was  said 
to  contain  all  the  grand  mysteries  of  the 
Hindoo  religion,  and  laid  claim  to  the  an- 
tiquity of  4000  years.  Other  works  of 
high  reputation  have  succeeded  ;  among 
these  are  the  "  Indian  Antiquities,'*  by 
Maurice,  which  have,  in  a  great  measure, 
cleared  the  ground  for  the  student,  and 
given  him  a  sort  of  clue  for  farther  inves- 
tigations. By  his  labours,  the  ancient  geo- 
graphical divisions  of  India,  according  to 
the  classical  writers  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
and  of  Hindostan,  according  to  the  Hin- 
doos themselves,  are  reconciled;  the  ana- 
logies of  the  Brahmanic  with  other  sys- 
tems of  theology  considered,  and  the 
grand  code  of  civil  laws,  the  original  form 
of  government,  and  the  literature  of  Hin- 
dostan, are  compared  with  the  laws,  go- 
vernment, and  literature  of  Persia,  Egypt, 
and  Greece.  From  Sir  William  Jones's 
papers,  published  in  the  several  volumes 
of  the  "  Asiatic  Researches,"  much  solid 
information  on  Indian  antiquities  may  be 


ANTIQUITIES. 


had  in  a  short  compass.  By  that  great 
man,  whose  loss  cannot  be  sufficiently 
lamented,  a  society  was  formed  for  in- 
quiring1 into  the  history,  antiquities,  arts, 
sciences,  and  literature  of  Asia.  Having 
founded  the  institution,  he  gave  it  celebri- 
ty [by  his  own  admirable  discourses ;  of 
these  the  first  was  on  the  orthography  of 
Asiatic  words  in  Roman  letters,  a  want  of 
attention  to  which  had  occasioned  much 
confusion  in  history  and  geography.  Not 
contented  with  pointing  out  radical  de- 
fects, he  proposed  a  system,  which  was 
useful  to  the  learned,  and  essential  to  the 
progress  of  the  student.  His  other  dis- 
sertations, to  which  the  reader  may  be 
referred,  were  all,  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree, connected  with  the  antiquities  of 
India.  By  India  is  meant  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  country  in  which  the  primitive  re- 
ligion and  language  of  the  Hindoos  pre- 
vail at  this  day,  and  in  which  the  Naegari 
letters  are  still  used,  with  more  or  less 
deviation  from  their  original  form.  Its 
inhabitants  have  no  resemblance,  either  in 
their  figure  or  manners,  to  any  of  the  na- 
tions contiguous  to  them.  Their  sources 
of  wealth  are  still  abundant.  In  their  ma- 
nufactures of  cotton  they  surpass  the 
other  nations  of  the  world  ;  and  though 
now  degenerate  and  abased,  there  remains 
enough  to  show,  that  in  some  early  age 
they  were  well  versed  in  arts  and  arms, 
happy  in  government,  wise  in  legisla- 
tion, and  eminent  in  various  branches  of 
knowledge. 

In  this  place  we  may  briefly  notice  the 
Sanscrit  language,  which,  whatever  may 
be  its  antiquity,  is  of  a  very  singular  struc- 
ture ;  more  perfect  than  the  Greek,  more 
copious  than  the  Latin,  and  more  refined 
than  either,  yet  bearing  to  both  a  stronger 
affinity,  both  in  the  roots  of  verbs,  and  in 
the  forms  of  grammar,  than  could  possi- 
bly have  been  produced  by  accident.  Of 
their  philosophy  it  has  been  observed, 
that  in  the  more  retired  scenes,  in  groves, 
and  in  seminaries  of  learning,  we  may 
perceive  the  Brahmans  and  the  Sarmanas 
of  Clemans  disputing  in  the  forms  or'  lo- 
gic, or  discoursing-  on  the  vanity  of  human 
enjoyments,  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  heremanation  from  the  eternal  mind, 
her  debasement,  wanderings,  and  final 
union  with  her  source. 

The  ancient  monuments  of  Hindostan 
are  very  numerous,  and  of  various  descrip- 
tions, exclusive  of  the  tombs  and  other 
edifices  of  the  Mahometan  conquerors, 
Someof  the  most  remarkable  are,  excavat- 
ed temples,  statues,  relievos,  &c.  in  an 
island  near  Bombay ;  but  the  most  mag- 

VOL.  I. 


nificent  and  extensive  are  near  the  town  ot" 
Ellora,  about  two  hundred  miles  east  of 
Bombay.  The  latter  are  minutely  describ- 
ed, and  illustrated  with  plates,  in  the  sixth 
volume  of  the  Asiatic  Researches.  The 
idols  represented  seem  clearly  to  belong* 
to  the  present  mythology  of  Hindostan  : 
but  at  what  period  these  edifices  were 
modelled,  whether  three  hundred  or  three 
thousand  years  ago,  cannot  be  easily  as>- 
certained.  Several  ancient  grants  of  land, 
some  coins,  and  seals,  have  also  been 
found,  which,  however,  do  not  greatly 
correspond  with  the  exaggerated  ideas 
entertained  concerning  the  early  civiliza- 
tion of  this  renowned  country  ;  while  the 
Egyptian  pyramids,temples,  and  obelisks, 
strongly  confirm  the  accounts  preserved 
by  ancient  historians.  Though  the  my- 
thology of  the  Hindoos  may  pretend  to 
great  antiquity,  yet  their  present  form  of 
religion  is  supposed  to  vary  considerably 
from  the  ancient.  It  is  inferred,  that 
while  the  religion  ofBoodha,  still  retained 
by  the  Birmans  and  other  adjacent  na- 
tion*.11 Vas  the  real  ancient  system  of  Hin- 
dostan, the  religion  of  the  Hindoos  is  art- 
fully interwoven  with  the  common  offices 
of  life  ;  and  the  different  casts  are  sup- 
posed to  originate  from  Brahma,  the  im- 
mediate agent  of  creation,  under  the  Su- 
preme Power. 

The  remains  of  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture seem  to  prove  an  early  connection 
between  India  and  Africa.  Of  the  ancient 
arts  and  manufactures  little  is  known, 
excepting  the  labours  of  the  Indian  loom 
and  needle.  The  Hindoos  are  said  to 
have  boasted  of  three  inventions,  viz.  the 
method  of  instruction  by  "  apologues," 
"  the  decimal  scale,"  and  "  the  game  of 
chess." 

Of  the  antiquities  of  Greece  and  Rome 
much  has  been  written  that  merits  the 
attention  of  the  student  in  literature  : 
these  are  subjects,  in  which  every  well 
educated  youth  is  made  conversant  at  an 
early  period.  They  are  taught  in  all  our 
classical  schools,  as  necessary  to  the  elu- 
cidation of  those  works  that  are  read  in 
the  attainment  of  the  ancient  languages. 
Potter  on  the  Greek  antiquities,  and  Ren- 
net and  Adams  on  those  of  Roman,  arp 
familiar  to  every  ear  :  in  their  kind  they 
are  truly  respectable,  though  they  may  be 
regarded  only  as  elerr.eniary  treatises  cal- 
culated rather  to  excite  a  taste  for  the 
study,  than  to  satisfy  the  inquirer  in  pur- 
suit of  knc-.vledg'e. 

T:  e  first  accounts  of  Greece  are  derived 
from  ages  long  before  the  common  use  of 
letters  in  the  country,  so  that  it  is  difficult 

Ivk 


ANTIQUITIES, 


to  distinguish  where  fable  concludes,  and 
real  history  begins.  From  the  Phoenician 
and  Egyptian  colonies,  the  Greeks  first 
received  the  culture  of  humanity.  By 
the  Phoenicians,  they  were  instructed  in 
trade,  navigation,  and  the  use  of  letters  ; 
and  by  the  Egyptians  in  civil  wisdom,  the 
politer  sciences,  and  religious  mysteries. 
The  antiquities  of  such  a  country,  which 
became  in  after  ages  so  illustrious  in  the 
annals  of  mankind,  cannot  fail  to  have  ex- 
cited a  considerable  degree  of  interest  in 
every  age  :  they  have  accordingly  been 
carefully  and  minutely  investigated,  by 
writers  celebrated  alike  for  their  erudition 
and  industry.  Of  these  we  can  enumerate 
but  a  small  portion,  in  comparison  of  the 
many  that  have  treated  on  the  subject. 
Bishop  Potter,  to  whom  we  have  already 
referred,  Bos,  and  others,  have  drawn  up 
systems  or  abridgments  of  the  whole,  or 
at  least  of  whatever  relates  to  the  religion, 
the  gods,  tlit-  vows,  and  the  temples  of 
Greece  :  on  the  public  weal  and  magis- 
tracy, Stephanus  and  Van  Dale  are  well 
worthy  of  notice:  on  the  laws  and  g^nish- 
ments'of  Greece,  we  have  Meursius  and 
Petit :  on  military  concerns,  Arrian  and 
JElian  are  well  known  :  on  their  gymnas- 
tic art  and  exercises,  Joubert  and  Faber 
may  be  mentioned:  on  the  theatres  and 
scenic  exhibitions,  Scaliger  and  the  abbe 
Barthelemy  have  written  :  besides  these, 
we  have  many  writers  on  their  entertain- 
ments, on  their  marriages,  the  education 
of  their  children,  and  their  funeral  cere- 
monies. The  best  relics,  which  display 
the  formcrsplendour  of  the  Grecian  states, 
hare  been  preserved  by  Stuart  in  his 
Athens,  in  the  Ionian  Antiquities,  and  in 
the  Voyage  Pittoresque  de  la  Grece. 
The  finest  specimens  of  its  sculpture,  in 
this  country,  are  to  be  found  among  the 
Townly  marbles  :  and  of  its  coinage,  in 
the  cabinet  of  Dr.  Hunter. 

It  may  be  worthy  of  notice,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  antiquities  of  Greece,  that 
the  ancient  monuments  of  European  Tur- 
key now  exceed  in  number  and  import- 
ance those  of  any  other  country.  The 
remains  of  ancient  Athens,  in  particular, 
formerly  the  chosen  seat  of  the  arts,  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  many  travellers, 
and  have  accordingly  been  frequently  de- 
scribed with  accuracy  and  taste.  The 
church  dedicated  to  the  Divine  Wisdom, 
usually  denominated  in  the  page  of  histo- 
ry Sancta  Sophia,  is  a  venerable  monu- 
ment of  antiquity,  and  has  been  preserved 
from  the  sixth  century,  when  it  was  built 
by  Justinian,  to  the  present  period.  The 
architecture  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the 


classical  period,  yet,  by  those  who  hate 
witnessed  it,  we  are  told  the  effect  is 
grand  and  impressive,  and  the  cupola  is 
admired  as  a  bold  and  skilful  effort  of 
the  art,  while  the  seeming  weight  is  di- 
minished by  the  lightness  of  the  materials, 
being  bricks  formed  of  a  particular  clay 
that  will  float  in  the  water.  The  interior 
is  adorned  with  columns  of  various  and 
veiy  beautiful  descriptions,  viz.  the  Phry- 
gian purple,  the  Spartan  green,  the  red 
and  white  Canan,  and  many  others.  To 
this  may  be  added,  that  the  French  have 
recently  discovered  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  sea-port  belonging  to  Sparta,  near 
a  promontory  which  projects  from  the 
south  of  the  Morea,  and  we  are  informed 
that  the  antiquities  of  that  part,  now  styl- 
ed Albania,  still  present  an  extensive  field 
of  research  to  the  student  in  this  depart- 
ment of  science. 

"  Nothing,"  says  Dr.  Adams,  in  the  pre- 
face to  his  Roman  Antiquities,  "  has  more 
engaged  the  attention  of  literary  men,thsm 
to  trace  from  ancient  monuments  the  in- 
stitutions and  laws,  the  religion,  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Romans,  under 
the  general  name  of  Roman  Antiquities. 
This  branch  of  knowledge,"  continues  he, 
"  is  not  only  curious  in  itself,  but  abso 
lutely  necessary  for  the  understanding  the 
classics,  and  for  reading  with  advantage 
the  history  of  that  celebrated  people.  It 
is  particularly  necessary  for  such  as  prose- 
cute the  study  of  the  civil  law.  Scarcely 
on  any  subject  have  more  books  been  writ- 
ten, and  many  of  them  by  persons  of  dis- 
tinguished abilities."  We  may,  as  a  guide 
to  the  student  enumerate  the  writers  from 
whom  Dr.  Adams  chiefly  compiled  his 
own  work,  as  these  will  be  the  best  au- 
thorities for  those  persons  who  would  en- 
ter deeply  into  the  study.  To  Manutius, 
Brissonius,  and  Middleton,  he  was  indebt- 
ed for  his  facts  relating  to  the  business  of 
the  senate  :  to  Pignorius,  on  slaves :  to 
Lidoniusand  Grucchius,  Manutius,Huber, 
Gravina,  Murula,  Heineccius,  for  what  re- 
lates to  the  assemblies  of  the  people,  the 
rights  of  citizens,  the  laws  and  judicial 
proceedings  :  with  respect  to  the  duties 
and  privileges  of  magistrates,  the  art  of 
war,  the  shows  of  the  circus,  and  the  feats 
of  gladiators,  he  had  recourse  to  Lipsius  : 
— to  Sheflfer  he  applied  for  information 
on  naval  affairs,  and  carriages  :  to  Ker- 
mannus,  on  funerals  :  to  Arbuthnot,  OR 
coins  :  to  Donatus,  on  the  city :  to  Tur- 
nebus,  Salmasius,  Grsevius,  Gronovius, 
Montfaucon,  Gesner,  and  others,  upon 
different  subjects  scattered  through  his 
work.  To  these  may  be  added  one  of  the 


ANTIQUITIES. 


eldest  authors  on  the  subject,  viz.  Diony- 
sius  Halicarnassus,  who  traced  the  origin 
of  the  Romans,  with  great  fidelity,  back 
to  the  remotest  ages.  His  accounts  are 
generally  preferred  to  those  of  Livy,  be- 
cause they  are  more  ample,  and  his  facts 
are  described  with  more  particulars ;  and 
on  the  ceremonies,  worship,  sacrifices, 
manners,  customs,  discipline,  policy, 
courts,  laws,  &c.  he  is  perhaps  the  most 
authentic  writer. 

These,  and  other  authors  that  might  be 
cited,  have  chiefly  confined  their  account 
to  Rome,  properly  so  called  ;  we  might 
digress,  and  notice  the  antiquities  of 
those  states,  both  in  Europe  and  other 
parts  of  the  globe,  whicli  were  held  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Koman  power;  but 
this  would  lead  us  into  a  very  wide  field : 
we  shall,  however,  in  the  connection,  no- 
tice those  belonging  to  Spain,  which  was 
500  years  under  the  Roman  power. 

Spain  was  originally  peopled  by  the 
Africans  and  German  Gauls :  it  then  be- 
came the  prey  of  the  Carthagenians  :  to 
these  succeeded  the  Romans.  It  was  af- 
terwards held  successively  in  subjection 
by  the  Vandals,  the  Visigoths,  and  the 
Arabs  or  Moors. 

Of  the  first  of  these  epochs  few  remains 
exist,  excepting  some  tumuli,  and  other 
rude  monuments.  Nor  are  there  any  cer- 
tain relics  of  the  Carthagenians  in  Spain 
but  coins,  which  have  been  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  The  Roman  antiqui- 
ties are  numerous,  of  which,  however,  we 
shall  notice  but  few.  The  aqueduct  at 
Segovia  is  a  noble  edifice,  consisting  of 
159  arches,  extending  about  740  yards, 
and  is  rather  more  than  94  feet  in  height 
where  it  crosses  the  valley.  Morviedo, 
the  ancient  Saguntum,  and  Tarragona, 
the  ancient  Tarraco,  afford  many  curious 
remains  of  antiquity.  The  theatre  is  ca- 
pable of  receiving  10,000  people,  and  is 
hewn  out  of  a  solid  rock,  the  labour  of 
which  was  less  than  might  at  first  be  ex- 
pected, as  the  Spanish  rocks  are  general- 
ly calcareous,  or  of  gypsum.  The  Visi- 
goth kings  have  left  few  relics  except 
their  coins,  which  are  struck  in  gold,  a 
metal  at  that  period  unknown  to  the  other 
European  mints.  Numerous  and  splendid 
are  the  monuments  of  the  Moors  in  Spain. 
The  mosque  at  Cordova  is  one  of  the 
chief;  this  surprizes  travellers  with  the 
multitude  of  its  columns,  which  are  said 
to  be  800.  The  Christian  antiquities  here, 
as  in  other  places,  are,  churches,  castles, 
and  monasteries. 

The  antiquities  of  Portugal  consist  also 
chiefly  of  Roman  monuments,  with  some 


Moorish  remains.  In  the  north  is  an  ex^ 
tensive  series  of  arches,  formerly  a  Ro- 
man aqueduct.  At  Evora  are  well  pre- 
served ruins  of  a  temple  of  Diana,  and  art 
aqueduct  ascribed  to  Quintus  Sertorius, 
whose  life  was  written  by  Plutarch. 
Among  the  antiquities  of  the  middle  ages 
may  be  noted  the  monastery  of  Batalha, 
in  Estremadura,  60  miles  north  of  Lisbon, 
which  is  allowed  on  all  hands  to  be  one 
of  the  noblest  monuments  of  what  is  call- 
ed the  Gothic  style  of  architecture. 

English  antiquities  fall  into  the  follow- 
ing divisions,  viz.  those  belonging  to  the 
primitive  Celtic  inhabitants  ;  those  of  the 
Belgic  colonies  ;  those  of  the  Romans ; 
those  of  the  Saxons ;  reliques  of  the 
Danes ;  and,  lastly,  Norman  monuments. 
Few  of  these  remains  are  thoughtto  throw- 
much  light  upon  the  history  of  the  coun- 
try ;  but,  being  interesting  and  curious  in 
themselves,  they  may,  in  this  article, 
which  is  intended  as  a  guide  to  the  study, 
be  briefly  noticed.  A  radical  mistake,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Pinkerton,  in  the  study  of 
English  antiquities,  has  arisen  from  the 
confusion  of  the  Celtic  and  Belgic  lan- 
guages and  monuments.  The  Druids  have 
deservedly  attracted  much  curiosity  and 
research  ;  but  it  would  be  erroneous  to 
impute  to  them,  as  is  usual,  the  whole  of 
our  earliest  remains.  Caesar  speaks  of 
Druidism  as  a  recent  institution  ;  and  if 
that  be  the  case,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
it  originated  from  the  Phoenician  factories, 
established  in  wooden  fortresses,  the  usu- 
al practice  of  commercial  nations  when 
trading  with  savage  or  barbarous  people. 
The  tenets  correspond  with  what  little 
exists  of  Phccnician  mythology,  and  the 
missionaries  of  that  refined  people  might 
have  some  zeal  in  their  diffusion.  Ancient 
authors,  who  give  us  all  our  information 
concerning  the  Druids,  minutely  describe 
their  religious  rites,  but  are  totally  silent 
concerning  any  monuments  of  stone  being 
used  among  them.  On  the  contrary,  they 
mention  gloomy  groves  and  spreading 
oaks  as  the  only  scenes  of  the  Dniidic  ce- 
remonies; nevertheless,  antiquaries  have 
inferred  that  Stonehenge  is  a  Druidic 
monument,  though  it  be  situated  in  an  ex- 
tensive plain,  where  not  a  vestige  of  wood 
appears,  and'  where  the  very  soil  is  re- 
puted to  be  adverse  to  its  vegetation.  It 
would  be  a  vain  effort  to  attempt  to  dis- 
criminate the  remains  of  the  earliest  in- 
habitants from  those  of  the  Dmidic  pe- 
riod, and  if  the  opinion  of  the  last-men- 
tioned author  istobe  regarded  as  binding, 
there  is  no  foundation  for  any  sound  or 
real  knowledge  on  the  subject.  The  fol- 
lowing have  been  esteemed  as  the  montf- 


ANTIQUITIES. 


ments  of  the  Druids: — 1.  Single  stones 
erect,  2.  Rock  idols  and  pierced  stones. 
3.  Rocking-stones,  used  as  ordeals.  4. 
Sepulchres  of  two,  three,  or  more  stones. 
5.  Circular  temples,  or  rather  circles  of 
erect  stones.  6.  Barrows,  or  tumuli.  7. 
CronVieehs,  or  heaps  of  stones.  8.  Rock- 
basins,  imagined  to  have  been  used  in 
Druidic  expiations.  9.  Caves,  used  as 
places  of  retreat  in  time  of  war.  But  as 
most  of  these  relics  may  also  be  found  in 
Germany  and  Scandinavia,  it  is  difficult  to 
say  whether  they  are  Gothic  or  Celtic  ; 
and  as  the  Germans  had  no  Druids,  we 
cannot,  witn  any  degree  of  certainty,  be- 
stow the  name  of  Druidic  upon  such 
monuments.  It  is  highly  probable,  that 
the  earliest  inhabitants,  as  is  ever  the 
practice  in  the  inf.mcy  of  society,  made 
use  of  wood,  not  of  stone,  in  their  religi- 
ous as  well  as  in  their  domestic  erections. 
If  we  survey  the  various  savage  regions  of 
the  globe,  we  shall  seldom,  if  ever,  per- 
ceive the  use  of  stone  ;  and  it  is  certainly 
JUSL  to  infer,  that  the  savages  of  the  west 
were  not  more  skilful  than  those  of  the 
east,  nor  those  of  the  old  continents  and 
islandsthan  those  of  the  new.  But  as  many 
of  these  monuments  are  found  in  Germa- 
ny, Scandinavia,  and  Iceland,  and  as  the 
Icelandic  writers  in  particular  of*?n  indi- 
cate their  origin  and  use,  which  are  un- 
known in  thcj.  Celtic  records,  there  is  eve- 
ry reason  to  attribute  them  to  a  more  ad- 
vanced stage  of  society,  when  the  Belgic 
colonies  introduced  agriculture,  and  a  lit- 
tle further  progress  in  the  r»:de  arts  of  bar- 
barism. The  nature  of  this  work  will  not 
admit  a  formal  investigation  of  such  to- 
pics,  but  a  few  remarks  may  be  offered  on 
Stonehenge,  a  stupendous  monument  of 
barbaric  industry.  Inigo  Jones,  in  attempt- 
ing to  prove  that  it  is  Roman,  only  evin- 
ces that  no  talents  can  avail  when  science 
is  wanting,  and  that  antiquities  require  a 
severe  and  peculiar  train  of  study.  Doctor 
Stukely,  a  visionary  writer,  assigns  Stone- 
Jienge  to  the  Druids  ;  while  Dr.  Charlton, 
perceiving  that  such  irioniiments  are  found 
in  Denmark,  ascribed  it  to  the  Danes.  If 
the  latter  had  considered,  that  the  Bclgse 
were  a  Gothic  nation,  of  similar  language 
and  institutions,  he  might  with  more  jus- 
tice have  extended  his  antiquity.  From 
the  Icelandic  writers  we  learn,  that  such 
circles  were  called  domh-riuyr,  that  is,  lite- 
rally, doom-ring,  or  circle  of  judgment, 
being  the  solemn  places  where  courts 
were  held,  of  all  kinds  and  dignities,  from 
the  national  council  down  to  the  baronial 
court,  or  that  of  a  common  proprietor  of 
land,  for  adjusting  disputes  between  his 
villani  and  slaves.  The  magnificence  of 


Stonehenge  loudly  pronounces  that  it  was 
the  supreme  court  of  the  nation,  equiva- 
lent to  the  Champs  de  Mars  et  de  Mai  of 
the  Franks,  where  the  king  and  chiefs  as- 
sembled in  the  circle,  and  the  men  capa- 
ble of  arms  in  the  open  plain  ;  nor  is  it 
improbable  that  the  chiefs  ascended  the 
transverse  stones,  and  declared  their  re- 
solves to  the  surrounding  crowd,  who,  in 
the  description  of  Tacitus,  dissented  by 
loud  murmurs,  or  applauded  by  clashing 
their  shields.  This  idea  receives  confir- 
mation from  the  circumstance,  that  the 
Belgae,  peculiarly  so  called,  as  hi- Ing  the 
chief  and  ruling  colony  of  thai,  jeople, 
were  seated  in  the  surround:!1.,  pi  .ivincc, 
and  Sorbiodunum,  now  Old  Sarum,  was 
their  capital  city.  Similar  ci.-cles  of  stone, 
but  far  inferior  in  size,  are  found  in  many 
parts  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  se- 
veral undoubtedly  as  late  as  the  Danish  in- 
roads and  usurpations,  the  practice  being1 
continued  by  that  people  at  least  till  their 
conversion  to  Christianity,  in  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries.  Some  of  the  smallest, 
as  we  learn  from  the  northern  antiquaries, 
were  merely  places  of  family  sepulture. 
At  a  later  period,  the  circles  of  judgment, 
which  had  been  polluted  with  human  sa- 
crifices and  other  Pagan  rites,  were  aban- 
doned, and  the  great  courts  were  held  on 
what  were  called  moot -hills,  or  hills  of 
meeting,  many  of  which  still  exist  in  the 
British  dominions  and  in  the  Netherlands. 
They  commonly  consist  of  a  central  emi- 
nence, on  which  sat  the  judge  and  his 
assistants ;  beneath  was  an  elevated  plat- 
form for  the  parties,  their  friends  and 
conpurgators,  who  sometimes  amounted 
to  a  hundred  or  more  ;  and  this  platform 
was  surrounded  with  a  trench,  to  secure 
it  from  the  access  of  the  mere  spectators. 
Of  the  other  monuments  of  this  period  a 
more  brief  consideration  naust  suffice. 
When  a  monarch  or  distinguished  general 
was  buried,  a  barrow  or  hillock  was  erect- 
ed, to  preserve  his  name  and  memory  to 
future  ages;  the  size  depending  on  the 
reputation  of  the  person,  which  attracted 
a  smaller  or  larger  number  of  operators. 
Such  monuments  are  very  ancient,  and 
even  to  this  day  denote  the  sepulchres  of 
some  of  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war.  In 
later  times,  a  large  single  stone  erected 
was  esteemed  a  sufficient  memorial :  such 
single  stones  also  sometimes  appear  as 
monuments  of  remarkable  battles,  or 
merely  as  boundaries.  The  caves  are 
familiar  to  most  nations  in  an  early  state 
of  society.  The  Belgic  reliques  are  follow- 
ed by  those  of  the  Romans,  which  arc 
mostly  objects  of  mere  curiosity,  and  rare, - 
Jy  throw  the  smallest  light  on  the  page 


ANTIQUITIES. 


of  history.    Amphitheatres  are  said  to  be 
still  visible  at  Silchester,  in  Hampshire, 
and  some  other  places,     The  Rc.:.ua  cas- 
tle at  Richborough,  the  ancient  Kutupix, 
in  Kent,  presents  considerable  remains  of 
a  massy  wall,  cemented  with  surprising- 
firmness.     The  Roman  ruins  in  this  coun- 
try are  commonly  composed  of  stone  or 
flint,  with  strata  of  flat  bricks  at  consider- 
able  intervals.      The  Mosaic  pavements, 
hypocausts,  &c.are  generally  the  remains 
of  the  villas  of  opulent  Romans,  scattered 
over  the  country.     The  greatest  number 
of   Roman    inscriptions,    altars,  See.  has 
been  found  in  the  north,  along-  the  great 
frontier  wall,  which  extended  from  the 
western  sea  to  the  estuary  of  the  Tyne. 
This  vast  wall  is  justly  esteemed  the  most 
important  remain  of  the  Roman  power 
in  England,  as  that  of  Antoninus  is  in  Scot- 
land.    The  extent  was   about  70  miles, 
and  its  construction,  forts,  &.c.  have  been 
illustrated  by  the  labour  of  several  an- 
tiquaries. Numerous  are  the  more  minute 
relics  of  the  Romans  in  England,  as  coins, 
gems,  weapons,  ornaments,  and  the  like  ; 
among  which,  however,  the  silver  dish 
belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land deserves  especial  mention.     One  of 
the  grand  causes  of  the  civilization  intro- 
duced by  that  ruling  people  into  the  con- 
quered states  was  the  highways,  which 
form,  indeed,  the  first  germ  of  national 
industry,  and  without  which  neither  com- 
merce nor  society  can  make  any  consider- 
able progress.     Conscious  of  this  truth, 
the  Romans  seem  to  have  lent  particular 
attention  to  the  construction  of  roads  in 
the  distant  provinces  ;  and  those  of  Eng- 
land, which  may  still  be  traced  in  various 
ramifications,  present  a  lasting  monument 
of  the  justice  of  their  conceptions,  the 
extent  of  their  views,  and  the  utility  of 
their  power.     A  grand  trunk,  as  it  may 
be  called,  passed  from  the  south  to  the 
north,  and  another    to   the    west,    with 
branches,  in  almost  every  direction  that 
general  convenience  and  expedition  could 
require.      What  is  called    the   Watling- 
street,  led  from  Richborough,  in  Kent, 
the  ancient  Rutupiae,  N.  W.  through  Lon- 
don to  Chester.    The  Ermin-street  passed 
from  London  to  Lincoln,  thence  to  Car- 
lisle, and  into  Scotland,  the  name  being 
supposed  to  be  corrupted  from  Herman, 
which  means  warrior,  as  the   chief  wars 
lay  in  the  north.     The  Fosse  Way  is  sup- 
posed to  have  led  from    Bath    and  the 
western  regions,  N.  E.  till  it  joined  the 
Ermin-street.      The  last  celebrated  road 
was  the  Ikenild,  or    Ikneld,  supposed  to 
have  extended  from  near  Norwich,  S.  W. 


into  Dorsetshire.     The  Saxon  antiquities 
in  England  are  chiefly  edifices,  sacred  or 
secular;  many  churches  remain,  which 
were  altogether,  or  for    the   most  part, 
constructed  in  the    Saxon    period,    and 
some  are  extant  of   the  tenth,   or  per- 
haps the  ninth  century.  The  vaults  erect- 
ed by  Grimbaki,  at  Oxford,  in  the  reign 
of  Alfred,  are   justly    esteemed  curious 
relics  of  Saxon  architecture.     Mr.  King 
has  ably   illustrated   the  remains  of  the 
Saxon  castles.     The  oldest  seem  to  con- 
sist of    one    solitary   tower,    square    or 
hexagonal :  one  of  the  rudest  specimens 
is  Conhigsburg  Castle,  in  Yorkshire  ;  but 
as  that  region  was   subject  to  the  Danes 
till  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  it  is 
probably  Danish.     Among  the  smailer  re- 
mains of  Saxon  art  may  be  mentioned,  the 
shrines  for  preserving  relics,  which  some 
suppose  to  present  the   diminutive  nidi- 
ments  of  what  is  styled  the  Gothic  archi- 
tecture ;  and  the  illuminated  manuscripts, 
which  often  afford  curious  memorials  of 
the  state  of  manners  and  knowledge.  The 
Danish  power  in  England,  though  of  con- 
siderable  duration   in  the  north,  was  in 
the  south  brief  and  transitory.  The  cuinps 
of  that  nation  were  circular,  like  those  of 
the  Belgx  and    Saxons,  while   those  of 
Roman  armies  are  known  by  the  square 
form :    and  it  is  believed  that  the  only 
distinct  relics  of  the  Danes,  are  some  cas- 
tles to  the  north   of  the  Humber,  and  a 
few  stones  with  Runic  inscriptions.     The 
monuments  styled  Norman,  rather  to  dis- 
tinguish their  epoch,  than  from  any  infor- 
mation   that    Norman     architects    were 
employed,  are  reputed  to  commence  after 
the  conquest,  and  to  extend  to  the  four- 
teenth century,  when  what  is  called  the 
rich  Gothic  began  to  appear,  which  in  the 
sixteenth  century  was  supplanted  by  the 
mixed,  and  this  in  its  turn  yielded  to  the 
Grecian.     In  general,   the  Norman  style 
far  exceeds  the  Saxon  in  the  size  of  the 
edifices,  and  the  decoration  of  the  parts. 
The  churches  become    more  extensive 
and  lofty,  and  though  the  windows  retain 
the  circular  arch,  they    are    larger  and 
more  diversified;  the  circular  doors  are 
festooned  with  more  freedom    and  ele- 
gance ;    and  uncouth  animals    begin  to 
yield  to  wreaths  of  leaves  and  flowers. 
The  solitary  keep,  or  tower,  of  the  Saxon 
custle,  is  surrounded  with  a  double  wall, 
inclosing  courts  and  dwellings  of  large 
extent,  defended  by  turrets   and  double 
ditches,   with    a    separate    watch-tower, 
called  the  Barbican.     Among1  others,  the 
cathedrals  of  Durham    and    Winchester 
mav  be  mentioned  as  venerable  monu- 


ANTIQUITIES. 


merits  of  Anglo-Norman  architecture ; 
and  the  castles  are  numerous  and  well 
known.  What  is  called  the  Gothic,  or 
pointed  arch,  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  first  appeared  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  next  it  became  universal 
in  religious  edifices.  The  windows  dif- 
fused to  great  breadth  and  loftiness,  and 
divided  into  branching  interstices,  enrich- 
ed with  painted  glass ;  the  clustering 
pillars,  of  excessive  height,  spreading  in- 
to various  fret-work  on  the  roof,  consti- 
tute, with  decorations  of  smaller  note, 
what  is  called  the  rich  Gothic  style,  visi- 
ble in  the  chapel  of  King's  college  at 
Cambridge,  and  many  other  grand  speci- 
mens in  this  kingdom.  The  spire  cor- 
responds with  the  interior,  and  begins 
about  the  thirteenth  century  to  rise  bold- 
ly from  the  ancient  tower,  and  diminish 
from  the  sight  in  gradation  of  pinnacles 
and  ornaments. 

We  now  proceed  to  Scotland,  the  origi- 
nal population  of  which  is  supposed  upon 
good  authority  to  consist  of  Cimbri,  from 
the  Cimbric  Chersonese.  About  two  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  sera,  the  Cim- 
bri seem  to  have  been  driven  to  the  south 
of  Scotland  by  the  Caledonians,  or  Picti,  a 
Gothic  colony  from  Norway.  The  Cimbri, 
a  congenerous  people  with  the  Welch, 
continue d  to  hold  the  country  south  of 
the  two  firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde  ;  but 
from  the  former  region  they  were  soon 
expelkd  by  the  Picti,  who,  in  this  corner, 
becau,e  subject  for  a  time  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  kings  of  Bernicia.  On  the  West, 
the  Cumraig  kingdom  of  Strath  Clyde 
continued  till  the  tenth  century,  when  it 
became  subject  to  the  kings  of  North 
Britain  ;  who  at  the  same  time  extended 
their  authority,  by  the  permission  of  the 
English  monarch,  over  the  counties  of 
Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  which, 
abounding  with  hills  and  fortresses  on  the 
south  and  east,  were  little  accessible  to  the 
English  power,  and,  while  the  Danes  pos- 
sessed the  country  to  the  north  of  Hum- 
ber,  could  yield  little  revenue  or  support 
to  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarchs.  From  the 
Picti  originates  the  population  of  the  Low- 
lands of  Scotland,  the  Lowlanders  having 
been  in  all  ages  a  distinct  people  from 
those  of  the  western  Highlands,  though 
the  Irish  clergy  endeavored  to  render 
their  language,  which  was  the  most  smooth 
and  cultivated  of  the  two,  the  polite  dia- 
logue of  the  court  and  superior  classes. 
About  the  year  of  Christ  258,  the  Dalri- 
ads  of  Bede,  the  Attacotti  of  the  Roman 
writers,  passed  from  Ireland  to  Argyle- 
/Oiire,  and  became  the  germ  of  the  Scot- 


tish Highlanders,  who  speak  the  Irish  01* 
Celtic  language,  while  the  Lowlanders 
have  always  used  the  Scandinavian  or  Go- 
thic. In  reference  to  the  antiquities  of 
the  country,  Mr.  Pinkerton  divides  the 
early  history  into  seven  distinct  periods, 
viz.  1.  The  original  population  of  Scot- 
land by  the  Cimbri  and  by  the  Picti.  2. 
The  entrance  of  Agricola  into  Scotland, 
and  the  subsequent  conflicts  with  the  Ro- 
mans, till  the  latter  abandoned  Britain. 
3.  The  settlement  of  the  Dalriads,  or  At- 
tacotti, in  Argyleshire,  about  the  year 
258,  and  their  repulsion  to  Ireland  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  4.  The 
commencement  of  what  may  be  called  a 
regular  history  of  Scotland,  from  the 
reign  of  Drust,  A.  D.  414.  5.  The  return 
of  the  Dalraids,  A.  D.  503,  and  the  sub- 
sequent events  of  Dalriadic  story.  6. 
The  introduction  of  Christianity  among1 
the  Caledonians,  in  the  reign  of  Brudi  II. 
A.  D.  565.  7.  The  union  of  the  Picti  and 
Attacotti,  under  Kenneth,  A.  D.  843,  after 
which  greater  civilization  began  to  take 
place,  and  the  history  becomes  more  au- 
thentic. The  monuments  of  antiquity 
belonging  to  these  epochs  may  be  consi- 
dered in  the  following  order.  Of  the  first 
epoch,  no  monuments  can  exist  except 
those  ef  the  tumular  kind  ;  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  ascertain  the  period  of  their 
formation.  The  remains  of  the  Roman 
period  in  North  Britain  chiefly  appear  in 
the  celebrated  wall  built  in  the  reign  of 
Aiitoninus  Pius,  between  the  firths  of 
Forth  and  Clyde,  in  the  ruins  of  which 
many  curious  inscriptions  have  been 
found.  Another  striking  object  of  this 
epoch  was  a  small  edifice,  vulgarly  called 
Arthur's  oven,  which  seems  rightly  to 
have  been  regarded  by  some  antiquaries 
as  a  small  temple  dedicated  to  the  god 
Terminus,  probably  after  the  erection  of 
the  wall  of  Antoninus;  for  we  are  not  to 
conceive  these  walls  were  the  absolute 
lines  beyond  which  the  Romans  possessed 
no  territory ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  in 
the  pacific  intervals,  the  garrisons  along 
the  wall  may  have  claimed  the  forage  of 
the  exterior  fields ;  and  the  stream  of 
Carron,  beyond  which  this  chapel  stood, 
may  have  been  considered  as  a  necessary 
supply  of  water.  The  remains  of  the  wall 
and  forts,  and  other  Roman  antiquities,  in 
Scotland,  particularly  their  camps  and 
stations,  many  of  which  are  remarkably 
entire,  are  ably  illustrated  in  a  late  publi- 
cation of  General  Roy;  but  the  ingenious 
author  has  perhaps  too  implicitly  followed 
a  common  antiquarian  error,  in  ascribing 
al]  these  camps,  stations,  8cc.  to  Agricola, 


ANTIQUITIES. 


while  they  maybe  more  justly  assigned  to 
Lollius  Urbicus,  A.  D.  140,  or  to  the  Em- 
peror Severus,  A.  D.  207,  especially  in- 
deed to  the  latter;  for  the  Emperor's  ap- 
pearance, in  person,  to  conduct  two  cam- 
paigns, probably  as  far  as  Inverness,  must 
have  occasioned  the  erection  of  works 
more  eminent  and  durable  than  usual,  the 
soldiers  being  excited  by  the  animating 
controul  of  a  military  monarch.  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus  also,  A.  D.  306,  made  a 
long  progress  into  Scotland,  if  we  trust 
the  panegyrists.  Nay,  in  the  reign  of 
Domitian,  Bolanus,  as  we  learn  from  Sta- 
tius  the  poet,  erected  several  works  in 
Britain,  probably  in  the  north  ;  so  that  it 
is  idle  to  impute  these  remains  to  any  one 
author ;  but  to  a  judicious  eye,  the  claims 
of  Lollius  Urbicus,  and  of  Severus,  seem 
preferable.  The  most  northerly  Roman 
camp,  yet  discovered,  is  that  near  the 
source  of  the  river  Ythan,  Aberdeenshire; 
periphery  about  two  English  miles.  A 
smaller  station  has  also  been  observed  at 
Old  Meldrum,  a  few  miles  to  the  S.  E. 
Roman  roads  have  been  traced  a  consider- 
able way  in  the  east  of  Scotland,  as  far  as 
the  county  of  Angus,  affording  some  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  the  province  of 
Vespasiana;  but  the  chief  remains  are 
within  the  wall.  A  hypocaust  was  also 
discovered  near  Perth,  and  another  near 
Musselburg,  so  that  there  was  probably 
some  Roman  station  near  the  Scotish  ca- 
pital. The  smaller  remains  of  Roman  an- 
tiquity found  in  Scotland,  as  coins,  uten- 
sils, &c.  are  numerous.  With  the  fourth 
epoch  may  be  said  to  commence  the  Pik- 
Ish  monuments  of  antiquity.  The  tombs 
it  would  be  difficult  to  discriminate  from 
those  of  the  first  epoch ;  but  as  the  Cale- 
donian kings,  when  converted  to  Christi- 
anity, held  their  chief  residence  at  Inver- 
ness, the  singular  hill  in  its  vicinity,  pre- 
senting the  form  of  a  boat  reversed,  may 
perhaps  be  a  monument  of  regal  sepul- 
ture. The  places  of  judgment  among  the 
Gothic  nations,  or  what  are  now  styled 
Druidic  temples,  are  numerous;  and  there 
is  a  remarkable  one  in  the  Isle  of  Lewis, 
where,  probably,  the  monarchs  resided  in 
the  most  early  times  ;  but  this,  perhaps, 
rather  belongs  to  the  Norwegian  settle- 
ment in  the  ninth  century.  Some  of  these 
monuments  are  of  small  circuit ;  and  such 
are  sometimes  found  at  no  great  distance 
from  each  other ;  as  they  were  not  only 
sometimes  erected  merely  as  temples  to 
Odin,  Thor,  Freyga,  and  other  Gothic 
deities,  but  every  chief,  or  lord  of  a  ma- 
nor, having  jurisdiction  over  many  ser- 
vants and  slaves,  such  small  courts  be- 


came places  of  necessary  awe.  T,he  housed 
seem  to  hare  been  entirely  of  wood  or  turf* 
but  in  some  spots  singular  excavations 
are  found,  rudely  lined  with  stone  ;  these 
are  called  weems,  and  it  is  likely  that 
they  were  always  adjacent  to  the  wooden 
residence  of  some  chief,  and  were  intend- 
ed as  depositories  of  stores,  &c.,the  roofs 
being  too  low  for  comfortable  places  of 
refuge.  The  stations  and  camps  of  the 
natives  are  distinguished  by  their  round 
form,  while  those  of  the  Romans  belong 
to  the  square.  Under  the  next  epoch  it 
would  be  difficult  to  discover  any  genu- 
ine remains  of  the  Dalriads.  The  houses, 
and  even  the  churches,  were  constructed 
in  wattlework;  and  the  funeral  monuments 
were  cairns  or  heaps  of  stones.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  Christianity  did  not  immedi- 
ately dissolve  ancient  prejudices,  and  that 
even  the  Atticottic  kings  were  buried  in 
this  rude  manner ;  for  the  genuine  chro- 
nicles do  not  affirm  that  they  were  con- 
veyed to  Hyona  or  Ilcolmkill ;  and  the 
sepulchres  there  shewn,  of  Irish  and  Nor- 
wegian kings,  must  be  equally  fabulous. 
To  the  sixth  epoch  may  probably  belong 
a  chapel  or  two,  still  remaining  in  Scot- 
land, for  Bede  informs  us  that  Nethan 
III.  A.  D.  715,  obtained  architects  from 
Ceolfrid,  abbot  of  Jarro wand  Weremouth, 
to  build  a  church  in  his  dominions, 
probably  at  Abernethy;  but  the  round 
tower  there  remaining  seems  of  more 
recent  origin.  About  the  year  830,  Un- 
gust  II.  founded  the  church  of  St.  An- 
drew ;  and  the  chapel  called  that  of  St. 
Regulus  (who  seems  unknown  in  the 
Roman  calendar)  may,  perhaps,  claim 
even  this  antiquity.  It  is  probable,  that 
these  sacred  edifices  in  stone  were  soon 
followed  by  the  erection  of  those  rude 
round  piles,  without  any  cement,  called 
Piks-houses ;  yet  they  may  more  properly 
belong  to  the  seventh  epoch,  when  the 
Danes  may  share  in  the  honour  of  the 
erection,  for  such  edifices  have  been  trac- 
ed in  Scandinavia.  They  seem  to  have 
consisted  of  a  vast  hall,  open  to  the  sky 
in  the  centre,  while  the  cavities  in  the 
wall  present  incommodious  recesses  for 
beds,  Sec.  These  buildings  are  remark- 
able, as  displaying  the  first  elements  of 
the  Gothic  castle  ;  and  the  castle  of  Co- 
ningsburg  in  Yorkshire  forms  an  easy 
transition.  The  engraved  obelisks  found 
in  Forres,  and  in  other  parts  of  Scotland, 
have  been  ascribed  to  the  Danish  rava- 
gers,  who  had  not  time  for  such  erections. 
They  are,  probably,  monuments  of  sig- 
nal events,  raised  by  the  king  or  chiefs ; 
and  as  some  are  found  in  Scandinavia,  as 


ANTIQUITIES. 


recent  as  the  fifteenth  century,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  many  of  the  Scotish  obelisks 
are  far  more  modern  than  is  generally 
imagined. 

We  are  next  to  consider  the  antiquities 
of  Ireland.     The   original  population  of 
this  country  passed  from  Gaul,  and  was 
afterwards  increased  by  their  brethren  the 
Guydil  from  England.     About  the  time 
that  the  Belgae   seized  on  the  south  of 
England,  it  appears  that  kindred  Gothic 
tribes   passed   to   the   south  of  Ireland. 
These  are  the  Firbolg  of  the  Irish  tradi- 
tions, and  appear  to  have  been  the  same 
people  whom  the  Romans  denominated 
Scoti,  after  they  had  emerged  to  their  no- 
tice, by  not  only  extending  their  conquest 
to  the  north  and  east  in  Ireland,  but  had 
begun    to    make    maritime     excursions 
against  the  Roman  provinces  in  Britain. 
But  Ireland  had  been  so  much  crowded 
with  Celtic  tribes,  expelled  from  the  con- 
tinent and  Britain,  by  the  progress  of  the 
German  Goths,  that  the  Belga;  almost  lost 
their  native  speech  and  distinct  character; 
and  from  intermarriages,  &c.  became  lit- 
tle distinguishable  from  the  original  po- 
pulation, except  by  superior  ferocity,  for 
which  the  Scoti,  or  those  who  affected  a 
descent  from  the  Gothic  colonies,  were 
remarkable,  while  the  original  Gael  seem 
to  have  been  an  innocent  and  harmless 
people.    The  epochs  in  Ireland,  to  which 
its  antiquities  are  referrible,  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 1.  The  first  historical  epoch  of  Ire- 
land is  its  original  population  by  the  Celtic 
Gauls,  and  the  subsequent  colonization  by 
the  Belgae.  2.  The  maritime  excursions  of 
the  Scoti  against  the  Roman  provinces  in 
Britain.     3.  The  conversion  of  Ireland  to 
Christianity  in  the  fifth  century,  which  was 
followed  by  a  singular  effect;  for  while  the 
mass  of  the  people  retained  all  the  ferocity 
of  savage  manners,  the  monasteries  pro- 
duced many  men  of  such  piety  and  learn- 
ing, that  Scoti  a  or  Ireland  became  celebra- 
ted all  over  Christendom.    4.  This  lustre 
was  diminished  by  the  ravages  of  the  Scan- 
dinavians, which  began  with  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  ceas- 
ed when  the  English  settlement  commen- 
ced. The  island  had  been  split  into  nume- 
rous principalities,  or  kingdoms,  as  they 
were  styled ;  and  though  a  chief  monarch 
was  acknowledged,  yet  his  power  was  sel- 
dom efficient,  and  the  constant  dissensions 
of     o  many  small  tribes   rendered  ihe 
island  an  easy  prey.    5.  In  the  year  1170, 
Henry  II.  permitted  Richard  Strongbow, 
earl  of  Pembroke,  to  effect  a  settlement 
in  Ireland,  which  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  English  possessions  in  that  country. 


There  are  however  coins  of  Canute,  king 
of  England,  struck  at  Dublin,  perhaps  in 
acknowledgment  of  his  power,   by  the 
Danish  settlers.  After  this  period  Ireland 
became,  in  some  measure,  a  commercial 
country,  and  her  history  is  to  be  looked 
for  in  that  of  England,  with  which  it  is 
interwoven.    Upon  a  review  of  the  more 
ancient  of  these  historical  epochs,  and  of 
the  monuments  which  may  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  each,  it  must  be  consider- 
ed, that  the  edifices  having  been  construct- 
ed of  wood  till  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  any 
remains  of  them  should  exist.    Stone  was 
chiefly  employed  in  the  construction  of 
funeral  erections  of  various  kinds ;  nor 
are  barrows  wanting  in  Ireland,  being  hil- 
locks of  earth  thrown  up  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  illustrious  dead.     Other  mo- 
numents, commonly  styled  Druidic,  may 
also  be  found  in  Ireland ;  such  as  single 
stones  erect,   circular  temples,  or  rather 
places  of  judgment,  and  the  like,  which 
may  more  properly  be  ascribed  to  the 
Belgic  colony.     The  conversion  of  Ire- 
land to  Christianity  was  followed  by  the 
erection  of  a  vast  number  of  churches 
and  monasteries,  the  latter  being  comput- 
ed to  exceed  one  thousand  in  number ; 
but  all  these  edifices  were  originally  small, 
and  constructed  of  interwoven  withs,  or 
hewn   wood;    for  St.  Bernard,    in    the 
twelfth  century,  mentions  a  stone  church 
as  a  singular  novelty  in  Ireland.    But  the 
Scandinavian  chiefs  must  before  this  pe- 
riod have  introduced  the  use  of  stone  into 
the  castles,  necessary  for  their  own  de- 
fence against  a   nation  whom   they  op- 
pressed; and  sometimes  even  subterra- 
neous retreats  were  deemed  expedient, 
of  which  Ware  and  others  have  engraved 
specimens.     To  the  Scandinavian  period 
also  belong  what  are  called  the  Danes 
Raths.   or  circular   intrenchments ;    and 
some  chapels,  such  as  those  of  Glenda- 
loch,  Portaferry,  Killaloe,  Saul  Abbey,  St. 
Doulach,  and  Cashel,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  singularity  of  the  ornaments, 
which, however,  only  afford  vague  conjec- 
ture. But  of  the  round  castles,  called  Duns 
in  Scotland,  and  of  the  obelisks  engraven 
with  figures  or  ornaments,  few  or  none 
exist  in  Ireland.    Under  the  Scandinavi- 
ans the  Irish  coinage  first  dawns.    Of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  many  mo- 
numents, castellated  or  religious,    may 
probably  exist  in   Ireland.     Brian  Boro, 
king  of  Munster,  having  been  declared 
sovereign  of  Ireland  in  the  year  1002,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  virtues  and 
courage;  and  Dermid  III.  A,  D.  1041— 


ANTIQUITIES. 


1073,  was  also  an  excellent  and  powerful 
prince.  Under  these  monarchs,  and  their 
successors,  Terdulvac  and  Moriertac,  the 
power  of  the  Scandinavians  was  consider- 
ably weakened.  The  native  chiefs  had 
been  taught  the  necessity  of  fortresses, 
and  were  generally  devoutly  attached  to 
religion  ;  it  is  therefore  to  be  inferred, 
that  many  castles,  < -hurdles,  and  monaste- 
ries, now  began  to  be  partly  constructed 
in  stone,  by  architects  invited  from  France 
and  England ;  but  perhaps  the  round 
towers  were  erected  by  native  builders. 
Among  smaller  relics  of  antiquity,  the 
golden  trinkets  found  in  a  bog  near  Cul- 
len,  in  the  south,  deserve  mention  :  as 
gold  o-ys  found  in  Gaul,  they  are  perhaps 
orr::i:,K:i;ts  of  the  ancient  chiefs,  brought 
from  that  region. 

It  remains  now  to  mention  the  names  of 
some  of  those  authors  who  have  written 
on  the  antiquities  of  our  own  country. 
Tacitus  was  an  eye-witness  to  the  ceremo- 
nies of  Druidism  in  England,  as  the  Ro- 
mans were  in  Wales.  To  him,  to  Caesar, 
already  referred  to,  and  to  Dio  Cassius, 
we  refer,  as  the  chief  authorities  in  regard 
to  British  history.  To  these  may  be  add- 
ed JElian,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo,  and 
Pliny.  Cluverius,  Pezrori,  and  Pellouiier, 
are  more  modern,  but  respectable,  writers 
on  the  same  subject.  Of  the  structures 
erected  by  the  Britons,  Abury  and  Stone- 
henge  may  be  deemed  the  principal. 
Relics  of  a  smaller  kind  are  continually  dis- 
covered a  few  feet  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  On  these  Stukely  and  Row- 
land are  the  best  authorities  :  the  former 
has  written  a  volume  on  Abury,  a  temple 
of  the  Druids,  in  which  is  a  particular  ac- 
count of  the  first  and  patriarchal  religion, 
and  of  the  peopling  of  the  British  islands  : 
besides  his  larger  work,  entitled  "  Itine- 
rarium  Curiosum,"  being  an  account  of 
the  antiquities,  &c.  observed  in  travels 
through  Great  Britain,  published  in  1724. 
For  the  history  of  the  Britons  under  the 
Roman  Government,  Horsley's  Brit.  Rom. 
is  a  work  ihat  may  be  depended  upon. 
With  respect  to  the  antiquities  of  the  Sax- 
ons, the  illuminated  manuscripts  are  the 
best  records  of  their  manners  in  the  differ- 
ent centuries,  and  the  most  interesting  in- 
formation respecting  them  has  been  col- 
lected by  Turner  and  Strutt.  The  best 
collection  of  Saxon  coins  is  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  of  manuscripts  in  the  same 
place,  and  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  Mr. 
King  has  treated  of  their  military  antiqui- 
ties in  his  History  of  Castles ;  and,  inde- 
pendently of  our  works  on  topography, 
which  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
of  the  first  respectability,  and  which  throw 

VOL.  I. 


considerable  light  on  the  antiquities  of  the 
country,  we  may  refer  to  Henry's  History 
of  England,  where  the  subject  is  discussed 
systematically  and  in  chronological  order  ; 
and  to  the  works  of  Camden,  Strutt,  and 
Gough,  to  which  may  be  added  the  whole 
series  of  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  and 
Pinkerton's  Geography,  to  which  we  have 
been  indebted  for  a  part  of  this  article. 

As  the  antiquities  of  the  united  king- 
dom  are  in  some  respects  connected  with 
those  of  the  Danes  and  other  northern  na- 
tions, we  may  suggest  to  the  reader  what 
are  the  principal  remains  of  those  people, 
as  a  clue  to  his  future  inquiries. 

The  ancient  monuments  of  Denmark 
and  Norway  are  chiefly  Runic,  though  it 
is  far  from  certain  at  what  period  the  use 
of  Runic  characters  extended  so  far  north. 
Circles  of  upright  stones  are  common  in. 
all  the  Danish  dominions,  the  islands,  Nor- 
way, and  Iceland,  in  which  latter  country 
their  origin  is  perfectly  ascertained,  as 
some  were  erected  even  in  recent  times 
of  the  Icelandic  republic,  being  called 
domh-ring,  or  circles  of  judgment.  Some 
also  appear  to  have  been  the  cemeteries 
of  superior  families  Monuments  also  occur 
of  two  upright  stones  with  one  across  ;  and 
of  the  other  forms  supposed  to  be  Druidic. 
The  resiliences  of  the  chiefs  appear  t« 
have 

as  there   are  very   ew 
isting  in  Denmark  or  Norway. 

Of  Sweden  the  ancient  monuments  con- 
sist chiefly  of  judicial  circles  and  other 
erections  of  unhewn  stone,  together  with 
remains  inscribed  with  Runic  characters, 
none  of  which  are  imagined  to  have  exist- 
ed longer  than  the  eleventh  century. 

In  Russia  the  ancient  monuments  are 
neither  numerous,  nor  afford  much  varie- 
ty. There  are  to  be  met  with  the  tombs  of 
their  pagan  ancestors,  containing  weapons 
and  ornaments.  From  the  writings  of 
Herodotus  we  learn  that  the  Scythians  re- 
garded the  cemeteries  of  their  princes  with 
singular  veneration  :  the  Sarmatians  or 
Slavons  seem  to  have  imbibed  the  same 
ideas.  The  catacombs  of  Kiow,  it  is  be- 
lieved, were  formed  in  the  pagan  period, 
though  they  are  now  replete  with  marks 
of  Christianity.  They  are  labyrinths  of 
considerable  extent,  dug,  as  it  should 
seem,  through  a  mass  of  hardened  clay, 
but  they  do  not  appear  to  contain  the  bo- 
dies of  the  sovereigns.  The  idols  of  Pa- 
gan Russia  are  sometimes  found  cast  in. 
bronze  ;  and  Dr.  Guthrie  has  given  a  good 
account  of  the  Slavonic  mythology,  to 
whose  "  Dissertations  sur  les  Antiquites 
de  Russie"  we  refer  the  reader.  We 
may  however  observe,  that  the  pagan 

L  1 


been  generally  constructed  of  wood, 
ere   are  ver    few  ancient  castles  ex- 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Russians  worshipped  one  god,supposed  to 
be  the  author  of  thunder ;  another,  that 
resembled  the  Pan  of  the  ancients;  others, 
answering  to  the  Sun,  Hercules,  Mars, 
Venus,  and  Cupid.  They  had  also  god- 
desses, corresponding  with  Ceres,  Diana, 
and  Pomona,and  their  nymphs  ofthewoods 
and  waters.  They  worshipped  Znitch  or 
Vesta  in  the  form  of  fire,  and  venerated 
waters,  the  Bog  being  as  highly  regarded 
by  the  ancient  Russians  as  the  Ganges 
among  the  Indians :  the  Don  and  the  Da- 
nube were  also  considered  as  holy  streams; 
and  there  was  a  sacred  lake,  environed 
with  a  thick  forest,  in  the  isle  of  llugen, 
which  was  adored  by  the  Slavonic  tribes. 

Antiquities  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

"Considerable  curiosity  has  been  ex- 
cited by  appearances  on  the  Mississippi 
and  its  tributary  waters,  supposed  to  prove 
a  more  ancient  population,  than  the  state 
of  the  country,  or  the  character  of  the 
tribes  inhabiting  it,  when  first  visited  by 
Europeans,  would  seem  to  indicate. 

"  The  American  bottom  is  a  tract  of  rich 
alluvian  land,  extending  on  the  Mississippi, 
from  the  Kaskaskia  to  the  Cahokia  river, 
about  eighty  miles  in  length  and  five  in 
breadth;  several  handsome  streams  mean- 
der through  it;  the  soil  of  the  richest  kind, 
and  but  li'ttle  subject  to  the  effects  of  the 
Mississippi  floods. — If  any  vestige  of  an- 
cient population  were  to  be  found,  this 
would  be  the  place  to  look  for  it. — Ac- 
cordingly, this  tract,  as  also  the  bank  of 
the  river  on  the  western  side,  exhibit 
proofs  of  an  immense  population. — If  the 
city  of  Philadelphia*  and  its  environs 
were  deserted,  there  would  not  be  more 
numerous  traces  of  human  existence. — 
The  great  number  of  mounds,  and  the 
astonishing  quantity  of  human  bones,  every 
day  dug  up,  or  found  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  with  a  thousand  other  appear- 
ances, announce  that  this  valley  was  at 
one  period  filled  with  habitations  and  vil- 
lages. The  whole  face  of  the  bluff,  or  hill, 
which  abounds  to  the  east,  appears  to 
have  been  a  continued  burial  ground. 

"  But  the  most  remarkable  appearances 
are,  two  groups  of  mounds  or  pyramids, 
the  one  about  ten  miles  above  Cahokia, 
the  other  nearly  the  same  distance  below 
it,  which,  in  all,  exceed  one  hundred  and 
fifty,  of  various  sizes. — A  more  minute  de- 
scription of  those  above  Cahokia  will  give 
a  tolerable  idea  of  them  all. — They  are 


mostly  of  a  circular  shape,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance resemble  enormous  haystacks  scat- 
tered through  a  meadow.  "One  of  the 
largest  is  about  two  hundred  paces  in  cir- 
cumference at  the  bottom,  the  form  near- 
ly square.  The  top  level,  with  an  area 
sufficient  to  contain  several  hundred  men. 

"  At  the  distance  of  three  miles  along 
the  bank  of  the  Cahokia  there  is  the  largest 
assemblage — the  principal  one  of  which 
is  a  stupendous  pile  of  a  mass  of  earth,  that 
must  have  required  years,  and  the  labour 
of  thousands,  to  accomplish.  Were  it  not 
for  the  regularity  and  design  which  it 
manifests,  the  circumstances  of  its  being 
on  alluvial  ground,  and  the  other  mounds 
scattered  around,  it  could  scarcely  be  be- 
lieved to  be  the  work  of  human  hands. — 
The  shape  is  that  of  a  parallelogram, 
standing  from  north  to  south  ;  on  the  south 
side  there  is  a  broad  apron,  or  step,  about 
half  way  down,  and  from  this,  another 
projection  into  the  plain,  about  fifteen 
feet  wide,  which  was  probably  intended 
as  an  ascent  to  the  mound.  The  circum- 
ference at  the  base  is  at  least  eight  hun- 
dred yards,  and  the  height  of  the  pyramid 
about  ninety  feet. 

"  Several  of  these  mounds  are  almost 
conical,  and  at  regular  distances  from  each 
other ;  about  which  are  scattered  pieces 
of  flint,  and  fragments  of  earthen  vessels. 

"A  curious  discovery,  made  a  few  years 
ago  in  the  state  of  Tennessee,  proves,  be- 
yond a  doubt,  that  at  some  remote  period 
the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  had  been  in- 
habited by  a  much  more  civilized  people 
than  when  first  known  to  us. — Two  hu- 
man bodies  were  found  in  a  copperas  cave, 
in  a  surprising  state  of  preservation.— 
They  were  first  wrapped  up  in  a  kind  of 
blanket,  supposed  to  have  been  manufac- 
tured of  the  lint  of  nettles,  afterwards  with 
dressed  skins,  and  then  a  mat  of  nearly 
sixty  yards  in  length.  They  were  clad  in 
a  beautiful  cloth,  interwoven  with  fea- 
thers, such  as  was  manufactured  by  the 
Mexicans.  They  had  been  here,  perhaps, 
for  centuries,  and  certainly  were  of  a  dif- 
ferent race  from  the  modern  Indians. 
They  might  have  belonged  to  the  Olmec, 
who  overran  Mexico  about  the  seventh 
century  ;  to  the  Toultec,  who  came  centu- 
ries afterwards  ;  or  to  the  Aztecs,  who 
founded  the  great  city  of  Mexico  about 
the  thirteenth  century. 

"In  tracing  the  origin  of  institutions  or 
inventions  amongst  men,  we  are  apt  to 
forget,  that  nations,  however  diversified 


*  "  The  Saline,  below  St.  Genevieve,  cleared  out  some  time  ago,  and  deepened,  was  found  to  contain 
waggon  loads  of  earthen-ware,  some  fragments  bespeaking  vessels  as  large  as  a  barrel,  and  proving  that  the 
Salines  had  been  worked  before  they  were  known  to  the  whites." 


ANT 


>y  manners  and  languages,  are  yet  of  the 
same  species,  and  that  the  same  institu- 
tions may  originate  amongst  twenty  differ- 
ent people.  The  wonder  would  be,  that 
they  should  not  shew  a  resemblance.  We 
find  these  mounds  in  every  part  of  the 
globe  ;  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  in 
Great  Britain,  they  are  numerous,  and 
much  resemble  ours,  but  less  considerable. 
The  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  perhaps  the 
oldest  monuments  of  human  labour  in  that 
country,  so  favourable  to  the  production 
of  a  numerous  population.  The  pyramids 
of  Mexico,  which  are  but  little  known, 
and  yet  scarcely  less  considerable,  like 
those  of  Egypt,  have  their  origin  hid  in 
the  night  of  oblivion. 

"  Who  will  assign,  as  the  age  of  Ame- 
rica, a  period  of  years  different  from  that 
allowed  to,  what  has  been  denominated, 
the  old  world  ?  The  multiplicity  of  proofs 
contradict  the  recency  of  her  origin ; 
deeply  imbedded  stories  of  carbonated 
wood,  the  traces  of  ancient  volcanoes!  We 
could  appeal  to  her  time-worn  cataracts, 
and  channels  of  mighty  rivers,  and  to  her 
venerable  mountains. — Grant,  then,  that 
America  may  have  existed  a  few  thousand 
years  ;  the  same  causes  prevailing-,  like 
effects  will  be  produced  ;  the  same  revo- 
lutions as  have  been  known  in  the  old 
world  may  have  taken  place  here."* — See 
Views  of  Louisiana,  by  H.  M.  Brecken- 
ridge,  Esq. 

ANTIRRHINUM,  snapdragon,  toad, 
fax,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Didynamia 
Angiospermia.  Calyx  five-parted  ;  corol 
with  a  nectariferous  prominence  at  its 
base,  pointing  downwards  ;  the  orifice 
closed  and  furnished  with  a  cloven  convex 
palate  ;  capsule  two-celled.  This  genus 
is  separated  into  five  divisions,  viz.  A. 
leaves  angular ;  capsules  many  valved.  B. 
leaves  opposite ;  capsules  many  valved. 

C.  leaves  alternate ;  capsules  many  valved. 

D.  corols  without  spur ;  capsules  perfora- 
ted with  three  pores.     E.  leaves  pinnati- 
fid.    There  are  12  species  of  the  first  di- 
vision ;  nearly  40  of  the  second  division  ; 
11  of  the  third;  7  of  the  fourth;  and  2 of 
the  last. 

ANTISTROPHE,  in  grammar,  a  figure, 
by  which  two  things  mutually  dependent 
on  one  another  are  reciprocally  convert- 
ed. As  the  servant  of  the  master,  and  the 
master  of  the  servant. 

ANTISTROPHE,  among  lyric  poets, 
that  part  of  a  song  and  dance  in  use 
among  the  ancients,  which  was  performed 


AOR 

before  the  altar,  in  returning  from  west  to 
east,  in  opposition  to  strophe.  See  the 
articles  STROPHE  and  ODE. 

ANTITHESIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  contrast 
drawn  between  two  things,  which  thereby 
serve  as  shades  to  set  oil'  the  opposite 
qualities  of  each  other. 

The  poets,  historians,  and  orators,  im- 
prove their  subject,  and  greatly  heighten 
the  pleasure  of  the  reader,  by  the  pleasing 
opposition  of  their  characters  and  de- 
scriptions. 

The  beautiful  antithesis  of  Cicero,  in 
his  second  Cartilinarian,  may  serve  for  an 
example  :  "  On  the  one  side  stands  mo- 
desty, on  the  other  impudence ;  on  the 
one  fidelity,  on  the  other  deceit ;  here 
piety,  there  sacrilege  ;  here  continency, 
there  lust,  &c."  And  Virgil,  in  his  admi- 
rable description  of  Dido's  despair,  the 
night  before  her  death,  represents  all  the 
rest  of  the  creation  enjoying  profound 
tranquillity,  to  render  the  disquietude  of 
that  miserable  queen  the  more  affecting. 

ANTOECI,  in  geography,  an  appella- 
tion given  to  those  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
who  live  under  the  same  meridian,  but  on 
different  sides  of  the  equator,  and  at  equal 
distances  from  it. 

These  have  noon,  and  midnight,  and  all 
hours  at  the  same  time,  but  contrary  sea- 
sens  of  the  year ;  that  is,  when  it  is 
spring  with  the  one,  it  is  autumn  with  the 
other :  when  summer  with  the  one,  win- 
ter with  the  other.  And  the  days  of  the 
one  are  equal  to  the  nights  of  the  other, 
and  vice  versa. 

ANTONOM  ASIA,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure, 
by  which  the  proper  name  of  one  thing  is 
applied  to  several  others ;  or,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  name  of  several  things  to  one. 
Thus  we  call  a  cruel  person,  a  Nero  :  and 
we  say  the  philosopher,  to  denote  Aristo- 
tle. 

ANTS,  acid  of.  See  FORMIC  ACID. 
ANVIL,  an  iron  instrument,  on  which 
smiths  hammer  or  forge  their  work,  and 
usually  mounted  on  a  firm  wooden  block. 
A  forged  anvil  is  reckoned  better  than  one 
of  cast  work. 

ANUS,  in  anatomy,  the  extremity  of 
the  intestinum  rectum,  or  orifice  of  the 
fundament.  See  ANATOMY. 

AOR1ST,  among  grammarians,  a  tense 
peculiar  to  the  Greek  language,  compre- 
hending all  the  tenses  ;  or  rather  express- 
ing an  action  in  an  indeterminate  manner, 
without  any  regard  to  past,  present,  or 
future. 


*    Many  of  the  curiosities  found  in  the  weitcrn  country  are  deposited  in  the  museum  of  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  Philadelphia. 


APE 


APH 


AORTA,  in  anatomy,  called  also  arte- 
ria  rnagna,  a  large  artery,  arising  with  a 
single  trunk  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart  above  its  valves,  culled  xseinilunares, 
and  serves  to  convey  the  mass  of  blood  to 
all  parts  of  the  body. 

After  ascending  a  little  upwards,  its 
trunk  is  bent,  in  manner  of  an  arch,  and 
from  this  part  it  sends,  in  human  subjects, 
usually  three  ascending  branches.  This 
is  called  the  aorta  ascendens. 

The  descendens  is  that  part  of  the 
trunk,  which,  after  the  arch-like  inflection, 
descends  through  the  thorax  and  the  ab- 
domen down  to  the  os  sacrum,  and  is 
usually  larger  in  women  than  in  men. 
The  aorta  hath  four  tunics,  a  nervous,  a 
glandulous,  a  muscular,  and  a  membra- 
nous one.  See  ANATOMY. 

APACTIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Dodecandria  Monogynia  class  and  order. 
No  calyx  ;  petals  four,  crenate,  unequal ; 
germ  superior  ;  fruit.  There  is  but  a  sin- 
gle species,  vis.  the  Japonica,a  tree  found, 
as  its  name  imports,  in  Japan. 

APALUS,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
insects  of  the  order  Coleoptera  Gen. 
char,  antennae  filiform  ;  feelers  equal,  fili- 
form ;  jaw  horny,  one-toothed  ;  lip  mem- 
branaceous,  truncate,  entire.  There  are 
two  species  :  quadrimaculatus  ;  rufous  ; 
head,  and  two  spots  on  the  shells,  black ; 
inhabits  North  America  :  bimaculatus,  of 
northern  Europe. 

APAEGIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Syngenesia  JEqualis  class  and  order.  Re- 
ceptacle naked ;  calyx  imbricate  ;  down 
feathery,  sessile.  There  are  17  species. 

APATITE,  in  mineralogy,  one  of  the 
species  of  the  phosphates,  occurs  in  tin 
veins,  and  is  found  in  Cornwall  and  Ger- 
many. Colours  white,  green,  blue  and 
red,  of  various  shades.  The  primitive 
form  of  its  crystals  is  a  regular  six-sided 
prism.  Specific  gravity  between  2.8  and 
3.2-  When  laid  on  ignited  coals  it  emits 
a  green  light,  and  is  almost  entirely  solu- 
ble in  nitric  acid.  By  rubbing  it  shews 
signs  of  electricity.  It  was  formerly  con- 
sidered as  a  species  of  schorl ;  afterwards, 
on  account  of  its  colour  and  crystalliza- 
tion, it  was  arranged  with  beryll ;  others 
described  it  as  fluor,  but  Werner  soon 
found  that  it  was  a  new  species.  Its  fal- 
lacious resemblance  to  other  minerals  in- 
duced Werner  to  give  it  this  name,  whicli 
is  derived  from  ctTrefletw,  "  to  deceive." 

APE.     See  SIMIA. 

APETALOSE,  or  APETALOUS,  among 
botanists,  an  appellation  given  to  such 
plants  as  have  no  flower  leaves. 

APEX,  in  antiquity,  the  crest  of  a  hel- 


met, but  more  especially  a  kind  of  cap 
worn  by  the  rlameus. 

APM^ERESIS,  in  grammar,  a  figure  by 
which  a  letter  or  syllable  is  cut  off' from 
the  beginning  of  a  word. 

APH^UESIS,  that  part  of  surgery  which 
teaaies  to  <ake  away  superfluities. 

APHE,L,IUM,  or  APHELIOST,  in  astro- 
nomy, is  that  point  in  any  planet's  orbit, 
in  which  it  is  farthest  distant  from  the 
sun ;  being,  in  the  new  asironomy,  that 
end  of  the  greater  axis  of  the  elliptical 
orbit  of  the  pianet  most  remote  from  the 
focus  wherein  the  sun  is.  The  times  of 
the  aphelia  of  the  primary  planets  may  be 
known  by  their  apparent  diameters  ap- 
pearing least  ;  as  also  by  their  moving 
slowest  in  a  given  time.  They  may  like- 
wise be  found  by  calculation,  the  method 
of  doing  which  is  delivered  in  most  astro- 
nomical writers. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  Dr.  Gregory  have 
proved  that  the  aphelia  of  the  primary 
planets  are  at  rest.  See  Princip.  prop.  14. 
lib.  3.  And  in  the  scholium  to  the  above 
proposition  they  say,  that  the  planets 
m.arest  to  the  sun,  viz.  Mercury,  Venus, 
the  Earth,  and  Mars,  from  the  actions  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn  upon  them,  move  a 
small  matter  in  conscquentia  with  regard 
to  the  fixed  stars,  and  that  in  the  sesqui» 
plicate  ratio  of  their  respective  distances 
from  the  sun. 

APHIS,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  the 
Hemiptera  order,  which  has  engaged  the 
attention  of  naturalists  for  various  rea- 
sons :  their  generation  exhibits  a  singular 
and  surprising  phenomenon,  and  thrir  in- 
stinctive economy  differs,  in  some  re- 
spects, from  that  of  most  other  animals. 
Linnaeus  defines  the  generic  character  of 
the  aphis  thus;  beak  inflected,  sheath  of 
five  articulations,  with  a  single  bristle  ; 
antennae  setaceous,  and  longer  than  the 
thorax;  either  four  erect  wings  or  none  ; 
feet  formed  for  walking ;  posterior  part 
of  the  abdomen  usually  furnished  with  two 
little  Morns.  Geoffroy  says,  the  aphides 
have  two  beaks,  one  of  which  is  seated  in 
the  breast,  the  other  in  the  head  ;  this 
last  extends  to  and  is  laid  upon  the  oase 
of  the  pectoral  one,  and  serves,  as  that 
writer  imagines,  to  convey  to  the  head  a 
part  of  that  nourishment  which  the  insect 
takes,  or  sucks  in,  by  means  of  the  pecto- 
ral beak.  Gmelin  enumerates  about  70 
species,  all  of  which,  and  doubtless  many 
others,  are  found  in  different  parts  of  Eu- 
rope and  America.  They  infest  an  end- 
less variety  of  plants ;  and  it  is  believed 
each  species  is  particularly  attached  to 
one  kind  of  vegetable  only ;  hence  each 


APHIS. 


sort  has  been  hitherto  uniformly  named 
after  the  individual  species  or  genus  of 
plants  on  which  it  feeds;  or  if  that  could 
not  be  ascertained,  that  on  which  it  had 
been  found ;  for  some  species  are  rather 
uncommon  and  little  known,though  others 
are  infinitely  too  numerous.  The  aphi- 
des are  sufficiently  known  b}  the  indiscri- 
minate term  of  plant-lice ;  they  abound 
with  a  sweet  and  grateful  moisture,  and 
are  therefore  eagerly  sought  after  by  ants, 
and  are  devoured  by  the  larva  of  coccinel- 
lae,  and  many  other  creatures,  or  they 
would  become,  very  probably,  more  de- 
structive to  the  whole  vegetable  creation 
than  any  other  race  of  insects  known.  If 
Bonnet  was  not  the  first  naturalist  (as  is 
generally  acknowledged)  who  discovered 
the  mysterious  course  of  generation  in  the 
aphides,  or,  as  he  calls  them,  pucerons, 
his  experiments,  together  with  those  of 
his  countryman  Trembly,  tended  at  least 
to  confirm,  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner, 
the  almost  incredible  circumstances  re- 
specting it,  that  an  aphis  or  puceron, 
brought  up  in  the  most  perfect  solitude 
from  the  moment  of  its  birth,  in  a  few 
days  will  be  found  in  the  midst  of  a  nu- 
merous family  ;  and  that  if  the  experi- 
ment be  again  repeated  on  one  of  the 
individuals  of  this  family,  a  second  gene- 
ration will  multiply  like  its  parent ;  and 
the  like  experiment  may  be  many  times 
repeated  with  the  same  effect,  until  at  last 
the  progeny  becomes  barren,  unless  again 
impregnated  by  the  male  ;  after  which  se- 
veral generations  may  be  again  produced 
without  further  aid  of  the  male,  as  before. 
The  history  of  aphides  has  also  been 
very  copiously  treated  upon  by  Dr  Rich- 
ardson, in  a  paper  printed  in  the  41st  vol. 
of  the  Philosophical  Transactions  ;  and 
by  the  late  ingenious  Mr.  Curtis,  in  the 
sixth  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
Linnsean  Society.  The  tenor  of  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson's remarks  is  briefly  this  :  the  great, 
variety  of  species  which  occur  in  the  in- 
sects now  under  consideration,  may  make 
an  inquiry  into  their  particular  natures 
seem  not  a  little  perplexing,  but  by  redu- 
cing them  under  their  proper  genus,  the 
difficulty  is  considerably  diminished.  We 
may  reasonably  suppose  all  the  insects 
comprehended  under  any  distinct  genus, 
to  partake  of  one  general  nature  ;  and  by 
diligently  examining  any  particular  spe- 
cies, may  thence  gain  some  insight  into 
the  nature  of  all  the  rest.  With  this  view, 
Dr.  Richardson  chose  out  of  the  various 
sorts  of  aphides  the  largest  of  those  found 
on  the  rose-tree ;  not  only  as  its  size  makes 
it  more  conspicuous,  but  there  are  few  of 


so  long  duration.    This  sort  appears 
ly  in  the  spring,  and  continues  late  in 


ear- 
in  au- 
tumn, while  several  are  limited  to  a  much 
shorter  term,  in  conformity  to  the  diffe- 
rent trees  and  plants  whence  they  draw 
their  nourishment.  If,  at  the  beginning 
of  February,  the  weather  happens  to  be 
so  \\  arm  as  to  make  the  buds  of  the  rose- 
tree  swell  and  appear  green,  small  aphides 
are  frequently  to  be  found  on  them,  though 
not  larger  than  the  young  ones  in  summer 
when  first  produced.  It  will  be  found, 
that  those  aphides  which  appear  only  in 
spring  proceed  from  small  black  oval  eggs, 
which  were  deposited  on  the  last  year's 
shoot ;  though  when  it  happens  that  the 
insects  make  too  early  an  appearance,  the 
greater  'part  suffer  from  the  sharp  wea- 
ther that  usually  succeeds,  by  which 
means  the  rose-trees  are  some  years  in  a 
manner  freed  from  them.  The  same  kind 
of  animal  is  then  at  one  time  of  the  year 
viviparous,  and  at  another  oviparous. 
These  aphides,  which  withstand  the  se- 
verity of  the  weather,  seldom  come  to 
their  full  growth  before  the  month  of 
April,  at  which  time  they  usually  begin 
to  breed,  after  twice  casting  off  their  ex- 
uvia,  or  outward  covering.  It  appears 
that  they  are  all  females,  which  produce 
each  of  them  a  numerous  progeny  ,and  that 
without  having  intercourse  with  any  male 
insect ;  they  are  viviparous,  and,  what  is 
equally  singular,  they  all  come  into  the 
world  backwards.  When  they  first  come 
from  the  parent,  they  are  enveloped  in  a 
thin  membrane,  having  in  this  situation 
the  appearance  of'an  oval  egg:  these  egg- 
like  appearances  adhere  by  one  extremity 
to  the  mother,  while  the  young  ones  con- 
tained in  them  extend  to  the  other,  and  by 
that  means  gradually  drag  the  ruptured 
membrane  over  the  head  and  body  to  the 
hind  feet.  During  this  operation,  and  for 
some  time  after,  the  fore  part  of  the  head 
adheres,  by  means  of  something  that  is 
glutinous,  to  the  vent  of  the  parent.  Be- 
ing thus  suspended  in  the  air,  it  soon  frees 
itself  from  the  membrane  in  which  it  was 
confined  ;  and  after  its  limbs  are  a  little 
strengthened,  is  set  down  on  some  tender 
shoots,  and  is  left  to  provide  for  itself. 
In  the  spring  months,  there  appear  on 
the  rose-trees  but  two  generations  of 
aphides,  including  those  which  proceed 
immediately  from  the  last  year's  eggs ; 
the  warmth  of  <:he  summer  adds  so  much 
to  their  fertility,  that  no  less  than  five 
generations  succeed  one  another  in  the 
interval.  One  is  produced  in  May,  which 
casts  off  its  covering ;  while  the  months 
of  June  and  July  each  supply  two  more, 


APHIS. 


which  cast  off  their  coverings  three  or 
four    times,  according    to   the    different 
warmth    of  the   season.     This    frequent 
change  of  their  outward  coat  is  tiie  more 
extraordinary,  because  it  is  repeated  more 
often  when  the  insects  come  the  soonest 
to  their  growth,  which  sometimes  hap- 
pens in  ten  days,  when  they  have  had 
plenty  of  warmth  and  nourishment.  Early 
in  the  month  of  June,  some  of  the  third 
generation,  which  were  produced  about 
the  Middle  of  May, after  casting  off  the  last 
covering,  discover  four  erect  wings,  much 
longer  than  their  bodies  ;   and  the  same 
is  observable  in  all  the  succeeding  genera- 
tions which  are  produced  during  the  sum- 
mer months,  but  still  without  any  diversi- 
ty  of  sex ;    for   some   time  before   the 
aphides  come  to  their  full  growth,  it  is 
easy  to  distinguish  which  will  have  wings, 
by  a  remarkable  fulness  of  the  breast, 
which  in  the  others  is  hardly  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from   the  body.    When  the 
last  covering  is  rejected,  the  wings,  which 
were  before  folded  up  in  a  very  narrow 
compass,  are  gradually  extended' in  a  sur- 
prising manner,  till  their  dimensions  are 
at  last  very  considerable.    The  increase 
of  these  insects  in  the  summer-time  is  so 
very  great,  that  by  wounding  and  exhaust- 
ing  the   tender  shoots,  they  would  fre- 
quently suppress  all  vegetation,  had  they 
not  many  enemies  to  restrain  them.  Not- 
withstanding these  insects  have  a  numer- 
ous tribe  of  enemies,  they  are  not  without 
their  friends,  if  those  may  be  considered 
as  such,  who  are  officious  in  their  atten- 
dance for  the  good  things  they  expect  to 
reap  thereby.    The  ant  and  bee  are  of 
this  kind,  collecting  the  honey  in  which 
the  aphides  abound,  but  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  the  ants  are  constant  visitors, 
the  bee  only  when  flowers  are  scarce  ;  the 
ants  will  suck  in  the   honey,  while  the 
aphides  are  in  the  act  of  discharging  it ; 
the  bees  only  collect  it  from  the  leaves  on 
which  it  has  fallen.  The  aphides  are  often 
carried  home  by  the  ant,  carefully  attend- 
ed, and  regularly  supplied  with  food.  See 
Formica.    In  the  autumn  three  more  ge- 
nerations of  aphides  are  produced,  two  of 
which  generally  make  their  appearance 
in  the  month  of  August,  and  the  third  be- 
fore the  middle  of  September.     The  two 
first  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  which 
are  found  in  summer,  but  the  third  differs 
greatly  from  all  the  rest.    Though  all  the 
aphides  which    have   hitherto  appeared 
were  female,  in  this  generation  several 
male  insects  are  found,  but  not  by  any 
means  so  numerous  as  the  females.    The 
females  have,  at  first,  the  same  appearance 
as  those  of  the  former  generations,  but  in 


a  few  days  their  colour  changes  from  * 
green  to  a  yellow,  which  is  gradually  con- 
verted into  an  orange  before  they  come 
to  their  full  growth  ;  they  differ  aiso,  in 
another  respect,  from  those  which  occur 
in  summer,  for  all  these  yellow  females  are 
without   wings.    The   male  insects  are, 
however,  still  more  remarkable,  their  out- 
ward appearance    readily  distinguishing 
them  from  this  and  all  other  generations. 
When  first  produced,  they  are  not  of  a 
green  colour  like  the  rest,  but  of  a  red- 
dish brown,  and  have  afterwards  a  dark 
line  along  the  back ;    they  come  to  their 
full  growth  in  about  three  weeks,  and 
then  cast  off  their  last  covering,  the  whole 
insect  being,  after  this,  of  a  bright  yellow 
colour,  the  wings  only  excepted ;  but  af- 
ter this  change  they  become  of  a  deeper 
yellow,  and  in  a  very  few  hours  of  a  dark 
brown,  if  we  except  the  body,  which  is 
something  lighter  coloured  and  has  a  red- 
dish cast.    The  males  no  sooner  come  to 
maturity  than  they  copulate  with  the  fe- 
males, who,  in  a  day  or  two  after  their  in- 
tercourse with  the  males,  lay  their  eggs, 
generally  near  the  buds.     Where  there 
are  a  number  crowded  together,  they,  of 
course,  interfere  with  each  other,  in  which 
case  they  will  frequently  deposit   their 
eggs  on  other  parts  of  the  branches. — 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  aphides  de- 
rive considerable  advantages  by  living  in 
society ;    the  reiterated  punctures  of  a 
great,number  of  them  may  attract  a  larger 
quantity  of  nutritious  juices  to  that  part 
of  the  tree  or  plant  where  they  have  taken 
up  their  abode.     The  observations  of  Mr. 
Curtis  on  the  aphides  are  chiefly  intended 
to  shew  that  they  are  the  principal  cause 
of  blights  in  plants,  and  the  sole  cause 
of  the   honey-dew.    He   therefore    calls 
them  the  aphis,  or  blighter  ;  and  after  ob- 
serving, that,  in  point  of  numbers,  the  in- 
dividuals of  the  several  species  composing 
it  surpass  those  of  any  other  genus  in  the 
country,  speaks  thus,  in  general  terms,  of 
the  whole  tribe.    These  insects  live  en- 
tirely on  vegetables.     The  loftiest  tree  is 
no  less  liable  to  their  attacks  than  the  most 
humble  plant.    They  prefer  the  young 
shoots  on  account  of  their  tenderness,  and 
on  this  principle  often   insinuate  them- 
selves into  the  very  heart  of  the  plant, 
and  do  irreparable  mischief  before  they 
are  discovered.    But,  for  the  most  part, 
they   beset  the  foliage,  and  are  mostly 
found  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf,  which 
they  prefer,  not  only  on  account  of  its  be- 
ing the  most  tender,  but  as  it  affords  them 
protection  from  the  weather,  and  various 
injuries  to  which  they  would  otherwise 
be  exposed.    Sometimes  the  root  is  the 


APHIS. 


•bject  of  their  choice,  which,  from  the  na- 
ture of  these  insects,  one  would  not,  a 
priori,  expect ;  yet  I  have  seen  the  roots 
of  lettuces  thickly  beset  with  them,  and 
the  whole  crop  rendered  sickly  and  of  lit- 
tle value ;  but  such  instances  are  rare. 
They  seldom  attach  themselves  to  the 
bark  of  trees,  like  the  aphis  salicis,  which, 
being  one  of  our  largest  species,and  hence 
possessing  superior  strength,  is  enabled  to 
penetrate  a  substance  harder  than  the 
leaves  themselves.  In  the  quality  of  the 
excrement  voided  by  these  insects,  there 
is  something  wonderfully  extraordinary. 
Were  a  person  accidentally  to  take  up  a 
book,  in  which  it  was  gravely  asserted, 
that  in  some  countries  there  were  certain 
animals  which  voided  liquid  sugar,  he 
would  lay  it  down,  regarding  it  as  a  fabu- 
lous tale,  calculated  to  impose  on  the  cre- 
dulity of  the  ignorant ;  and  yet  such  is 
laterally  the  truth.  Mr.  Curtis  collected 
some  on  a  piece  of  writing-paper  from  a 
brood  of  the  aphis  salicis,  and  found  it  to 
be  sweet  as  sugar;  and  observes,  that, 
were  it  not  for  the  wasps,  ants,  flies,  and 
other  insects,  that  devour  it  as  quickly  as 
it  is  produced,  it  might,  no  doubt,  be  col- 
lected in  considerable  quantities,  and,  by 
the  processes  used  with  other  saccharine 
juices,  might  be  converted  into  the  choic- 
est sugar  or  sugar-candy.  The  sweetness 
of  this  excrementitious  substance,  the 
glossy  appearance  it  gave  the  leaves  it  fell 
upon,  and  the  swarm  of  insects  this  matter 
attracts,  led  him  to  imagine  that  the  ho- 
ney-dew of  plants  was  no  other  than  this 
secretion,  which  further  observation  has 
since  fully  confirmed  ;  and  not,  as  its  name 
implies,  a  sweet  substance  falling  from  the 
atmosphere.  On  this  opinion  it  is  further 
remarked,  that  it  neither  falls  from  the 
atmosphere,  nor  issues  from  the  plant  it- 
self, as  is  easily  demonstrated.  If  it  fell 
from  the  atmosphc -re,  it  would  cover  every 
thing  it  fell  upon  indiscriminately,  where- 
as we  never  find  it  but  on  certain  living 
plants  and  trees.  We  find  it  also  on  plants 
in  stoves  and  green-houses,  covered  with 
glass.  If  it  exuded  from  the  plant,  it  would 
appear  on  rail  the  leaves  generally  and 
uniformly ;  whereas  its  appearance  is  ex- 
tremely irregular,  not  alike  on  any  two 
leaves  of  the  same  tree  or  plant,  some 
having  none  of  it,  and  others  being  cover- 
ed with  it  but  partially.  It  is  probable 
that  there  never  exists  any  honey-dew  but 
where  there  are  aphides;  though  such 
often  pass  unnoticed,  being  hidden  on  the 
underside  of  the  leaf:  and  wherever  ho- 
ney-dew is  observable  upon  a  leaf,  aphides 
will  be  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf 
or  leaves  immediately  above  it,  and  under 


no  other  circumstance  whatever.  If  by  ac- 
cident any  thing  should  intervene  between 
the  aphides  and  the  leaf  next  beneath 
them,  there  will  be  no  honey-dew  on  that 
leaf:  and  thus  he  conceives  it  is  incontro- 
vertibly  proved,  that  aphides  are  the  true 
and  only  source  of  honey-dew.  Of  the 
British  species  of  aphides,  one  of  the  lar- 
gest and  most  remarkable  is  the  aphis  sali- 
cis, which  is  found  on  the  different  kinds 
of  willows.  When  bruised,  these  insects 
stain  the  fingers  with  red.  Towards  the 
end  of  September  multitudes  of  the  full- 
grown  insects  of  this  species,  both  with 
and  without  wings,  desert  the  willows  on 
which  they  feed,  and  ramble  over  every 
neighbouring  object  in  such  numbers, 
that  we  can  handle  nothing  in  their  vicini- 
ty without  crushing  some  of  them,  while 
those  in  a  younger  or  less  advanced  state 
still  remain  in  large  masses  upon  the  trees. 
Aphis  rosae  is  very  frequent,  during  the 
summer  months,  on  the  young  shoots  and 
buds  of  roses :  it  is  of  a  bright  g'reen  colour: 
the  males  are  furnished  with  large  trans- 
parent wings.  A.  vitis  is  most  destructive 
to  vines;  as  A.  ulmi  is  to  the  elm-tree. 
Plate  I.  Entomology,  fig.  3. 

It  is  found,  that  where  the  saccharine 
substance  has  dropped  from  aphides  for 
a  length  of  time,  as  from  the  aphis  salicis 
in  particular,  it  gives  to  the  surface  of  the 
bark,  foliage,  &c.  that  sooty  kind  of  ap- 
pearance, which  arises  from  the  explosion 
of  gunpowder :  it  looks  like,  and  is  some- 
times taken  for,  a  kind  of  black  mildew. 
In  most  seasons  the  natural  enemies  of  the 
aphides  are  sufficient  to  keep  them  in 
check,  and  to  prevent  them  from  doing 
essential  injury  to  plants  in  the  open  air  : 
but  there  are  times,  once  perhaps  in  four, 
five,  or  six  years,  in  which  they  are  mul- 
tiplied to  such  an  excess,  that  the  usual 
means  of  diminution  fail  in  preventing 
them  from  doing  irreparable  injury  to 
certain  crops. 

To  prevent  the  calamities  which  would 
infallibly  result  from  an  accumulated 
multiplication  of  the  more  prolific  animals, 
it  has  been  ordained  by  the  Author  of 
nature,  that  sucli  should  be  diminished 
by  serving  as  food  for  others.  On  this 
principle,  most  animals  of  this  kind  have 
one  or  more  natural  enemies.  The  help- 
less aphis,  which  is  the  scourge  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  has  to  contend  with 
many  :  of  these,  the  principal  are,  the 
coccinella,  the  ichneumon  aphidum,  and 
the  musca  aphidevora.  The  greatest  de- 
stroyer of  the  aphides  is  the  coccinella, 
or  common  lady-bird.  During  the  winter 
this  insect  secures  itself  under  the  bark  of 


APH 


API 


trees  and  elsewhere.  When  the  spring 
expands  the  foliage  of  plants,  the  female 
deposits  its  eggs  on  them  in  great  num- 
bers, from  whence,  in  a  short  time,  pro- 
ceeds the  larva,  a  small  grub,  of  a  dark 
lead-colour,  spotted  with  orange.  These 
may  be  observed  in  the  summer  season 
running  pretty  briskly  over  all  kinds  of 
plants,  and,  if  narrowly  watched,  they 
will  be  found  to  devour  the  aphides  wher- 
ever they  find  them.  The  same  may  be 
observed  of  the  lady-bird,  in  its  perfect 
state.  Another  most  formidable  enemy 
to  the  aphis  is  a  very  minute,  black,  and 
slender  ichneumon  My,  which  eats  its  way 
out  of  the  aphis,  leaving  the  dry  inflated 
skin  of  the  insect  adhering  to  the  leaf  like 
a  small  pearl :  such  may  always  be  found 
where  aphides  are  in  plenty.  Different 
species  of  aphides  are  infested  with  dif- 
ferent ichneumons.  There  is  scarcely  a 
division  of  nature,  in  which  the  musca  or 
fly  is  not  found :  of  these,  one  division, 
the  aphidivora,  feeds  entirely  on  aphides. 
Of  the  different  species  of  aphidivorous 
flies,  which  are  numerous,  having  mostly 
bodies  variegated  with  transverse  stripes, 
their  females  may  be  seen  hovering  over 
plants  infested  with  aphides,  among  which 
they  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  surface  of 
the  leaf.  The  larva,  or  maggot,  produced 
from  such  eggs,  feeds,  as  soon  as  hatched, 
on  the  younger  kinds  of  aphis,  and  as  it 
increases  in  size,  attacks  and  devours 
those  which  are  larger.  The  larva  of  the 
hemerobius  feeds  also  on  the  aphides,  and 
deposits  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  such 
plants  as  are  beset  with  them.  The  earwig 
is  likewise  an  enemy  to  them,  especially 
such  as  reside  in  the  curled  leaves  of 
fruit-trees,  and  the  purses  formed  by  cer- 
tain aphides  on  the  poplars  and  other 
trees.  To  these  may  be  added  the  small- 
er soft-billed  birds  that  feed  on  insects. 

APHORISM,  a  maxim  or  principle  of 
a  science  ;  or  a  sentence  which  compre- 
hends a  great  deal  in  a  few  words.  The 
term  is  seldom  used  but  in  medicine  and 
law.  We  say,  the  aphorisms  of  Hippo- 
crates, the  aphorisms  of  the  civil  law,  po- 
litical aphorisms,  &c. 

APHROD1TA,  in  natural  history,  a  ge- 
nus of  worms,  of  the  order  Molusca.  Bo- 
dy creeping1,  oblong,  covered  with  scales, 
and  furnished  with  numerous  bristly  fas- 
ciculate feet  on  each  side  ;  mouth  termi- 
nal, cylindrical,  retractile ;  feelers  two, 
setaceous,  annulate  ;  and  four  eyes.  There 
are  nine  species.  A.  aculeata  has  an  oval 
body,  brown,  beneath  flesh  colour,  with 
long  silky  changeable  hair  on  each  side 
the  body":  it  inhabits  the  European  seas, 


is  found  in  the  belly  of  the  cod-fish,  and 
feeds  on  testaceous  animals ;  is  from  four 
to  seven  inches  long. 

APHYLLANTHES,  the  blue  Monfpelier 
pink,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  Hexandria. 
Monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  calyx  of 
which  is  composed  of  a  number  of  imbri- 
cated, lanceolated  spathx  ;  the  corolla 
consists  of  six  petals,  of  an  obversely  oval 
figure,  terminating  at  the  base  in  very 
narrow  ungues,  and  patent  at  the  limb, 
forming  a  kind  of  tube  below  it :  the  fruit 
is  a  turbinated  capsule  of  a  triangular 
figure,  and  contains  three  cells  ;  the  seeds 
are  oval.  There  is  but  a  single  species. 

APHYTEIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Monadelphia  Triundria.  Calyx  large, 
funnel-form,  three-cleft ;  three  petals  in- 
serted into  and  shorter  than  the  calyx ; 
germ  inferior ;  berry  one-celled,  many- 
seeded  ;  steels  imbedded. 

APIAN,  (PETER),  in  biography,  an 
eminent  astronomer  and  mathematician, 
called  in  German  JBietiewitz,  was  born  at 
Loisnich,  in  Misnia,  and  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  IngoLstadt,  in  1524. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  astronomy 
and  the  mathematics,  and  enriched  these 
sciences  with  many  instruments  and  ob- 
servations. His  first  work  was  a  "  Trea- 
tise on  Cosmography,  or  Geograpnical 
Instructor ;"  this  was  published  in  1530, 
and  in  three  years  after  lie  constructed  at 
Nuremberg  a  curious  instrument,  which 
shewed  the  hour  of  the  day,  by  means  of 
the  sun's  rays,  in  all  parts  of  the  earth. 
In  the  year  1540,  he  published  his  princi- 
pal work,  entitled  "  Astronomicon  Caesa- 
rseum,"  containing  many  interesting  ob- 
servations, with  the  descriptions  and  divi- 
sins  of  instruments,  calculations  of  eclip- 
ses, and  the  construction  of  them  in  piano. 
In  a  second  part  of  the  work  is  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  construction  and  use  of  an 
astronomical  quadrant,  to  which  is  annex- 
ed observations  on  five  different  comets  : 
in  these  he  shews  that  the  tails  of  comets 
are  always  projected  in  a  direction  oppo- 
site to  the  sun.  Our  limits  do  not  allow 
us  to  enumerate  all  the  treatises  of  Apian  ; 
they  were  as  respectable  as  numerous, 
and  the  author  was  treated  with  the  kind- 
est attention  by  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
who  published  several  of  his  works  at 
his  own  expense,  conferred  upon  him  the 
honour  of  nobility,  and  presented  him  with 
3000  crowns.  Apian  died  at  Ingolstadt 
in  1552,  leaving  behind  him  a  high  repu- 
tation for  learning,  and  a  son  Philip,  who 
was  also  an  eminent  astronomer,  and 
taught  the  sciences  both  at  Tubingen  and 
Ingolstadt.  Philip  died  in  1589,  and 


APIS. 


a  treatise  on  "  Solar-dials."  He  gave 
an  account  of  the  new  star  that  appeared 
in  Cassiopeia  in  1572,  which  is  preserved. 

APIARY,  a  garden  or  other  convenient 
place  where  bees  are  kept.  A  southern 
aspect  is  reckoned  the  most  proper,  and 
the  bee-hives  should  be  exposed  as  little 
as  possible  to  the  wind,  and  should  en- 
joy as  much  of  the  influence  of  the  sun 
as  possible,  as  wind  retards  the  bees  in 
their  work,  while  the  beams  of  the  sun 
invite  them  to  it.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
apiary  there  should  be  plenty  of  flowers, 
wild  thyme,  and  the  like.  The  hives 
should  be  free  from  the  droppings  of 
trees,  the  annoyance  of  dunghills,  long 
grass  and  weeds ;  as  from  these  insects 
are  bred,  which  are  not  only  destructive 
to  bees,  but  greatly  retard  them  in  the 
preparation  of  honey.  See  APIS. 

APIS,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
insects  of  the  order  of  Hymenoptera. 
Gen.  cliar.  mouth  furnished  with  jaws, 
and  an  inflected  proboscis,  with  two  bi- 
valve sheaths  ;  feelei  s  4,  unequal,  filiform; 
antennae  short,  filiform,  ihose  of  the  female 
subclavate  ;  wings  flat  or  without  plaits ; 
sting  in  the  female  and  neutral  insects 
concealed. 

This  genus  is  distributed  by  Linnaeus 
into  two  assortments,  viz.  those  in  which 
the  body  of  the  animal  is  but  slightly  co- 
vered with  fine  hair  or  down,  and  those  in 
which  it  is  remarkably  villose  or  hairy  : 
the  insects  of  the  latter  division  are  com- 
monly distinguished  by  the  title  of  hum- 
ble-bees. In  the  first  division,  the  princi- 
pal or  most  important  species  is  the  apis 
rnellifica,  or  common  honey-bee,  so  long 
and  justly  celebrated  for  its  wonderful 
polity,  the  neatness  and  precision  with 
which  it  constructs  its  cells,  and  the  dili- 
gence with  which  it  provides,  during  the 
warmth  of  summer,  a  supply  of  food  for 
the  support  of  the  hive  during  the  rigours 
of  the  succeeding  winter.  The  general 
history  of  this  interesting1  insect  has  been 
amply  detailed  by  various  authors,  as 
Swammerdam,  Reaumur,  &c.  8tc.  Among 
the  most  elaborate  accounts  of  later  times 
may  be  mentioned  that  of  Mr.  John  Hun- 
ter, which  made  its  appearance  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  for  the  year 
1792,  of  which  the  following  is  an  abstract 
There  are  three  periods  at  which  the  his- 
tory of  the  bee  may  commence  :  first,  in 
the  spring,  when  the  queen  begins  to  lay 
her  eggs ;  in  the  summer,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  colony  ;  or  in  the 
autumn,  when  they  go  into  winter  quar- 
ters. We  shall  begin  the  particular  his- 
tory of  the  bee  with  the  new  colony,  when 
VOL.1. 


nothing  is  formed.  When  a  hive  sends 
off  a  colony,  it  is  commonly  in  the  month 
of  June  ;  but  that  will  vary  according  to 
the  season,  for  in  a  mikl  spring  bees  some- 
times swarm  in  the  middle  of  May,  and 
very  often  at  the  latter  end  of  it.  Before 
they  come  off,  they  commonly  hang  about 
the  mouth  of  the  hole  or  door  of  the  hive, 
for  some  days,  as  if  they  had  not  sufficient 
room  within  for  such  hot  weather,  which 
we  believe  is  very  much  the  case  ;  for  if 
cold  or  wet  weather  come  on,  they  stow 
themselves  very  well,  and  wait  for  fine 
weather.  But  swarming  appears  to  be 
rather  an  operation  arising  from  necessity, 
for  they  would  seem  not  naturally  to 
swarm,  because  if  they  have  an  empty 
space  to  fill  they  do  not  swarm  ;  there- 
fore by  increasing  the  size  of  the  hive  the 
swarming  is  prevented.  This  period  is 
much  longer  in  some  than  in  others. 
For  some  evenings  before  they  come  off 
is  often  heard  a  singular  noisera  kind  of 
ring,  or  sound  of  a  small  trumpet  ;  by 
comparing  it  with  the  notes  of  a  piano 
forte,  it  seemed  to  be  the  same  sound  with 
the  lower  A  of  the  treble.  The  swarm 
commonly  consists  of  three  classes ;  a  fe- 
male, or  females,  males,  and  those  com- 
monly called  mules,  which  are  supposed 
to  be  of  no  sex,  and  are  the  labourers ; 
the  whole,  about  two  quarts  in  bulk, 
making  about  six  or  seven  thousand.  It 
is  a  question  that  cannot  easily  be  deter- 
mined, whether  this  old  stock  sends  off 
entirely  young  of  the  same  season,  and 
whether  the  whole  of  their  young  ones, 
or  only  part  As  the  males  are  entirely  bred 
in  the  same  season,  part  go  of;  but  part 
must  stay,  and  most  probably  it  is  so  with 
the  others.  They  commonly  come  off  in 
the  heat  of  the  day,  often  immediately 
after  a  shower.  When  one  goes  off,  they 
all  immediately  follow,  and  fly  about 
seemingly  in  great  confusion,  although 
there  is  one  principle  actuating  the  whole. 
They  soon  appear  to  be  directed  to  some 
fixed  place  ;  such  as  the  branch  of  a  tree 
or  bush,  the  cavities  of  old  trees,  holes  of 
houses  leading  into  some  hollow  place ; 
and  whenever  the  stand  is  made,  they  im- 
mediately repair  to  it  till  they  are  all  col- 
lected. But  it  would  seem,  in  some 
cases,  that  they  had  not  fixed  upon  any 
resting  place  before  they  come  off,  or,  if 
they  had,  that  they  were  either  disturbed, 
if  it  was  near,  or  that  it  was  at  a  great 
distance  ;  for,  after  hovering  some  time, 
as  if  undetermined,  they  fly  away,  mount 
up  into  the  air,  and  go  off  with  great  ve- 
locity. When  they  have  fixed  upon  their 
future  habitation,  they  immediately  begin 
Mm 


APIS. 


to  make  their  combs,  for  they  have  the 
matt  rials  within  themselves.  "  I  have 
reason,'*  says  Mr.  Hunter,  "  to  believe 
that  they  till  their  crops  with  honey  when 
they  come  away,  probably  from  the  stock 
in  the  hive.  I  killed  several  of  those  that 
came  away,  and  found  their  crops  full, 
while  those  that  remained  in  the  hive  had 
their  crops  not  near  so  full :  some  of  them 
came  away  with  farina  on  their  legs,  which 
I  conceive  to  be  rather  accidental.  I  may 
just  observe  here,  that  a  hive  commonly 
sends  oft'  two,  sometimes  three,  swurms  in 
a  summer,  but  that  the  second  is  common- 
ly less  than  the  first,  and  the  third  less 
than  the  second ;  and  this  last  has  seldom 
time  to  provide  for  the  winter. 

"  The  materials  of  their  dwelling  or 
comb,  which  is  the  wax,  is  the  next  con- 
sideration, with  the  mode  of  forming,  pre- 
paring, or  disposing  of  it.  In  giving  a 
total!)  new  account  of  the  wax,  I  shall 
first  shew  it  can  hardly  be  what  it  has 
been  supposed  to  be.  First,  I  shall  ob- 
serve that  the  materials,  as  they  are  found 
composing  the  comb,  are  not  to  be  found 
in  the  same  state  (as  a  composition)  in  any 
vegetable,  where  they  have  been  supposed 
to  be  got.  The  substance  brought  in  on 
the  legs,  which  is  the  farina  of  the  flow- 
ers of  plants,  is,  in  common,  I  believe, 
imagined  to  be  the  materials  of  which 
the  wax  is  made,  for  it  is  called  by  most 
the  wax  :  but  it  is  the  farina,  for  it  is  al- 
ways of  the  same  colour  as  the  farina  of 
the  flower  where  they  are  gathering;  and 
indeed,  we  see  them  gathering  it,  and  we 
also  see  them  covered  almost  all  over  with 
it  like  a  dust ;  nevertheless,  it  has  been 
supposed  to  be  the  wax,  or  that  the  wax 
was  extracted  from  it.  Reaumur  is  of 
this  opinion.  I  made  several  experiments, 
to  see  if  there  was  such  a  quantity  of  oil 
in  it  as  would  account  for  the  quantity  of 
wax  to  be  formed,  and  to  learn  if  it  was 
composed  of  oil.  I  held  it  near  the  can- 
dle, it  burnt,  but  it  did  not  smell  like 
wax,  and  had  the  same  smell,  when  burn- 
ing, as  farina  when  it  was  burnt.  1  ob- 
served that  this  substance  was  of  different 
colours  on  different  bees,  but  always  of 
the  same  colour  on  both  legs  of  the  same 
bee ;  whereas  a  new  made  comb  was 
all  of  one  colour.  I  observed  that  it 
was  gathered  with  more  avidity  for  old 
hives,  where  the  comb  is  complete,  than 
for  those  hives  where  it  only  begun,  which 
we  could  hardly  conceive,  if  it  was  the  ma- 
terials of  wax  :  also  we  may  observe,  that, 
at  the  very  beginning  of  a  hive,  the  bees 
seldom  bring  in  any  substance  on  their 
legs  for  two  or  three  days,  and  after  that 


the  farina  gatherers  begin  to  increase ; 
for  now  some  cells  are  formed  to  hold  it 
as  a  store,  and  some  eggs  are  laid,  which, 
when  hatched,  will  require  this  substance 
as  food,  and  which  will  be  ready  when  the 
weather  is  wet. 

"  The  wax  is  formed  by  the  bees  them- 
selves ;  it  may  be  called  an  external  se- 
cretion of  oil,  and  I  have  found  that  it  is 
formed  between  each  scale  of  the  under 
side  of  the  belly.  When  I  first  observed 
this  substance,  in  my  examination  of  the 
working  be-e,  I  was  at  a  loss  to  say  what 
it  was :  I  asked  myself  if  it  was  new 
scales  formingj.ami  whether  they  cast  the 
old,  as  the  lobster,  &c  does?  but  it  was 
to  be  found  only  between  the  scales  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  belly.  On  examining 
the  bees  through  glass  hives,  while  they 
were  climbing  up  the  glass,  I  could  see 
that  most  of  them  had  this  substance,  for 
it  looked  as  if  the  lower  or  posterior  edge 
of  the  scale  was  double,  or  that  there 
were  double  scales :  but  I  perceived  it 
was  loose,  not  attached.  Finding  that  the 
substance  brought  in  on  their  legs  was 
farina,  intended,  as  appeared  from  every 
circumstance,  to  be  the  food  of  the  mag- 
got, and  not  to  make  wax,  and  not  hav- 
ing yet  perceived  any  thing  that  could 
give  me  the  least  idea  of  wax,  I  conceived 
these  scales  might  be  it,  at  least  I  thought 
it  necessary  to  investigate  them.  I  there- 
fore took  several  on  the  point  of  a  needle, 
and  held  them  to  a  candle,  where  they 
melted,  and  immediately  formed  them- 
selves into  round  globules ;  upon  which 
I  no  longer  doubted  but  this  was  the  wax, 
which  opinion  was  confirmed  to  me,  by  not 
finding  those  scales  but  in  the  building 
season. 

"  The  cells,  or  rather  the  congeries  of 
cells,  which  compose  the  comb,  may  be 
said  to  form  perpendicular  plates,  or 
partitions,  which  extend  from  top  to 
bottom  of  the  cavity  in  which  they  build 
them,  and  from  side  to  side.  They  always 
begin  at  the  top  or  roof  of  the  vault  in 
which  they  build,  and  work  downwards  : 
but  if  the  upper  part  of  this  vault  to 
which  their  combs  are  fixed  is  removed, 
and  a  dome  is  put  over,  they  begin  at  the 
upper  edge  of  the  old  comb,  and  work 
up  into  the  new  cavity  at  the  top.  They 
generally  may  be  guided,  as  to  the  direc- 
tion of  their  new  plates  of  comb,  by 
forming  ridges  at  top,  to  which  they  be- 
gin to  attach  their  comb.  In  a  long  hive, 
if  these  ridges  are  longitudinal,  their 
plates  of  comb  will  be  longitudinal  ;  if 
placed  transverse,  so  will  be  the  plates  ; 
and  if  oblique,  the  plates  of  comb  will  be 


APIS. 


oblique.  Each  plate  consists  of  a  double 
set  of  cells,  whose  bottoms  form  the  par- 
tition between  each  set.  The  plates 
themselves  are  not  very  regularly  ar- 
ranged, not  forming  a  regular  plane  where 
they  might  have  done  so ;  but  are  often 
adapted  to  the  situation  or  shape  of  the 
cavity  in  which  they  are  built.  The  bees 
do  not  endeavour  to  shape  their  cavity  to 
their  work,  as  the  wasps  do,  nor  are  the 
cells  of  equal  depths,  also  fitting  them  to 
their  situation  ;  but  as  the  breeding  cells 
must  all  be  of  a  given  depth,  they  reserve 
a  sufficient  number  for  breeding  in,  and 
they  put  the  honey  into  the  others,  as  also 
into  the  shallow  ones.  The  attachment 
of  the  comb  round  the  cavity  is  not  con- 
tinued, but  interrupted  so  as  to  form  pas- 
sages ;  there  are  also  passages  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  plates,  especially  if  there  be  a 
cross  stick  to  support  the  comb  ;  these 
allow  of  bees  to  go  across  ffom  plate  to 
plate.  The  substance  which  they  use  for 
attaching  their  combs  to  surrounding 
parts  is  not  the  same  as  the  common  wax  ; 
it  is  softer  and  tougher,  a  good  deal  like 
the  substance  with  which  they  cover  in 
their  crysalis,  or  the  humble-bee  sur- 
rounds her  eggs.  It  is  probably  a  mix- 
ture of  wax  with  farina.  The  cells  are 
placed  nearly  horizontally,  but  not  exact- 
ly so ;  the  mouth  raised  a  little,  which 
probably  may  be  to  retain  the  honey  the 
better;  however,  this  rule  is  not  strictly 
observed,  for  often  they  are  horizontal, 
and  towards  the  lower  edge  of  a  plane  of 
comb  they  are  often  declining.  The  first 
combs  that  a  hive  forms  are  the  smallest, 
and  much  neater  than  the  last  or  lower- 
most. Their  sides  or  partitions,  between 
cell  and  cell,  are  much  thinner,  and  tlje 
hexagon  is  much  more  perfect.  The  wax 
is  purer,  being  probably  little  else  but 
wax,  and  it  is  more  brittle.  The  lower 
combs  are  considerably  larger,  and  con- 
tain much  more  wax,or  perhaps,  more  pro- 
perly, more  materials  ;  and  the  cells  are  at 
such  distances  as  to  allow  them  to  lie  of  a 
round  figure  :  the  wax  is  softer,  and  there 
is  something  mixed  with  it.  I  have  observ- 
ed that  the  cells  are  not  all  of  equal  size, 
some  being  a  degree  larger  than  the 
others;  and  that  the  small  are  the  first 
formed,  and  of  course  at  the  upper  part, 
where  the  bees  begin,  and  the  larger  are 
nearer  the  lower  part  of  the  comb,  or 
last  made  :  however,  in  hives  of  particu- 
lar construction,  where  the  bees  may  be- 
gin to  work  at  one  end,  and  can  work  both 
down  and  towards  the  other  end,  we  of- 
ten find  the  larger  cells  both  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  combs,  and  also  at  the  oppo- 


site end.  These  are  formed  for  the  males 
to  be  bred  in  ;  and  in  the  hornets  and 
wasps  combs  there  are  larger  cells,  for 
the  queens  to  be  bred  in  :  these  are  also 
formed  in  the  lower  tier,  and  the  last 
formed. 

"  The  first  comb  made  in  a  hive  is  all  of 
one  colour,  viz.  almost  white  ;  but  is  not 
so  white  towards  the  end  of  the  season, 
having  then  more  of  a  yellow  cast. 

"  There  is  a  cell  which  is  called  the 
royal  cell,  often  three  or  four  of  them, 
sometimes  more  ;  I  have  seen  eleven,  and 
even  thirteen,  in  the  same  hive;  commonly 
they  are  placed  on  the  edge  of  one  or 
more  of  the  combs,  but  often  on  the  side 
of  a  comb  ;  however,  not  in  the  centre 
along  with  the  other  cells,  like  a  large 
one  placed  among  the  others,  but  often 
against  the  mouths  of  the  cells,  and  pro- 
jecting out  beyond  the  common  surface 
of  the  comb  ;  but  most  of  them  are  form- 
ed from  the  edge  of  the  comb,  which  ter- 
minates in  one  of  these  cells.  The  royal 
cell  is  much  wider  than  the  others,  but 
seldom  so  deep  :  its  mouth  is  round,  and 
appears  to  be  the  largest  half  of  an  oval 
in  depth,  and  is  declining  downwards, 
instead  of  being  horizontal  or  lateral. 
The  materials  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  softer  than  common  wax,  rather  like 
the  last  mentioned,  or  those  of  which  the 
lower  edge  of  the  plate  of  comb  is  made, 
or  with  which  the  bees  cover  the  crysalis  : 
they  have  very  little  wax  in  their  compo- 
sition, not  one  third;  the  rest  I  conceive  to 
be  farina. 

"  The  comb  seems  at  first  to  be  formed 
for  propagation,  and  the  reception  of  ho- 
ney to  be  only  a  secondary  use  ;  for  if  the 
bees  lose  their  queen,  they  make  no 
combs ;  and  the  wasp,  hornet,  &c.  make 
combs,  although  they  collect  no  honey ; 
and  the  humble-bee  collects  the  honey, 
and  deposits  it  in  cells  she  never  made. 

"  I  shall  not  consider  the  bee  as  an  ex- 
cellent mathematician,  capable  of  making 
exact  forms,  and  having  reasoned  upon 
the  best  shape  of  the  cell  for  capacity,  so 
that  the  greatest  number  might  be  put 
into  the  smallest  space  (for  the  hornet  and 
the  wasp  are  much  more  correct,  although 
not  seemingly  under  the  same  necessity, 
as  they  collect  nothing  to  occupy  their 
cells)  ;  because,  although  the  bee  is  pretty 
perfect  in  these  respects,  yet  it  is  very 
incorrect  in  others,  in  the  formation  of 
the  comb  ;  nor  shall  I  consider  these  ani- 
mals as  forming  combs  of  certain  shape 
and  size,  from  mere  mechanical  necessity, 
as  from  working  round  themselves ;  for 
such  a  mould  would  not  form  cells  of  dif- 


APIS. 


ferent  sizes,  much  less  could  wasps  be 
guided  by  the  same  principle,  as  their 
cells  are  of  very  different  sizes,  and  the 
first  by  much  too  small  for  .the  queen 
wasp  to  have  worked  round  herself :  but 
I  shall  consider  the  whole  as  an  instinctive 
principle,  in  which  the  animal  has  no  pow- 
er of  variation  or  choice,  but  such  as 
arises  from  what  may  !>e  called  external 
necessity.  The  cell  has  in  common  six 
sides,  but  this  is  most  correct  in  those 
first  formed ;  and  the  bottom  is  commonly 
composed  of  those  sides  or  planes,  two  of 
the  sides  making  one  ;  and  they  generally 
fall  in  between  the  bottoms  of  three  cells 
of  the  opposite  side  ;  but  this  is  not  regu- 
lar, it  is  only  to  be  found  where  there 
is  no  external  interruption. 

"  As  soon  as  a  few  combs  are  formed, 
the  female  bee  begins  laying  of  eggs.  As 
far  as  I  have  been  able  to  observe,  the 
queen  is  the  only  bee  that  propagates,  al- 
though it  is  asserted  that  the  labourers 
do.  Her  first  eggs  in  the  season  are  those 
which  produce  labourers  ;  then  the  males, 
and  probably  the  queen  ;  this  is  the  pro- 
gress in  the  wasp,  hornet,  humble-bee, 
&c.  However,  it  is  asserted  by  Riem,  that 
when  a  hive  is  deprived  of  a  queen,  la- 
bourers lay  eggs ;  also,  that  at  this  time 
some  honey  and  farina  are  brought  in,  as 
store  for  a  wet  day.  The  eggs  are  laid  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cell,  and  we  find  them 
there  before  the  cells  are  half  completed, 
so  that  propagation  begins  early,  and  goes 
on  along  with  the  formation  of  the  other 
cells.  The  egg  is  attached  at  one  end  to 
the  bottom  of  the  cell,  sometimes  stand- 
ing perpendicularly,  often  obliquely  ;  it 
has  a  glutinous  or  slimy  covering,  which 
makes  it  stick  to  any  thing  it  touches.  It 
would  appear  that  there  was  a  period  or 
periods  for  laying  eggs;  for  I  have  ob- 
served in  a  new  swarm,  that  the  great  bu- 
siness of  lay  ing  eggs  did  not  last  above  a 
fortnight ;  although  the  hive  was  not  half 
filled  with  comb,  it  began  to  slacken  In 
those  new  formed  combs,  as  also  in  many 
not  half  finished,  we  find  the  substance 
called  bee-bread,  and  some  of  it  is  cover- 
ed over  with  wax,  which  will  be  consider- 
ed further.  By  the  time  they  have  work- 
ed above  half  way  down  the  hive  with  the 
comb,  they  are  beginning  to  form  for  the 
larger  cells,  and  by  this  time  the  first 
broods  were  hatched,  which  were  small, 
or  labourers :  and  now  they  begin  to 
breed  males,  and  probably  a  queen,  for  a 
new  swarm  ;  because  the  males  are  now 
bred  to  impregnate  the  young  queen  for 
the  present  summer,  as  also  for  the  next 
year.  This  progress  in  breeding  is  the 


same  with  that  of  the  wasp,  hornet,  and 
humble-bee.  Although  this  account  is 
commonly  allowed,  yet  writers  on  this 
subject  have  supposed  another  mode  of 
producing  a  queen,  when  the  hive  is  in 
possession  of  maggots,  and  deprived  of 
their  queen. 

"  What  may  be  called  the  complete 
process  of  the  egg,  namely,  from  the 
time  of  laying  to  the  birth  of  the  bee, 
(that  is,  the  time  of  hatching)  the  life  of 
the  maggot,  and  the  life  of  the  crysalis, 
is,  I  believe,  shorter  than  in  most  insects. 
It  is  not  easy  to  fix  the  time  when  the 
eggs  hatch  :  I  have  been  led  to  imagine 
it  was  in  five  days.  When  they  hatch,  we 
find  the  young  maggot  lying  coiled  up  in 
the  bottom  of  the  cell,  in  some  degree 
surrounded  with  a  transparent  fluid.  In 
many  of  the  cells,  where  the  eggs  have 
just  hatched,  we  find  the  skin  standing  in 
its  place,  either  not  yet  removed,  or  not 
pressed  down  by  the  maggot.  There  is 
now  an  additional  employment  for  the  la- 
bourers, namely,  the  feeding  and  nursing 
the  young  maggots.  We  may  suppose 
the  queen  has  nothing  to  do  with  this,  as 
there  are  at  all  times  labourers  enough  in 
the  hive  forsuch  purposes,  especially,  too, 
as  she  never  does  bring  the  materials,  as 
every  other  of  the  tribe  is  obliged  to  do 
at  first ;  therefore  she  seems  to  be  a 
queen  by  hereditary,  or  rather  by  natural, 
right,  while  the  humble-bee,  wasp,  hor- 
net, &c.  seem  rather  to  work  themselves 
into  royalty,  or  mistresses  of  the  commu- 
nity. The  bees  are  readily  detected  feed- 
ing the  young  maggot ;  and,  indeed,  a 
young  maggot  might  easily  be  brought  up 
by  any  person  who  would  be  attentive  to 
it.  They  open  their  two  lateral  pincers 
to  receive  the  food  and  swallow  it.  As 
they  grow,  they  cast  their  coats  or  cuti- 
cles ;  but  how  often  they  throw  their 
coats,  while  in  the  maggot  state,  I  do  not 
know.  The  maggots  grow  larger  and 
larger  till  they  nearly  fill  the  cell ;  and  by 
this  time  they  require  no  more  food,  and 
are  ready  to  be  inclosed  for  the  crysalis 
state  ;  when  ready  for  the  crysalis  state, 
the  bees  cover  over  the  mouth  of  the  cell 
with  a  substance  of  a  light  brown  colour, 
much  in  the  same  manner  that  they  cover 
the  honey,  excepting  that,  in  the  present 
instance,  the  covering  is  convex  exter- 
nally, and  appears  not  to  be  entirely  wax, 
but  a  mixture  of  wax  and  farina.  The 
maggot  is  now  perfectly  inclosed,  and  it 
begins  to  line  the  cell  and  covering  of  the 
mouth  above-mentioned  with  a  silk  it  spins 
out,  similar  to  the  silk-worm,  and  which 
makes  a  kind  of  pod  for  the  crysalis. 


APIS. 


ring  completed  this  lining,  they  cast 
off,  or  rather  shove  off,  from  the  head 
backwards,  the  last  maggot  coat,  which 
is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  and 
then  they  become  chrysalises. 

"In  this  state  they  are  forming  them- 
selves for  a  new  life  :  they  are  either  en- 
tirely new  built,  or  wonderfully  changed, 
for  there  is  not  the  smallest  vestige  of  the 
old  form  remaining ;  yi-t  it  must  be  the 
same  materials,  tor  now  nothing  is  taken  in. 
How  far  this  change  is  only  the  old  parts 
new  modelled,  or  gradually  altering  their 
form,  is  not  easily  determined.  To  bring 
about  the  change,  man)  parts  must  be  re- 
moved,  out  of  which  the  new  ones  are 
probably  formed.  As  bees  are  not  dif- 
ferent in  this  state  from  the  common  fly- 
ing insects  in  general,  I  shall  not  pursue 
the  subject  of  their  changes  further,  al- 
though it  makes  a  very  material  part  in 
the  natural  histor)  of  insects. 

'*  When  the  crysalis  is  formed  into  the 
complete  bee,  it  then  destroys  the  cover- 
ing of  its  cell  and  comes  forth.  They  are 
of  a  greyish  colour,  but  soon  turn  brown. 

"  When  the  swarm  of  which  I  have 
hitherto  been  giving  the  history  has  come 
off  early,  and  is  a  large  one,  more  espe- 
cially if  it  was  put  into  two  small  a  hive, 
it  often  breeds  too  many  for  the  hive  to 
keep  through  the  winter ;  and  in  such 
case  a  new  swarm  is  thrown  off,  which, 
however,  is  commonly  not  a  large  one, 
and  generally  has  too  little  time  to  com- 
plete its  comb,  and  store  it  with  honey 
sufficient  to  preserve  them  through  the 
winter.  This  is  similar  to  the  second  or 
third  swarm  of  the  old  hives. 

"  I  have  already  observed,  that  the  new 
colony  immediately  sets  about  the  increase 
of  their  numbers,  and  every  thing  relat- 
ing to  it.  They  had  their  apartments  to 
build,  both  for  the  purpose  of  breeding, 
and  as  a  store-house  for  provisions  for  the 
winter.  When  the  season  for  laying  eggs 
is  over,  then  is  the  season  for  collecting 
honey  ;  therefore,  when  the  last  chrysalis 
for  the  season  comes  forth,  its  cell  is  im- 
mediately filled  with  honey  ;  nnd  as  soon 
as  the  cell  is  full,  it  is  covered  over  with 
pure  wax,  as  it  is  to  be  considered  as  store 
for  the  winter.  This  covering  answers  two 
very  essential  purposes  :  one  is  to  keep  it 
from  spilling,  or  daubing  the  bees  ;  the 
other  to  prevent  its  evaporation,  by 
which  means  it  is  kept  fluid  in  such  a 
warmth.  They  are  also  employed  in  lay- 
ing up  a  store  of  bee-bread  for  the  young 
maggots  in  the  spring,  for  they  begin  to 
bring  forth  much  earlier  than  probably 
any  other  insect,  because  they  retain  a 


summer  heat,  and  store  up  food  for  the 
young. 

"  In  the  month  of  August  we  may  sup- 
pose the  queen,  or  queens,  are  impregnat- 
ed by  the  males  ;  and  us  the  males  do  not 
provide  for  themselves,  they  become  bur- 
densome to  the  workers,  and  are  there- 
fore teased  to  death  much  sooner  than 
they  otherwise  would  die  ;  and  when  the 
bees  set  about  this  business  of  providing 
their  winter  store,  every  operation  is  over/ 
except  the  collecting  of  honey  and  bee- 
bread.  At  this  time  it  would  seem  as  if 
the  malts  were  conscious  of  their  danger, 
for  they  do  not  rest  in  the  mouth  of  the 
hive,  in  either  going  out  or  coming  in,  but 
hurry  either  in  or  out :  however,  they  are 
commonly  attacked  by  one,  two,  or  three 
at  a  time  :  they  seem  to  make  no  resist- 
ance, only  getting  away  as  fast  as  possible. 
The  labourers  do  not  sting  them,  only 
pinch  them,  and  pull  them  about  as  if 
to  wear  them  out ;  but  I  susp'ect  it  may 
be  called  as  much  a  natural  as  a  violent 
death. 

"  When  the  young  are  wholly  come 
forth,  and  either  the  cells  entirely  filled, 
or  no  more  honey  to  be  collected,  then  is 
the  time  or  season  for  remaining  in  their 
hives  for  the  winter. 

"  Although  I  have  now  completed  a 
hive,  and  no  operations  are  going  on  in 
the  winter  months,  yet  the  history  of  this 
hive  is  imperfect  till  it  sends  forth  a  new 
swarm. 

"  As  the  common  bee  is  very  suscepti- 
ble of  cold,  we  find,  as  soon  as  .the  cold 
weather  sets  in,  they  become  very  quiet 
or  still,  and  remain  so  throughout  the 
winter,  living  on  the  produce  of  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn  ;  and,  indeed,  a  cold  day 
in  the  summer  is  sufficient  to  keep  them 
at  home,  more  so  than  a  shower  in  a  warm 
day  :  and  if  the  hive  is  thin  and  much  ex- 
posed, they  will  hardly  move  in  it,  but  get 
as  close  together  as  the  comb  will  let 
them,  into  a  cluster.  In  this  manner  they 
appear  to  live  through  the  winter  :  how- 
ever, in  a  fine  day  they  become  very  lively 
and  active,  going  abroad,  and  appearing 
to  enjoy  it,  at  which  time  they  get  rid  of 
their  excrement :  for  I  fancy  they  sel- 
dom throw  out  their  excrement  when  in 
the  hive. 

"  Their  life  at  this  season  of  the  year  is 
more  uniform,  and  maybe  termed  simple 
existence,  till  the  warm  weather  arrives 
again  As  they  now  subsist  on  their  sum- 
mer's industry,  they  would  seem  to  feed 
in  proportion  to  the  coldness  of  the  sea- 
son; for,  from  experiment,  Ifound  the  hive 
grow  lighter  in  a  cold  week  than  it  did  in 


APIS. 


&  warmer,  which  led  to  further  experi- 
ments. 

"  Although  an  indolent  state  is  very 
much  the  condition  of  bees  through  the 
winter,  yet  progress  is  making  in  the 
queen  towards  a  summer's  increase.  The 
eggs  in  the  oviducts  are  beginning  to 
swell,  and,  I  believe,  in  the  month  of 
March  she  is  ready  to  lay  them,  for  the 
young  bees  are  to  swarm  in  June  ;  which 
constitutes  the  queen  bee  to  be  the  earliest 
breeder  of  any  insect  we  know.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  the  labourers  become 
sooner  employed  lhan  any  other  of  this 
tribe  of  insects.  This,  both  queen  and 
labourers  are  enabled  to  accomplish,  from 
living  in  society  through  the  winter;  and 
it  becomes  necessaryin  them,  as  they  have 
their  colony  to  form  early  in  the  summer, 
which  is  to  provide  for  itself  for  the  win- 
ter following.  All  this  requires  the  pro- 
cess to  be  carried  forward  earlier  than  by 
any  other  insect,  for  these  are  only  to  have 
young,  which  are  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves through  the  summer,  not  being 
under  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the 
winter 

*'  The  queen  bee,  as  she  is  termed,  has 
excited  more  curiosity  than  all  the  others, 
although  much  more  belongs  to  the  la- 
bourers. From  the  number  of  these,  and 
from  their  exposing  themselves,  they  have 
their  history  much  better  made  out :  but 
as  there  is  only  one  queen,  and  she  scarce- 
ly ever  seen,  it  being  only  the  effects  of 
her  labour  we  can  come  at,  an  opportuni- 
ty has  been  given  to  the  ingenuity  of  con- 
jecture, and  more  has  been  said  than  can 
well  be  proved.  The  queen,  the  mother 
of  all,  in  whatever  way  produced,  is  a  true 
female,  and  different  from  both  the  la- 
bourers and  the  male.  She-  is  not  so  large 
in  the  trunk  as  the  male,  and  appears  to 
be  rather  larger  in  every  part  than  the  la- 
bour rs.  The  scales  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  belly  of  the  labourers  are  not  uni- 
form!'" of  the  same  colour  over  the  whole 
scale,  th at  part  being  lighter  which  is 
overlapped  by  the  terminating  scale  above, 
and  tlte  uncovered  part  being  darker. 
T!:.s  light  part  does  not  terminate  in  a 
straight  line,  but  in  two  curves,  making  a 
peak;  all  which  gives  the  belly  a  lighter 
colour  in  the  labouring  bees,  more  espe- 
cially when  it  is  pulled  out  or  elongated. 
We  distinguish  a  queen  from  a  working 
bee  simply  by  size,  and  in  some  degree  by 
colour,  but  this  last  is  not  so  easily  ascer- 
tained, because  the  difference  in  the  co- 
lour is  not  so  remarkable  in  the  back,  and 
the  only  view  we  can  commonly  get  of  her 
is  on  this  part ;  but  when  a  hive  is  killed, 
the  best  way  is  to  collect  all  the  bees,  and 


spread  them  on  white  paper,  or  put  them 
into  water,  in  a  broad,  flat-bottomed,  shal- 
low, white  dish,  in  which  they  swim,  and 
by  looking  at  them  singly,  she  may  be  dis- 
covered. As  the  queen  breeds  the  first 
year  she  is  produced,  and  the  oviducts 
never  entirely  subside,  an  old  queen  is 
probably  thicker  than  a  new-bred  one,  un- 
less indeed  the  oviducts  and  the  eggs  form 
in  the  chrysalis  state,  as  in  the  silk-worm, 
which  1  should  suppose  they  did.  The 
queen  is  perhaps  at  the  smallest  size  just 
as  she  has  done  breeding;  for  as  she  is  to 
lay  eggs  by  the  month  of  March,  she  must 
begin  early  to  fill  again  ;  but  I  believe  her 
oviducts  are  never  emptied,  having  at  all 
times  eggs  in  them,  although  but  small. 
She  has  fat  in  her  belly,  similar  to  the 
other  bees. 

"  It  is  most  probable  that  the  queen 
which  goes  off  with  the  swarm  is  a  young 
one,  for  the  males  go  off  with  the  swarm 
to  impregnate  her,  as  she  must  be  impreg- 
nated the  same  year,  because  she  breeds 
the  same  year. 

"  The  queen  has  a  sting  similar  to  the 
working-bee. 

"  I  believe  a  hive,  or  swarm,  has  but  one 
queen,  at  least  I  have  never  found  more 
than  one  in  a  swarm,  or  in  an  old  hive  in 
the  winter  ;  and  probably  this  is  what  con- 
stitutes a  hive  ;  for,  when  there  are  two 
queens,  it  is  likely  that  a  division  may  be- 
gin to  take  place.  Supernumerary  queens 
are  mentioned  by  Riem,  who  asserts  he 
has  seen  them  killed  by  the  labourers  us 
well  as  the  males. 

"  The  male  bee  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  labourers  :  he  is  even  largar  than 
the  queen,  although  not  so  long  when  she 
is  in  her  full  state  with  eggs  :  he  is  con- 
siderably thicker  than  either,  but  not 
longer  in  the  same  proportion  :  he  does 
not  terminate  at  the  anus  in  so  sharp  a 
point :  and  the  opening  between  the  two 
last  scales  of  the  back  and  belly  is  larger, 
and  more  under  the  belly,  than  in  the  fe- 
male. His  proboscis  is  much  shorter  than 
that  of  the  labouring  bee,  which  makes 
me  suspect  he  does  not  collect  his  own 
honey,  but  takes  that  which  is  brought 
home  by  the  others ;  especially  as  we  ne- 
ver find  the  males  abroad  on  flowers,  &c. 
only  flying  about  the  hives  in  hot  weather, 
as  if  taking  an  airing  ;  and  when  we  find 
that  the  male  of  the  humble-bee,  which 
collects  its  own  food,  has  as  long  a  pro- 
boscis, or  tongue,  as  the  female,  I  think  it 
is  from  all  these  facts  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose the  male  of  the  common  bee  feeds 
at  home.  He  has  no  sting. 

"  The  class  of  labouring  bees,  for  we 
cannot  call  it  either  sex  or  species,  is  the, 


APIS. 


largest  in  number  of  the  whole  communi- 
ty :  there  are  thousands  of  them  to  one 
queen,  and  probably  some  hundreds  to 
each  male.  It  is  to  be  supposed  they  are 
the  only  bees  which  construct  the  whole 
hive,  and  that  the  queen  has  no  other  bu- 
siness but  to  lay  the  eggs :  they  are  the 
only  bees  that  bring  in  materials ;  the  only 
ones  we  observe  busy  abroad  :  and  indeed 
the  idea  of  any  other  is  ridiculous,  when 
we  consider  the  disproportion  in  numbers, 
as  well  as  the  employment  of  the  others, 
while  the  working  bee  has  nothing  to 
take  off'  its  attention  to  the  business  of  the 
family.  They  are  smaller  than  either  the 
queen  or  the  males  :  not  all  of  equal  size, 
although  the  difference  is  not  very  great. 

"  The  queen  and  the  working  bees  are 
so  much  alike,  that  the  latter  would  seem 
to  be  females  on  a  different  scale  :  how- 
ever,  this  difference  is  not  so  observable 
in  the  beginning  of  winter  as  in  the  spring, 
when  the  queen  is  full  of  eggs.  They  are 
all  females  in  construction  :  indeed,  one 
might  suppose  that  they  were  only  young 
queens,  and  that  they  became  queens  af- 
ter a  certain  age ;  but  this  is  not  the  case. 
They  all  have  stings,  which  is  another 
thing  that  makes  them  similar  to  the 
queen.  From  their  being  furnished  with 
an  instrument  of  defence  and  offence,  they 
are  endowed  with  such  powers  of  mind  as 
to  use  it,  their  minds  being  extremely  ir- 
ritable :  so  much  so,  that  they  make  an 
attack  when  not  meddled  with,  simply 
upon  suspicion,  and  when  they  do  attack 
they  always  sting ;  and  yet,  from  the  cir- 
circumstance  of  their  not  beingable  to  dis- 
engage the  sting,  one  should  suppose  they 
would  be  more  cautious  in  striking  witji 
it.  When  they  attack  one  another,  they 
seldom  use  it,  only  their  pincers  :  yet  I 
saw  two  bees  engaged,  and  one  stung  the 
other  in  the  mouth,  or  thereabouts,  and 
the  sting  was  drawn  from  the  body  to 
which  it  belonged,  and  the  one  who  was 
stung  ran  very  quickly  about  with  it ;  but 
I  could  not  catch  that  bee,  to  observe  how 
the  sting  was  situated. 

"As  they  are  the  collectors  of  honey, 
much  more  than  what  is  for  their  own  use 
either  immediately  or  in  future,  their 
tongue  is  proportionably  fitted  for  that 
purpose ;  it  is  considerably  larger  than 
that  of  either  the  queen  or  the  male, 
which  fits  them  to  take  up  the  honey  from 
the  hollow  parts  of  flowers  of  consider- 
able depth.  The  mechanism  is  very  cu- 
rious, and  will  be  explained  further  on. 

"  Bees  certainly  have  the  five  senses : 
sight  none  can  doubt ;  feeling  they  also 
have  ;  and  there  is  every  reason  for  sup- 
posing they  have  likewise  taste,  smell  and 


hearing.  Taste  we  cannot  doubt ;  but  of 
smell  we  may  not  have  such  proofs  ;  yet, 
from  observation,  I  think  they  give  strong 
signs  ot  smell.  When  bees  are  hungry, 
as  it  young  swarm  in  wet  weather,  and  are 
in  a  glass  hive,  so  that  they  can  be  ex- 
amined, if  we  put  some  honey  into  the 
bottom,  it  will  immediately  breed  a  com- 
motion ;  they  all  seem  to  be  upon  the 
scent;  even  if  they  are  weak  and  hardly 
able  to  crawl,  they  will  throw  out  their 
proboscis  as  far  as  possible  to  get  to  it, 
although  the  light  is  very  faint.  This  last 
appears  to  arise  more  from  smell  than  see- 
ing. If  some  bees  are  let  loose  in  a  bee-hive, 
and  do  not  know  from  which  house  they 
came,  they  will  take  their  stand  upon  the 
outside  of  some  hive,  or  hives,  especially 
when  the  evening  is  coming  on  :  whether 
this  arises  from  the  smell  of  the  hives,  or 
sound,  I  can  hardly  judge. 

"  Bees  may  be  said  to  have  a  voice. 
They  are  certainly  capable  of  forming  se- 
veral sounds.  They  give  a  sound,  when 
flying,  which  they  can  vary  according  to 
circumstances.  One  accustomed  to  bees 
can  immediately  tell  when  a  bee  makes  an 
attack,  by  the  sound.  This  is  probably 
made  by  the  wings.  They  may  be  seen 
standing  at  the  door  of  the  hive,  with 
the  belly  rather  raised,  and  moving  their. 
wings,  making  a  noise.  But  they  produce 
a  noise  independent  of  their  wings  ;  for  if 
a  bee  is  smeared  all  over  with  honey,  so 
as  to  make  the  wings  stick  together,  it  will 
be  found  to  make  a  noise  which  is  shrill 
and  peevish.  I  have  observed  that  they, 
or  some  of  them,  make  a  noise  the  even- 
ings before  they  swarm,  which  is  a  kind  of 
ring,  or  sound  of  a  small  trumpet :  by  com- 
paring it  with  the  notes  of  the  piano-forte, 
it  seemed  to  be  the  same  with  the  lower 
A  of  the  treble. 

"  I  have  observed,  that  it  is  only  the 
queen  and  the  labourers  that  have  stings; 
and  this  provision  of  a  sting  i.s  perhaps  as 
curious  a  circumstance  as  any  attending 
the  bee,  and  probably  is  one  of  the  cha- 
racters of  the  bee  tribe. 

"The  apparatus  itself  is  of  a  very  curious 
construction,  fitted  for  inflicting  a  wound, 
and  at  the  same  time  conveying  a  poison 
into  that  wound.  The  apparatus  consists  of 
two  piercers,  conducted  in  a  groove  or  di- 
rector,which  appears  to  be  itself  the  sting. 
All  these  parts  are  moved  by  muscles, 
which  we  may  suppose  are  very  strong  in 
them,  much  stronger  than  in  other  ani- 
mals; and  these  muscles  give  motion  in 
almost  all  directions,  but  more  particularly 
outwards.  It  is  wonderful  how  deep  they 
will  pierce  solid  bodies  with  the  sting.  I 
have  examined  the  length  they  havepierc- 


APIS. 


ed  the  palm  of  the  hand,  which  is  covered 
with  a  thick  cuticle  :  it  has  often  been 
ahout  the  one-twelfth  of  an  inch.  T->  per- 
form this  by  mere  force,  two  things  are 
necessary,  power  of  muscles,  and  strength 
of  the  sting,  neither  of  which  they  seem 
10  possess  in  sufficient  degree.  I  own  I 
do  not  understand  this  operation.  I  am 
apt  to  conceive  there  is  something  in  it 
distinct  from  simple  force  applied  to  one 
end  of  a  body  :  for  if  this  was  simply  the 
case,  the  sting  of  the  bee  could  not  be 
'made  to  pierce  by  any  power  applied  to 
its  base,  as  the  least  pressure  bends  it  in 
any  direction  :  it  is  possible  'he  serrated 
edges  may  assist,  by  cutting  their  way  in 
like  a  saw. 

"  The  apparatus  for  the  poison  consists 
of  two  small  ducts,  which  are  the  glands 
that  secrete  the  poison  :  these  two  Jlie  in 
the  abdomen,  among  the  air-cells,  &c. ; 
they  both  unite  into  one,  which  soon  en- 
ters into  or  forms  an  oblong  bag,  like  a 
bladder  of  urine  ;  at  the  opposite  end  of 
which  passes  out  a  duct,  which  runs  to- 
wards the  angle  where  the  two  stings 
meet,and  entering  between  the  two  stings, 
is  continued  between  them  in  a  groove, 
which  forms  a  canal  by  the  union  of  the  two 
Stings  to  this  point.  There  is  another  duct 
on  the  right  of  that  described  above, which 
is  not  so  circumscribed,  and  contains  a 
thicker  matter,  which,  as  far  us  I  have 
been  able  to  judge,  enters  along  with  the 
other;  but  it  is, the  first  that  contains  the 
poison,  which  is  a  thin,  clear  fluid.  From 
the  stings  having  serrated  edges,  it  is 
seldom  the  bees  can  disengage  them  ;  and 
they  immediately  upon  stinging  endeavour 
to  make  their  escape,  but  are  generally 
prevented,  as  it  were  caught  in  their  own 
trap  ;  and  the  force  they  use  commonly 
drags  out  the  whole  of  the  apparatus  for 
stinging,  and  also  part  of  the  bowels;  so 
that  the  bee  most  frequently  falls  a  sacri- 
fice immediately  upon  having  effected  its 
purpose.  Upon  a  superficial  view,  one 
conceives  that  the  first  intention  of  the 
bee  having  a  sting  is  evident;  one  sees  it 
has  property  to  defend,  and  that  therefore 
it  is  fitted  for  defence  ;  but  why  it  should 
naturally  fall  a  sacrifice  in  its  own  defence 
does  not  so  readily  appear ;  besides,  all 
bees  have  stings,  although  all  bees  have 
not  property  to  defend,  and  therefore  are 
not  under  the  same  necessity  of  being  so 
provided.  Probably  its  having  a  sting  to 
use  was  sufficient  for  natnre  to  -It-fend  the 
bee,  without  using  it  liberally ;  and  the  loss 
of  a  bee  or  two,  when  they  did  sting,  was 
of  no  consequence,  for  it  is  seldom  that 
more  die." 
Some  naturalists  suppose  that  the  queen 


is  formed  from  the  larvaeof  the  working  bee; 
by  a  particular  mode  of  treatment,or  peculi- 
arityor  quantity  of  food,the  bulk  is  augmen- 
ted, and  the  generative  organs  developed. 
We  now  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the 
species.     The  apis  centuncularis,  or  car- 
penter-bee, is  remarkable  for  its  faculty  of 
forming  long,  tubular,  and  slightly  flexuose 
cavities  in  wood,  even  of  the  most  solid 
kind,  as  oak,  &c.     Sometimes  it  performs 
this  operation  in  living  trees,  and  some- 
times in  dry  wood,  posts,  &c.     When  the 
tube  is  properly  finished,  the  animal  pro- 
ceeds to  line  each  of  the  above-mentioned 
spaces   with  rose-leaves  rolled  over  each 
other,  the  bottom  of  each  being  formed 
by  several  circular  pieces  of  these  leaves, 
placed  immediately  over  each  other  to  a 
sufficient  thickness.    The  animal  then  de- 
posits an  egg  at  the  bottom,  and  having 
left  in  the  cell  a  sufficient  quantity  of  a 
kind  of  honey  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
young  larva,  when  hatched,  proceeds  to 
close  the  top  with  circular  bits  of  rose-leaf; 
and,  thus  proceeding,  finishes  the  whole 
series.     This  is  usually  done  towards  the 
close  of  summer ;  and  the  young,  having; 
passed  the  period   of  their   larva   state, 
change  into  that  of  crysalis,  and  remain 
the  whole  winter,   not  making  their  ap- 
pearance till  pretty  late  in  the  ensuing 
season.     This  bee  is  about  the  size  of  the 
common  or  honey-bee,  but  shorter  and 
broader  bodied  in  proportion,  and  is  of  a 
dusky  colour  above,  the  lower  parts  be- 
ing  covered    with  a  bright    ferruginous 
down  or  hair.  In  seasons  when  this  species 
happens  to  be  plentiful,  it  does  considera- 
ble injury  to  the  trees  which  it  attacks, 
large  trunks  of  apparently  healthy  oaks 
having  been  found  very  materially  injured 
by  the  numerous  trains  of  cells  distributed 
through  them  in  different  parts;  thirty,  for- 
ty, or  fifty  tubes  sometimes  lying  within  a 
very  small  distance  of  each  other.  In  defect 
of  rose-leaves,  the  cavities  are  sometimes 
lined  with  the  leaves  of  elm,  &c.  A  species, 
very  nearly  allied  to  the  preceding,  pur- 
sues a  similar  plan  of  forming  a  continued 
series  of  cylindrical   nests  with   rose  or 
other  leaves,  rolling  them  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  resemble  so  many  thimbles,  the 
top  of  each  being  closed  as  before.     In- 
stead, however,  of  being  placed  in  the 
limber  of  trees,  they  are  laid  in  horizontal 
trains,  at  a  certain  distance   beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ground.     Of  the  villose,  or 
hairy  bees,  popularly  called  humble-bees, 
OIK'  of  the  largos1,    and   most  common  in 
England  is  the  apis  lapidaria  of  Linnaeus, 
so  named  from    the    .  ircumstance  of  its 
nest  being  generally  situated  in  strong  or 
gravelly  places.     This  species  is  entirely 


4>f  a  deep  black  colour,  except  the  end  of 
the  abdomen,  which  is  red  or  orange-co- 
loured, more  or  less  deep  in  different  in- 
dividuals. The  female  is  of  larg-e  size, 
measuring  near  an  inch  in  length;  the 
male  is  considerably  smaller;  and  the  neu- 
ter, or  labouring  bee,  still  smaller  than  the 
male.  The  humble-bees  in  general  live  in 
small  societies  of  40  or  60  together,  in  an 
oval  or  roundish  nest,  excavated  to  a  small 
depth  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  formed  of  branches  of  moss,  compact- 
ed together,  and  lined  with  a  kind  of 
coarse  wax.  In  this  nest,  which  measures 
from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  are 
constructed  several  oval  cells,which,how- 
ever,  are  not  the  work  of  the  complete  in- 
sects, but  are  the  cases  spun  by  the  larvae, 
and  in  which  they  remain  during  their 
state  of  chrysalis:  the  eggs  are  deposited 
among  heaps  of  a  kind  of  coarse  honey  or 
bee-bread,  placed  here  and  there  at  un- 
certain intervals  ;  on  this  substance  the 
larvae  feed  during  their  growing  state  : 
lastly,  in  every  nest  are  placed  a  few  near- 
ly cylindric  cells  or  goblets  of  coarse  wax, 
and  filled  with  pure  honey,  on  which  the 
complete  insects  feed.  See  Plate  I.  En- 
tomology, fig.  4 — 6.  For  the  manage- 
ment of  bees,  see  BEE. 

APIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
including  parsley,  smallage,  and  celery. 
Class,  Pentandria  Digynia ;  natural  order 
of  Umbellatae.  Essen,  character,  cal.  gene- 
ral umbel  of  fewer  rays  than  those  of  the 
partial ;  cor.  general  uniform  ;  floscules 
almost  all  fertile  ;  petals  roundish,  inflex, 
equal;  stam.  filaments  simple  ;  anthers, 
roundish  ;  pist.  germ  inferior ;  seeds  two, 
ovate,  striated  on  one  side,  plane  on  the 
other.  A.  petrosolinum,  or  common  pars- 
ley; both  the  varieties  are  in  use;  but  it 
is  remarked  that  the  plane-leaved  sort  is 
most  commonly  cultivated,  though  many 
prefer  the  curled  kind,  because  its  leaves 
are  most  easily  distinguished  from  the 
aethusa,  or  fool's  parsley,  a  sort  of  hem- 
lock, anda  poisonous  garden  weed,  which 
while  young  has  great  resemblance  to  the 
common  plane-leaved  parsley.  Besides, 
the  curled  parsley,  from  its  having  larger 
and  thicker  leaves,  and  being  curiously 
fimbriated  and  curled,  so  as  to  shew  full 
and  double,  makes  a  better  appearance  in 
its  growth,  and  is  more  esteemed  by  cooks 
for  the  purpose  of  garnishing  dishes,  &c. 
It  may,  however,  be  necessary  to  remark, 
that  this  sort,  as  being  only  a  variety,  is 
liable  to  degenerate  to  the  common  plane 
sort,  unless  particular  care  be  taken  to 
save  the  seed  always  from  the  perfect, 
full  curled  plants.  Both  the  varieties  are 
propagated  bv  seed  sown  annually  in 

VOL.  r, 


APL 

spring,  where  the  plants  are  to  remain  : 
but  the  plants  are  biennials,  rising  from 
seed   sown   in   March,  April;  May,  and 
June.  A.  latifolium,  or  broad-leaved  pars- 
ley.   The  propagation  of  this  species  is 
also  by  seed  sown  annually  in  February, 
March,  April,  or  May,  where   the  plants 
are  to  remain.     For  this  purpose,  a  spot 
of  light  rich  earth,  in  an  open  exposure, 
is  to  be  preferred  ;  the   seed  being  sown 
broad-cast,  and  raked  in,  the  plants  gene- 
rally appearing  in   about  a   month   aft&a, 
being  sown,  and  in  May  or  June  the*  re- 
quire to  be   thinned  and  cleared  from 
weeds,  which  may  be  performed  either  by 
hand  or  hoe?  but  the  latter  is  most  eligi- 
ble, as  it  will  stir  and  loosen  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  which  maybe  beneficial  to 
the  plants,  cutting  them  out  to  about  six 
inches  distance  from  each  other.     In  the 
latter  end  of  July,  the   roots   will  mostly 
have  attained  a  size  proper  for  use,  and 
may  be  drawn  occasionly ;   but  they  sel- 
dom acquire  their  full  growth  till  about 
Michaelmas.     This  is  sometimes  called 
Hamburgh  parsley,  probably  from  its  be- 
ing much  cultivated  about  that  place.  It 
is  chiefly  cultivated  and  esteemed  for  its 
large  roots,  which  are  white,  and  carrot- 
shaped,  being  long,  taper,  and  of  down- 
right growth,  often  attaining  the  size  and 
appearance  of  small  or  middling  parsnips; 
they  boil  exceedingly  tender  and  palata- 
ble, are  very  wholesome,  and  may  be  used 
in  soup  or  broth,  or  to  eat  like  carrots  and 
parsnips,  or  as  sauce  to  flesh  meat.     A. 
dulce,  or  the  common  celery.     The  me- 
thod of  propagation  in  all  the  varieties  of 
this  sort,  is  by   sowing  the   seed  in   the 
spring,. and  when  the  plants  have  attained 
six  or  eight  inches  in  height,   transplant- 
ing them  into  trenches,  in  order  to  be 
earthed  up  on  each  side  as  they  advance 
in  growth,  and  have  their  stalks  blanched 
or  whitened,  to  render  them  crisp  and 
tender. 

APLANATIC,  in  optics,  a  term  applied 
by  Dr.  Blair,  professor  of  astronomy  in- 
Edinburgh,  to  that  kind  of  refraction  dis- 
covered by  himself,  which  corrects  the 
aberration  of  the  rays  of  light,  and  the 
colour  depending  upon  it,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  word  achromatic,  which 
has  been  appropriated  to  that  refraction, 
in  which  there  is  only  a  partial  correction 
of  colour.  See  OPTICS.  Dr.  Blair  dis- 
covered a  mixture  of  solutions  of  ammo- 
niacal  and  mercurial  salts,  and  also  some 
other  substances,  which  produced  disper- 
sions proportional  to  that  of  glass,  with 
respect  to  the  different  colours  ;  and  he 
constructed  a  compound  lens,  consisting 
of  a  semi-convex  one  of  crown  glass,  witjh 
Nn 


APO 


APO 


its  flat  side  towards  the  object,  and  a 
meniscus  of  the  same  materials,  with  its 
convex  side  in  the  same  direction,  and  its 
flatter  concave  next  the  eye,  and  the  in- 
terval between  these  lenses  he  filled  with 
a  solution  of  antimony  in  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  muriatic  acid.  The  lens  thus 
adapted  did  not  manifest  the  slightest 
vcsii^e  of  any  extraneous  colour.  He 
obtained  a  patent  for  the  invention  in 
1791. 

APLUDA,"in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Po.vgumia  Monoecia  class  of  plants,  the 
common  calyx  of  which  is  an  univalve 
bifloral,  ovated  concave,  loose,  mucrona- 
ted  glume  ;  the  proper  glume  is  bivalve, 
and  placed  obliquely  ;  the  corolla  is  a  bi- 
valve glume  of  the  'length  of  the  cup  ; 
there  is  no  pericarpium  ;  the  seed,  which 
is  single,  is  involved  in  the  glume  of  the 
corolla.  Male  corol.  two  valved ;  female 
floret  sessile ;  stamina  three.  Female 
corol.  two  valved ;  one  style  ;  one  seed, 
covered.  There  are  four  species. 

APOCOPE,  among  grammarians,  a  fi- 
gure which  cuts  off'  a  letter  or  syllable 
from  the  end  of  a  word,  as  ingeiii  for  in- 
genri. 

APOCRYPHAL,  something  dubious, 
is  more  particularly  applied  to  certain 
book  snot  admitted  into  the  canon  of  scrip- 
ture. Those  are  certain  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  extant  only  in  Greek,  admitted 
by  the  church  of  Rome  as  canonical,  but 
rejected  by  the  reformed  churches  as  no 
part  of  holy  writ;  such  are  the  books  of 
Judith,  Wisdom,  Tobit,  Baruch,  Macca- 
bees, the  third  and  fourth  books  of  Es- 
<lras.  In  this  sense  apocryphal  stands 
distinguished  from  canonical,  though  the 
Romish  church  disowns  the  distinction. 
Authors  are  divided  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  appellation  apocryphal,  and  the  rea- 
son why  it  was  given  to  these  books. 
The  apocryphal  books  were  not  received 
into  the  canon,  either  of  the  Jews,  or  an- 
cient Christians,  but  were  first  made  ca- 
nonical by  a  degree  of  the  council  of 
Trent.  The  apocryphal  books,  accord- 
ing to  the  sixth  article  of  the  church  of 
England,  are  to  be  read  for  example  of 
life  and  instruction  of  manners  ;  but  it 
doth  not  apply  them  to  establish  any  doc- 
trine. 

APOCYNUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Pentandria  I)yginia  class  and  order. 
Corol.  companulate;  nectareous  filaments 
five,  alternating  with  the  stamina.  There 
are  14  species. 

APODES,  the  name  of  one  of  the  or- 
ders of  fishes  in  the  Linnzean  distribution 
of  animals.  Their  character  is,  that  they 


nave  no  belly  fins;  there  are  12  genera, 
viz. 

Ammodytes,        Ophydium, 

Anarhichas,          Sternoptyx, 

Gymnothorax,      Stomateus, 

Gymnotus,  Stylephorus, 

Leptocephalus,    Trichiurus, 

Murrena,  Xiphias, 

which  see  under  the  several  heads  in  the 
alphabet. 

APOGEE,  in  astronomy,  that  point  of 
the  orbit  of  a  planet,  or  the  sun,  which  is 
farthest  from  the  earth. 

Ancient  astronomy,  which  placed  the 
earth  in  the  centre  of  the  system,  was 
much  taken  up  in  ascertaining  the  apogee 
and  perigee  ;  which  the  moderns  have 
changed  for  aphelium  and  perihelium. 
Seethe  article  APHEHUM,  &c. 

APOLLONIUS,  of  Perga,  a  city  in 
Pamphilia,was  a  celebrated  geometrician, 
who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Euergetes,  about  240  years  before  Christ; 
being  about  60  years  after  Euclid,  and  30 
years  later  than  Archimedes.  He  studied 
along  time  in  Alexandria  under  the  disci- 
ples of  Euclid;  and  afterwards  he  com- 
posed several  curious  and  ingenious  geo- 
metrical works,  of  which  only  his  books 
of  Conic  Sections  are  now  extant,  and 
even  these  not  perfect.  For  it  appears 
from  the  author's  dedicatory  epistle  to 
Eudemus,  a  geometrician  in  Pergamus, 
that  this  work  consisted  of  eight  books  ; 
only  seven  of  which  however  have  come 
down  to  us. 

From  the  Collections  of  Pappus,  and 
the  Commentaries  of  Eutocius,  it  appears 
that  Apollonius  was  the  author  of  various 
pieces  in  geometry,  on  account  of  which 
he  acquired  the  title  of  the  great  geome- 
trician. His  Conies  was  the  principal  of 
them.  Some  have  thought  that  Apollo- 
nius appropriated  the  writings  and  disco- 
veries of  Archimedes ;  Heraclius,  who 
wrote  the  life  of  Archimedes,  affirms  it  , 
though  Eutocius  endeavours  to  refute 
him.  Although  it  should  be  allowed  a 
groundless  supposition,  that  Archimedes 
was  the  first  who  wrote  upon  conies,  not- 
withstanding his  treatise  on  conies  was 
greatly  esteemed,  yet  it  is  highly  proba- 
ble that  Apollonius  would  avail  himself  of 
the  writings  of  that  author,  as  well  as 
others  who  had  gone  before  him ;  and 
upon  the  whole,  he  is  allowed  the  honour 
of  explaining  a  difficult  subject  better 
than  had  been  done  before,  having  made 
several  improvements,  both  in  Archime- 
des's  problems,  and  in  Euclid.  His  work 
upon  conies  was  doubtless  the  most  per- 
fect of  the  kind  among  the  ancients,  and 


APO 


APO 


In  some  respects  among1  the  moderns  also. 
Before  Apollonius,  it  had  been  customa- 
ry,  as  we  are  informed  by  Eutocius,  for 
the  writers  on  conies  to  require  three  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  cones  to  cut  the  three  diffe- 
rent sections  from;  viz.  the  parabola  from 
a.  right-angled  cone,  the  ellipse  from  an 
acute,  and  the  hyperbola  from  an  obtuse 
cone  ;  because  they  always  supposed  the 
sections  made  by  a  plane  cutting  the 
cones  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  side  of 
them:  but  Apollonius  cut  his  sections  all 
from  any  one  cone,  by  only  varying  the 
inclination  or  position  of  the  cutting  plane; 
an  improvement  that  has  been  followed 
by  all  other  authors  since  his  time.  But 
that  Archimedes  was  acquainted  with  the 
same  manner  of  cutting  any  cone  is  suffi- 
ciently proved,  against  Eutocius,  Pappus, 
and  others,  by  Guido  Ubaldus,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  his  Commentary  on  the  second 
book  of  Archimedes's  Equiponderantes, 
published  at  Pisa  in  1588.  See  CONIC 
SECTIONS. 

The  first  four  books  of  Apollonius's  co- 
nies only  have  come  down  to  us  in  their 
original  Greek  language  ;  but  the  next 
three,  the  5th,  6th,  and  7th,  in  an  Arabic 
version  ;  and  the  8th  not  at  all.  These 
have  been  commented  upon,  translated, 
and  published  by  various  authors.  Pap- 
pus, in  the  Mathematical  collections,  has 
left  some  account  of  his  various  works, 
with  notes  and  lemmas  apon  them,  and 
particularly  on  the  Conies.  And  Eutocius 
wrote  a  regular  elaborate  commentary  on 
the  propositions  of  several  of  the  books  of 
the  Conies. 

A  neat  edition  of  the  first  four  books  in 
Latin  was  published  by  Dr.  Barrow,  in 
4to.  at  London,  in  1675.  A  magnificent 
edition  of  all  the  books  was  published  in 
folio,  by  Dr.  Halley,  at  Oxford,  in  1710; 
together  with  the  Lemmas  of  Pappus, 
and  the  Commentaries  of  Eutocius.  The 
first  four  in  Greek  and  Latin,  but  the  lat- 
ter four  in  Latin  only,  the  8th  book  being 
restored  by  himself. 

APOLOGUE,  in  matters  of  literature, 
an  ingenious  method  of  conveying  instruc- 
tion by  means  of  a  feigned  relation,  called 
a  moral  fable. 

The  only  difference  between  a  parable 
and  an  apologue  is,  that  the  former,  being 
drawn  from  what  passes  among  mankind, 
requires  probability  in  the  narration  : 
whereas  the  apologue,  being  taken  from 
the  supposed  actions  of  brutes,  or  even  of 
things  inanimate,  is  not  tied  down  to  the 
strict  rules  of  probability.  JEsop's  fables 
are  a  model  of  this  kind  of  writing. 

APONOGETON,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 


the  Dodecandria  Tetragynia.  Ament, 
composed  of  scales  ;  no  calyx,  no  corol. ; 
capsules  four  ;  three  seeded.  There  are 
four  species. 

APOPHTHEGM,  a  short,  sententious, 
and  instructive  remark,  pronounced  by  a 
person  of  distinguished  character.  Such 
are  the  apophthegms  of  Plutarch,  and 
those  of  the  ancients  collected  by  Lycos- 
thenes. 

APOPHYSIS,  in  anatomy,  an  excres- 
cence from  the  body  of  a  bone,  of  which 
it  is  a  true  continuous  part,  as  a  branch  is 
of  a  tree. 

APOTHECARY,  one  who  practises  the 
art  of  pharmacy,  or  that  part  of  physic 
which  consists  in  the  preparation  and 
composition  of  medicines. 

A  youth  intended  for  this  profession 
should  be  a  pretty  good  scholar,  and  have 
such  a  knowledge  in  the  Latin  tongue,  as 
to  be  able  to  read  the  best  writers  upon 
the  subject  of  botany,  pharmacy  ^  anato- 
my, and  medicine.  In  London,  the  apo- 
thecaries are  one  of  the  city  companies, 
and  by  an  act,  which  was  made  perpetual 
in  the  ninth  year  of  George  I.  are  exempt- 
ed from  serving  upon  juries,  or  in  ward 
and  parish  offices.  They  are  obliged  to 
make  up  their  medicines  according  to  the 
formulas  described  in  the  College  Dis- 
pensatory, and  are  liable  to  have  their 
shops  visited  by  the  censors  of  the  college, 
who  are  empowered  to  destroy  such  me- 
dicines as  they  think  not  good.  In  Penn- 
sylvania, and  we  believe  the  United  States 
generally,  no  obligation  of  this  kind  is 
imposed.  Any  person,  however  ignorant 
of  the  qualities  and  properties  of  medi- 
cines, or  unskilful  in  the  preparation  of 
them,  may  nevertheless  establish  himself 
as  an  apothecary ;  the  consequence  is,  the 
occurrence  of  many  accidents ;  the  inju- 
dicious application  of  drugs ;  and,  as  he  is 
amenable  to  no  authority,  the  consequent 
adulteration  of  his  compounds. 

The  apothecaries  have  a  Hall  in  Black- 
friars,  London,  where  there  are  two  fine 
laboratories,  from  which  all  the  surgeons' 
chests  are  supplied  with  medicines  for  the 
royal  navy.  In  China,  they  have  a  singu- 
lar mode  of  dispensing  their  medicines. 
In  the  public  squares  of  their  cities  there 
is  a  very  high  stone  pillar,  on  which  are 
engraven  the  names  of  all  sorts  of  medi- 
cines, with  the  price  of  each  ;  and  when 
the  poor  stand  in  need  of  any  re  lief  from 
physic,  they  go  to  the  treasury,  where 
they  receive  the  price  each  medicine  is 
rated  at. 

APOTHEOSIS,  in  antiquity,  a  ceremo- 
ny, by  which  the  ancient  Romans  compli- 


APP 


APP 


merited  their  emperors  and  great  men, 
after  their  death,  with  a  place  among  the 
gods.  It  is  described  as  follows  :  after 
the  body  of  the  deceased  had  been  burnt 
with  the  usual  solemnities,  an  image  of 
wax,  exactly  resembling  him,  was  placed 
on  an  ivory  couch,  where  it  lay  for  seven 
days,  attended  by  the  senate  and  ladies  of 
the  highest  quality  in  mourning;  and 
then  the  young  senators  and  knights  bore 
the  bed  of  state  through  the  Via  sacra  to 
the  old  Forum,  and  from  thence  to  the 
Campus  Martius,  where  it  was  deposited 
upon  an  edifice  built  in  form  of  a  pyra- 
mid. The  bed  being  thus  placed,  amidst 
a  quantity  of  spices  and  other  combusti- 
bles, and  the  knights  having  made  a  pro- 
cession in  solemn  measure  round  the  pile, 
the  new  emperor,  with  a  torch  in  his  hand, 
set  fire  to  it,  while  an  eagle,  let  fly  from 
the  top  of  the  building,  and  mounting  in 
the  air  with  a  firebrand,  was  supposed  to 
convey  the  soul  of  the  deceased  to  hea- 
ven, and  thenceforward  he  was  ranked 
among  the  gods. 

APOTOME,  in  geometry,  the  differ- 
ence between  two  incommensurable  lines: 
thus,  E  C,  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  6.)  is  the 
apotome  of  A  C  and  A  B. 

If  we  suppose  A  C  =  a,  and  AB  =  b, 
then  will  their  apotome  be  a — </b ;  or, 
in  numbers,  2  —  ^/3.  Hence  also  the 
difference  between  the  side  A  C  =  2 
(fig.  7.)  of  an  equilateral  triangle_A  B  C, 
and  the  perpendicular  B  D  =  ^/3  is  an 
apotome,  viz.  =2  —  ^/3.  And  uni- 
versally, if  A  C  (fig.  8.)  be  a  semi-parabo- 
la, whose  axis  is  A  B,  and  its  latus  rec- 
tum =  1.  and  if  A  I)  be  a  tangent  to  the 
vertex  at  A,  and  this  be  divided  into  the 
parts  A  a  =  2,  A  b  =  3,  A  c  =  5,  A  d  = 
6,  &c  and  perpendiculars  a  1,  b  2,  c  3,  a 4, 
&c.  be  drawn,  these  will  be,  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  curve,  </  2,  ^/  3,  ^/5,  ^/  6, 
&c.  respectively  :  and  so  ^  A  a  (  =  1)  — 
«  1,  will  bel  —  v/  2 :  A  «  — 1>2  will  be 
2 — \/ 3,  &c.  by  which  means  you  will 
have  an  infinite  series  of  different  apo- 
tomes. 

APOTOME,  in  music,  the  difference  be 
tween  a  greater  and  lesser  semi-tone,  ex- 
pressed by  the  ratio  128  : 125. 

APPARATUS,  a  term  used  to  denote  a 
complete  set  ofinstruments,  or  other  uten- 
sils, belonging  to  any  artist  or  machine  : 
thus  we  say,  a  surgeons'  apparatus,  ache- 
mist's  apparatus,  the  apparatus  of  the 
air-pump,  microscope,  8cc. 

APPARENT,  among  mathematicians 
and  astronomers,  denotc-s  things  as  they 
appear  to  us,  in  contradistinction  from 
^rcal  or  true  :  thus  we  say,  the  apparent 


diameter,  distance,  magnitude,  place,  fig- 
ure, &c.  of  bodies. 

APPARITOR,  among  the  Romans,  a 
general  term  to  comprehend  all  attend- 
ants of  judges  and  magistates  appointed 
to  receive  and  execute  their  orders.  Ap- 
paritor, with  us,  is  a  messenger,  that 
serves  the  process  of  a  spiritual  court,  or 
a  beadle  in  an  university,  who  carries  the 
mace. 

APPAUMEE,  in  heraldry,  denotes  one 
hand  extended  with  the  full  palm  appear- 
ing, and  the  thumb  and  fingers  at  full 
length. 

APPEAL,  in  law,  the  removal  of  a 
cause  from  an  inferior  to  a  superior  court 
or  judge,  when  a  person  thinks  himself 
aggrieved  by  the  sentence  of  the  inferior 
judge.  Appeals  lie  from  all  the  ordinary 
courts  of  justice  to  the  House  of  Lords. 
In  ecclesiastical  causes,  if  an  appeal  is 
brought  before  a  bishop,  it  may  be  remov- 
ed to  the  archbishop  ;  if  before  an  arch- 
deacon, to  the  Court  of  Arches,  and 
thence  to  the  archbishop ;  and  from  the 
archbishop's  court  to  the  king  in  chancery. 

Appeal  in  common  law,  is  taken  for 
the  accusation  of  a  murderer  by  a  person, 
who  had  interest  in  the  party  killed  ;  or 
of  a  felon  by  an  accomplice.  It  is  prosecu- 
ted either  by  writ  or  by  bill:  by  writ,  when, 
a  writ  is  puchased  out  of  the  Chancery 
by  one  person  against  another,  command- 
ing him  to  appeal  some  third  person  of 
felony,  and  to  find  pledges  for  doing  it  ef- 
fectually ;  by  bill,  when  the  person  him- 
self gives  in  his  accusation  in  writing,  of- 
fering to  undergo  the  burden  of  appeal- 
ing the  person  therein  named. 

In  military  affairs,  an  appeal  might  for- 
merly be  made  by  the  prosecutor,  or  pri- 
soner, from  the  sentence  or  jurisdiction  of 
a  regimental  to  a  general  court-martial. 
At  present  no  soldier  has  a  right  to  ap- 
peal, except  in  cases  where  his  immedi- 
ate subsistence  is  concerned. 

APPEARANCE,  in  law,  signifies  a  de- 
fendant's filing  a  common  or  special  bail 
on  any  process  issued  out  of  a  court  of 
judicature.  In  actions  by  original,  ap- 
pearances are  entered  with  the  philazer  of 
the  county ;  and  by  billj  with  the  protho- 
notary.  Defendants  may  appear  in  per- 
son, where  the  party  stands  in  contempt, 
for  the  court  will  not  permit  him  to  ap- 
pear by  attorney  :  also  in  capital  and  cri- 
minal cases  :  where  an  act  of  parliament 
requires  that  the  party  should  appear  in 
person,  and  likewise  in  appeal,  or  on  at- 
tachment :  by  attorney,  in  all  actions,  real, 
persona],  and  mixed,  and  for  any  crime 
whatever  under  the  degree  of  capital,  by 


APP 


APP 


favour  of  the  court :    by  guardian  and 
next  friend,  when  underage. 

APPELLATIVE,  in  grammer,  a  noun, 
or  name,  which  is  applicable  to  a  whole 
species  or  kind,  as  man,  horse  ;  in  contra- 
distinction to  a  proper  name. 

APPELLOR,  or  APPELLANT,  in  law, 
he  who  has  committed  some  felony  or 
other  crime,  which  he  confesses  and  ap- 
peals, that  is,  accuses  his  accomplices. 

APPENDANT,  in  law  any  thing  that 
is  inheritable,  belonging  to  some  more 
worthy  inheritance,  as  an  advowson,  com- 
mon, or  court,  may  be  appendant  to  a 
manor,  land  to  an  office,  &c.  but  land 
cannot  be  appended  to  land,  for  both  are 
corporeal  inheritance,  and  one  thing  cor- 
poreal cannot  be  appendant  to  another. 

APPLE,  a  well-known  fruit,  consisting 
of  a  rind,  pill,  or  skin;  the  pulp,  or  paren- 
chyma; the  branchery,  or  seed-vessels ; 
and  the  core.  See  PYHUS. 

APPLICATION,  the  act  of  applying 
one  thing  to  another,  by  causing  them  to 
approach  or  bringing  them  nearer  toge- 
ther. Thus  a  longer  line  or  space  is 
measured  by  the  application  of  a  less,  as 
a  foot  or  yard  by  an  inch,  &c. ;  and  mo- 
tion is  determined  by  successive  applica- 
tion of  any  thing  to  different  parts  of 
space.  Application  is  sometimes  also 
used  both  in  arithmetic  and  geometry, 
for  the  operation  of  division,  or  for  that 
which  corresponds  to  it  in  geometry. 
Thus  20  applied  to,  or  divided  by  4,  i.  e. 
^0 
^-,  gives  5.  And  a  rectangfe  a  b  applied 

to  a  line  c,  gives  the  fourth  proportional 

— ,  or  another  line,  as,  d,  which,  with  the 
c 

given  line  c,  will  contain  a  rectangle  c  d 
=«  b. 

APPLICATION,  in  geometry,  denotes  the 
act  of  placing  one  figure  upon  another, 
in  order  to  determine  their  equality  or 
inequality.  In  this  way  Euclid,  and  other 
geometricians,  have  demonstrated  some 
of  the  primary  and  fundamental  proposi- 
tions in  elementary  geometry.  Thus  it  is 
proved,  that  two  triangles,  having  two 
sides  of  the  one  equal  respectively  to  two 
sides  of  the  other,  and  the  two  included 
angles  equal,  are  equal  in  all  respects ; 
and  two  triangles,  having  one  side  and  the 
adjacent  angles  of  the  one  respectively 
equal  to  one  side  and  the  adjacent  angles 
of  the  other,  are  also  in  the  same  mode 
of  application  shewn  to  be  equal.  Thus 
also  is  demonstrated,  that  a  diameter  di- 
vides the  circle  into  two  equal  parts ;  and 
that  the  diagonal  divides  a  square  or  pa- 
rallelogram into  two  equal  parts.  The 


term  is  also  used  to  signify  the  adapta- 
tion of  one  quantity  to  another,  in  order 
to  their  being  compared,  the  areas  of 
which  are  the  same,  but  their  figures  dif- 
ferent. Thus  Euclid  shews  how,  on  a  right 
line  given,  to  apply  a  parallelogram  that 
shall  be  equal  to  a  right-lined  figure  given. 
APPLICATION  of  one  science  to  another, 
signifies  the  use  that  is  made  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  one  for  augmenting  and  per- 
fecting the  other.  As  there  is  a  connec- 
tion between  all  the  arts  and  sciences,  one 
of  them  may  be  made  subservient  to  the 
illustration  and  improvement  of  the  other; 
and  to  this  purpose  algebra  has  been  ap- 
plied to  geometry,  and  geometry  to  alge- 
bra, and  both  to  mechanics,  astronomy, 
geography,  navigation,  &c.  See  ALGE- 
BRA, application  of. 

APPLICATION  of  algebra  qnd  geometry  to 
mechanics  is  founded  on  the  same  princi- 
ples as  the  application  of  algebra  to  geo- 
metry. It  consists  principally  in  respre- 
senting,  by  equations,  the  curves  describ- 
ed by  bodies  in  motion,  by  determining 
the  equation  between  the  spaces  which 
the  bodies  describe, when  actuated  by  any 
force,  and  the  times  employed  in  describ- 
ing them.  As  a  familiar  instance,  we  may 
refer  to  the  article  ACCELERATION,  where 
the  perpendiculars  of  triangles  represent 
the  times,  the  bases,  the  velocities,  and 
the  areas  the  spaces  described  by  bodies 
in  motion,  a  method  first  invented  by  Ga- 
lileo. As  lines  and  figures  may  be  treat- 
ed of  algebraically,  it  is  evident  in  what 
way  the  principles  of  geometry  and  al- 
gebra may  be  applied  to  mechanics,  and 
indeed  to  every  branch  of  mixt  mathe- 
matics. 

APPLICATION  of  mechanics  to  geometry, 
consists  in  the  use  that  is  made  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  figures,  for  determin- 
ing the  contents  of  solid  bodies  described 
by  those  figures. 

APPLICATION  of  geometry  and  astronomy 
to  geography,  consists  in  determining-  the 
figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  ;  in  de- 
termining the  positions  of  places  by  ob- 
servations of  latitudes  and  longitudes  ; 
and  in  determining,  by  geometrical  opera- 
tions, the  positions  of  such  places  as  are 
not  far  distant  from  one  another. 

APPLICATION  of  geometry  and  algebra  to 
natural  philosophy  was  invented  chiefly  by- 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  upon  this  applica- 
tion are  founded  all  the  mixed  sciences 
of  mathematical  and  natural  philosophy. 
Here  a  single  observation  or  experiment 
will  frequently  produce  a  whole  science, 
or  branch  of  science.  Thus,  when  it  is 
proved  by  experiment  that  the  rays  of 


APP 


APP 


light  in  reflecting,  make  the  angle  of  in- 
cidence equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection, 
we  deduce  the  whole  science  of  catop- 
trics ;  for,  this  fact  being  established,  ca- 
toptrics becomes  a  science  purely  geome- 
trical, since  it  is  reduced  to  the  compari- 
son of  angles  and  lines  given  in  position. 

APPOINTEE,  in  heraldry,  the  same  as 
aguisee  :  thus  we  say,  a  cross  appointee, 
to  signify  that  which  has  two  angles  at 
the  end  cut  off,  so  as  to  terminate  in 
points. 

APPORTIONMENT,  in  law,  the  divi- 
sion of  a  rent  into  parts,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  land  out  of  which  it  issues  is 
divided  :  for  example,  if  a  person  leases 
three  acres  of  land  for  a  certain  rent,  and 
afterwards  grants  away  one  acre  thereof 
to  another,  the  rent  shall  be  apportioned 
between  them. 

APPOSITION,  in  grammar  the  placing 
two  or  more  substantives  together  in  the 
same  case,  without  any  copulative  con- 
junction between  them ;  &s,ardebat  Alex- 
im  delicias  domini. 

APPRAISING,  the  valuing  or  setting  a 
price  on  goods.  This  is  usually  done  by 
a  sworn  appraiser,  who,  if  he  values  the 
goods  too  high  is  obliged  to  take  them  at 
the  price  appraised. 

APPREHENSION,  in  logic,  thefirstor 
most  simple  act  of  the  mind,  whereby  it 
perceives,  or  is  conscious  of  some  idea  : 
it  is  more  usually  called  preception. 

APPRENTICE,  a  young  person  bound 
by  indenture  to  some  tradseman,  in  order 
to  be  instructed,  in  the  mystery  or  trade. 
By  the  laws  of  England,  a  master  may  be 
indicted  for  not  providing  for,  or  for  turn- 
ing away,  his  apprentice  :  and  upon  com- 
plaint from  a  master,  that  he  neglects  his 
duty,  an  apprentice  may  be  committed  to 
Bridewell,  or  be  bound  over  to  the  ses- 
sions. Apprentices  may  be  bound  to  hus- 
bandmen,or  even  to  gentlemen  of  fortune 
and  clergymen,  who,  as  well  as  trades- 
men, arecompellableto  take  the  children 
of  the  poor,  under  a  penalty  of  10Z.  And 
the  church-wardens  and  overseers,  with 
the  consent  of  two  justices,  may  bind 
them  till  the  age  of  21  years.  Justices 
may  compel  certain  persons  under  age  to 
be  bound  apprentices,  and  on  refusal  may 
commit  them.  Apprentices  may  be  dis- 
charged on  reasonable  cause,  either  at 
their  own  request,  or  that  of  their  masters. 
If  any,  whose  premium  has  been  less  than 
ten  pounds,  run  away  from  their  masters, 
they  arecompellableto  serve  out  the  time 
of  absence,  or  give  satisfaction  for  it,  any 
period  within  seven  years  after  the  expi- 
ration of  the  original  contract.  Indentures 


are  to  be  stamped,  and  are  chargeable 
with  several  duties  by  act  of  parliament. 
APPRENTICESHIP,  denotes  the  ser- 
vitude of  an  apprentice,  or  the  duration  of 
his  indenture.  The  competition  in  seve- 
ral employments  is  restrained  to  a  smaller 
number  than  would  otherwise  be  disposed 
to  enter  into  them,  partly  by  the  limitation 
of  the  number  of  apprentices,  which  at- 
tends the  exclusive  privilege  of  incorpo- 
rated trades ;  and  partly  by  the  long  term 
of  apprenticeship,  which  increases  the  ex- 
pense of  education.  Seven  years  seem  for- 
merly to  have  been,  all  over  Europe,  the 
usual  term  established  for  the  duration  of 
apprenticeships  in  the  greater  number  of 
incorporated  trades.  Such  incorporations 
were  anciently  called  universities,  which 
is  the  proper  Latin  name  for  any  incorpo- 
ration whatever.  The  university  of  smiths, 
the  university  of  tailors,  &c.  are  expres- 
sions commonly  occurring  in  the  old  char- 
ters of  ancient  towns.  When  those  parti- 
cular incorporations,  which  are  now  pecu- 
liarly called  universities,  were  first  esta- 
blished, the  term  of  years  during  which  it 
was  necessary  to  study,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  appears  evi- 
dently to  have  been  copied  from  the  term 
of  apprenticeship  in  common  trades,  of 
which  the  incorporations  were  much  more 
ancient.  As  to  have  wrought  seven  years 
under  a  master,  properly  qualified,  was 
necessary  to  entitle  any  person  to  become 
a  master,  and  to  have  himself  apprentices, 
in  a  common  trade,  so  to  have  studied 
seven  years  under  a  master,  properly  qua- 
lified, was  necessary,  to  enitle  him  to  be- 
come a  master,  teacher,  or  doctor,  (words 
anciently  synonymous,)  to  study  under 
him.  By  the  5th  of  Elizabeth,  commonly 
called  the  statute  of  apprenticeship,  it  was 
enacted,  that  no  person  should  for  the  fu- 
ture exercise  any  trade,  craft,  or  mystery, 
at  that  time  exercised  in  England,  unless 
he  had  previously  served  to  it  an  appren- 
ticeship of  seven  years  at  least ;  and  thus, 
what  before  had  been  the  bye-law  of  ma- 
ny particular  corporations,  became  in 
England  the  general  and  public  law  of 
all  trades  carried  on  in  market-towns.  To 
country  villages  the  term  of  seven  years 
apprenticeship  doth  not  extend  $  but  the 
limitation  of  this  statute  to  trades  exer- 
cised before  it  was  passed  has  given  oc- 
casion to  several  distinctions,  which,  con- 
sidered as  rules  of  police,  appear  as  fool- 
ish as  can  well  be  imagined.  A  coach- 
maker,  for  instance,  has  no  right  to  make, 
or  employ  journeymen  for  making1  coach- 
wheels  :  but  he  must  buy  them  of  a  mas- 
ter wheel-right,  this  latter  trade  having- 


APPRENTICESHIP. 


been  exercised  in  England  before  the  5th 
of  Elizabeth.  But  a  wheel-wright,  though 
he  has  never  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
a  coachmaker,  may,  by  himself  or  jour- 
neyman, make  coaches,  because  this  trade, 
being  of  a  later  origin,  is  not  within  the 
statute.  Thus  also  the  manufactures  of 
Manchester,  Birmingham,  and  Wolver- 
hampton,  are,  many  of  them,  upon  this 
account,  not  within  the  statute,  not  having 
been  exercised  in  England  before  the  5th 
ofElizabeth. 

The  regulations  of  apprenticeship  in 
Ireland  are  upon  a  different  footing,  and 
somewhat  less  illiberal  than  in  England. 
Prohibitions,  similar  to  those  of  the  statute 
of  the  5th  Elizabeth,  obtain  in  all  cor- 
porate towns,  by  authority  of  bye-laws  of 
the  several  corporations  :  but  these  pro- 
hibitions extend  only  to  natives  of  Ireland; 
for,  by  a  regulation  made  by  the  lord  lieu- 
tenant and  privy-council,  having  in  this 
instance,  by  17  and  18  Car.  II.  the  force  of 
a  law,  all  foreigners  and  aliens,  as  well 
persons  of  other  religious  persuasions  as 
Protestants,  who  are  merchants,  traders, 
artificers,  &c.  shall,  upon  coming  to  reside 
in  a  city,  Availed  town,  or  corporation,  and 
paying  twenty  shillings,  by  way  of  fine, 
to  the  chief  magistrate  and  common- 
council,  or  other  persons  authorised  to 
admit  freemen,  be  admitted  to  the  free- 
dom of  that  city,  &c.  and  to  the  freedom 
of  guilds  of  their  respective  trades,  with 
the  full  enjoyment  of  all  privileges  of  buy- 
ing, selling,  working,  &c. ;  and  any  ma- 
gistrate refusing  to  admit  foreigners,  so 
applying,  shall  be  disfranchised. 

In  Scotland,  there  is  no  general  law 
which  regulates  universally  the  duration 
of  apprenticeships.  The  term  is  different 
in  different  corporations ;  where  it  is  long, 
a  part  of  it  may  generally  be  redeemed 
by  paying  a  small  fine.  In  most  towns, 
too,  a  very  small  fine  is  sufficient  to  pur- 
chase the  freedom  of  any  corporation. 
The  weavers  of  linen  and  hempen  cloth, 
the  principal  manufactures  of  the  country, 
as  well  as  all  other  artificers  subservient 
to  them,  wheel-makers,  reel-makers,  &c. 
may  exercise  their  trades  in  any  town  cor- 
porate, without  paying  any  fine.  In  all 
towns  corporate,  all  persons  are  free  to 
sell  butchers'  meat  upon  any  lawful  day 
of  the  week.  Three  years  are,  in  Scot- 
land, a  common  term  of  apprenticeship, 
in  some  very  nice  trades  ;  and,  in  general, 
there  is  no  country  in  Europe,  in  which 
corporation  laws  are  so  little  oppressive. 
In  France,  the  duration  of  apprenticeships 
is  different  in  different  towns,  and  in  dif- 
ferent trades.  In  Paris,  5  years  are  the 
term  required  in  a  great  number ;  and 


before  any  person  can  be  qualified  to  ex- 
ercise the  trade  as  a  master,  he  must,  in 
many  of  them,  serve  5  years  more  as  a 
journeyman.  During  this  latter  time,  he 
is  called  the  companion  of  his  master,  and 
the  term  itself  is  called  his  companionship. 
The  institution  of  long  apprenticeships, 
says  Dr.  Smith,  can  give  no  security  that 
insufficient  workmanship  shall  not  fre- 
quently be  exposed  to  sale  ;  nor  has  it  any 
tendency  to  form  young  people  to  indus- 
try. Apprenticeships  were  altogetherun- 
known  to  the  ancients  :  the  Roman  law  is 
perfectly  silent  with  regard  to  them. 
There  is  no  Greek  or  Latin  word,  which 
expresses  the  idea  we  now  annex  to  the 
word  apprentice. 

Long  apprenticeships  are  altogether 
unnecessary.  The  arts,  which  are  much 
superior  to  common  trades,  such  as  those 
of  making  clocks  and  watches,  contain  no 
such  mystery  as  to  require  a  long  course 
of  instruction.  In  the  common  mechanic 
trades,  the  lessons  of  a  few  days  might 
certainly  be  sufficient.  The  dexterity  of 
hand,  indeed,  even  in  common  trades,  can- 
not be  acquired  without  much  practice 
and  experience.  But  a  young  man  would 
practise  with  much  more  diligence  and  at- 
tention,if,  from  the  beginning,  he  wrought 
as  a  journeyman,  beingpaid  in  proportion 
to  the  little  work  which  he  could  execute, 
and  paying,  in  his  turn,  for  the  materials 
which  he  might  sometimes  spoil  through 
awkwardness  and  inexperience.  His  edu- 
cation would  generally  in  this  way  be  more 
effectual,  and  always  less  tedious  and  ex- 
pensive.  The  master,  indeed,  would  be 
a  loser;  he  would  lose  all  the  wages  of  the 
apprentice,  which  he  now  saves  for  seven 
years  together.  In  the  end,  perhaps,  the 
apprentice  himself  would  be  a  loser ;  in  a 
trade  so  easily  learnt  he  would  have  more 
competitors ;  and  his  wages,  when  he 
came  to  be  a  complete  workman,  would 
be  much  less  than  at  present.  The  same 
increase  of  competition  would  reduce  the 
profits  of  the  masters,  as  well  as  the  wa- 
ges of  the  workmen  :  the  trades,  the 
crafts,  the  mysteries,  would  all  be  losers  ; 
but  the  public  would  be  a  gainer,  the 
work  of  all  artificers  coming  in  this  way 
much  cheaper  to  market. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  article  better, 
than  by  inserting  an  admirable  paper  on 
the  subject  of  apprentice  laws,  drawn  up, 
and  printed  for  private  circulation,  by  a. 
gentleman  of  high  legal  authority,  and 
member  of  parliament,  entitled  "  A  few 
Opinions  of  some  great  and  good  Men, 
and  sound  Lawyers,  on  the  Apprentice 
Laws  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  applicable  to 
the  JEra  of  1806-7." 


APPRENTICESHIP. 


Lord  Mansfield,  in  his  arguments  on  the 
case,  Rcnnard  and  Chase,  brewers.  1 
Bur.  Rep.  p.  2,  says,  "Ithati.  been  well 
observed  that  this  act  (viz.  5  Eliz.  chap. 
4.)  is, 

1.  A  penal  law. 

2.  It  is  a  restraint  on  natural  right. 

3.  It  is  contrary  to  the  general  right 
given  by  the  common  law  of  this  kingdom. 

4.  The  policy  upon  which  this  act  was 
made  is  from  experience  become   doubt- 
ful.    Bad  and  unskilful  workmen  are  rare- 
ly prosecuted      This  act  was  made  early 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the 
great  number  of  manufacturers,  who  took 
refuge  in  England  after  the  duke  of  Alva's 
prosecution,  had  brought  trade  and  com- 
merce with  them,   and  enlarged  our  no- 
tions.    The  restraint  introduced   by  this 
law  was  thought  unfavourable  ;  and  the 
judges,  by  a  liberal  interpretation,  have 
extended  the  qualification  for  exercising 
the  trade  much  beyond  the  letter  of  it, 
and  confined  the  penalty  and  prohibition 
to  cases  precisely  within  the  express  let- 
ter." Burn's  Justice,  voLi.  Art.  Apprent. 

3d  Modern  Reports,  p.  217.  Judge  Dol- 
ben,  in  delivering  his  opinion,  said,  that 
"  No  encouragement  was  ever  given  to 
pi-osecutions  upon  the  statute  5  Eliz.  and 
that  it  would  be  for  the  common  good,  if 
it  were  repealed;  for  no  greater  punish- 
ment can  be  to  the  seller,  than  to  expose 
to  sale  goods  ill-wrought,  for  by  such 
means  he  will  never  sell  more." 

2  Salk.  613.  The  Queen  v  Maddox.— 
It  was  held  by  the  court,  "that  upon  in- 
dictments upon  the  statute  of  5  Eliz.  the 
following  of  a  trade  for  seven  years  to  be 
sufficient  without  any  holding  ;  this  being 
a  hard  law."  And  so  held  in  Lord  Ray- 
mond, 738. 

Burn's  Justice. — "So  detrimental  was 
this  statute  thought,  that  by  15  Car.  II.  all 
persons  spinning  or  making  cloth  of  hemp, 
or  flax,  or  nets  for  fishing,  or  storin,  or 
cordage,  might  exercise  those  trades  with- 
out serving  apprenticeships.  And  so  little 
did  the  legislature,  at  subsequent  periods, 
think  that  any  benefit  was  to  be  derived 
from  the  statute  of  5  Eliz.  or  that  manu- 
factures were  made  better,  or  improved 
by  this  restraint ;  and  the  minds  of  men 
being  more  liberal,  that  trade  should,  as 
much  as  possible,  be  flung  open  ;  it  is 
enacted  by  6  and  7  William  III.  that  any 
apprentice  discovering  two  persons  guilty 
of  coining,  so  as  they  are  convicted,  shall 
be  deemed  a  freeman,  and  may  exercise 
his  trade  as  if  he  had  served  out  his  time." 

And,  in  order  still  stronger  to  shew  how 
little  the  legislature  esteemed  the  seven 
years  binding  ameliorated  manufactures, 


it  is  enacted,  by  3  George  III.  cap.  8,  that 
**  All  officers,  marines,  and  soldiers,  who 
have  been  employed  in  his  majesty's  ser- 
vice, and  not  deserted,  may  exercise 
such  trades  as  they  are  apt  for,  in  any 
town  or  place." 

So  dangerous  and  fatal  has  been  the  evil 
of  combinations  snd  conspiracies  among 
journeymen,  that  in  particular  instances, 
as  in  trades  where  many  hands  are  requir- 
ed and  very  little  skill,  as  dyeing,  and 
such  like,  the  legislature  have  made  ex- 
press laws  to  give  relief  to  masters.  See 
17  Geo.  III.  cap.  33.;  which  enables  dyers, 
in  Middlesex,  Essex,  Surrey,  and  Kent,  to 
employ  journeymen  who  have  not  served 
apprenticeships.  And  to  such  a  pitch  has 
this  mischief  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire increased,  by  the  conspiracies  facili- 
tated by  the  act  of  5  Eliz.  that  it  goes  to 
the  total  annihilation  of  our  staple  manu- 
factures, and  every  other  trade  which 
hopes  for  success,  not  only  by  the  home, 
but  from  foreign  consumption.  Seethe 
report  from  the  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  on  the  woollen  trade  and 
manufacture  of  these  kingdoms,  made  in 
the  last  session  of  parliament,  4th  July. 
1806. 

After  stating  the  above,  let  us  quote  the 
words  of  the  immortal  Lord  Chief  Justice 
Coke  on  this  poin+. — "  That,  at  the  com- 
mon law,  no  man  could  be  prohibited 
from  working  in  any  lawful  trade  :  for  the 
law  abhors  idleness,  the  mother  of  all  evil 
— Otium  omninm  vitiorum  matei* — and  espe- 
cially in  young  men,  who  ought  in  their 
youth  (which  is  their  seed  time)  to  learn 
lawful  sciences  and  trades,  which  are  pro- 
fitable to  the  commonwealth,  whereof 
they  might  reap  the  benefit  in  their  old 
age  :  for  '  idle  in  youth,  poor  in  age.'  " 

And  therefore  the  common  law  abhors 
all  monopolies,  which  prohibit  any  from 
working  in  any  lawful  trade.  And  that 
appears  in  2  Hen.  V.  5  b.  A  dyer  was 
bound  not  to  use  the  dyer's  craft  for  two 
years:  and  there  Judge  Hall  held  "that 
the  bond  was  against  the  common  law  : 
and  by  G— d,  if  the  plaintiff  was  here,  he 
should  go  to  prison  till  he  paid  a  fine  to 
the  king."  And  vide  7  Edw.  III.  65  b. 
"  And,  if  he  who  takes  upon  himself  to 
work  is  unskilful,  his  ignorance  is  a  suffi- 
cient punishment  to  him,  for  imperitia  eat 
maxima  mecanicontm  pcena ,-  et  quilibet  guce- 
rit  in  qualibet  arte  peritos  :  which  is,  '  that 
want  of  skill  is  the  greatest  punishment  of 
mechanics  ;  for  every  body  will  employ 
those  that  are  the  best  skilled  in  their  bu- 
siness.' And  if  any  one  takes  upon  him- 
self to  work,  and  spoils  it,  an  action  on 
the  case  lies  against  him." 


APP 


APP 


Having  observed  thus  much,  and  stated 
the  opinions  of  two  such  great  men  as 
Lord  Coke  and  Lord  Mansfield,  we  can 
only  add  one  dixit  of  Lord  Coke's,  that 
"  acts  of  parliament,  which  are  made 
against  the  freedom  of  trade,  merchan- 
dizing, handicrafts,  and  mysteries,  never 
live  long."  4th  Inst.  31. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  this  very  great 
check  upon  trade,  by  not  being  able  to 
employ  any  hands  that  are  able  to  perform 
the  work  required,  and  especially  in  those 
trades  which  are  so  easily  learnt  in  a  very 
short  space  of  time,  greatly  enhances  the 
prices  of  all  articles,  and  that  at  a  time 
when  population  is  daily  increasing,  and 
the  demand  proportionably  increasing. 
And  this  statute  is  not  only  a  restraining 
statute,  but  also  an  enabling  statute,  as  it 
empowers  the  workmen  to  enter  into 
combinations  against  their  masters,  and  to 
dictate  their  own  terms,  encouraging 
vice,  idleness,  and  drunkenness;  demands 
being  made  on  the  masters  for  an  increase 
of  wages ;  those  demands  supported  by 
dangerous  combinations  and  conspiracies, 
and  extorted  by  threats.  And  such  in- 
crease, when  obtained,  not  applied  for  the 
wholesome  purpose  of  supporting  them- 
selves and  their  families,  but  to  that  very 
destructive  purpose,  ruinous  to  their  fa- 
milies, and  highly  detrimental  to  the  pub- 
lic at  large,  the  enabling  of  the  parties  to 
spend  more  days  of  the  week  in  idleness, 
drunkenness,  vice,  and  immorality.  In 
many  manufactures,  so  much  money  is 
extorted  by  the  journeymen,  by  means  of 
these  combinations,  from  their  employ- 
ers, that  the  journeymen  will  work  but 
three  days  in  the  week ;  so  that  600  are 
necessarily  required  to  do  the  work  that 
300  might  do. 

Until  these  laws,  restricting  the  binding 
of  apprentices,  are  repealed,  all  laws  made 
for  the  prevention  of  combinations  among 
workmen  can  be  of  no  avail,  and  will  re- 
main a  dead  letter  in  the  law  books:  as  in 
this  free  country,  (however  that  freedom 
may  be  limited  as  to  the  checking  of  mas- 
ters binding  apprentices,)  no  law  on  this 
point  can  be  so  worded,  that  the  art,  wick- 
edness, and  ingenuity  of  men,  will  not 
contrive  to  defeat.  A  bad  and  absurd  law 
is  made,  viz.  the  "ApprenticeAct,"  which, 
by  the  extension  of  trade,  is  found  detri- 
mental to  trade;  and  then,  to  do  away  the 
mischiefs  of  that  law,  another  absurd  law 
is  made,  viz.  the  law  to  prevent  combina- 
tion,— so  that  mischief  is  heaped  upon 
mischief,  and  absurdity  upon  absurdity. 
Trade  should  be  as  free  as  the  air  we 
breathe.  This  is  an  axiom,  the  truth  of 
which  every  day  convinces  us. 

VOL.  I. 


APPROACHES,  in  fortification,  the 
works  thrown  up  by  the  besiegers,  in  or- 
der to  get  nearer  afortress,  without  being 
exposed  to  the  enemy's  cannon  :  such,  in 
a  more  particular  manner,  are  the  trench- 
es, which  should  be  connected  by  paral- 
lels, or  lines  of  communication. 

This  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  a  siege, 
and  where  most  lives  are  lost.  The 
ground  is  disputed  inch  by  inch,  and  it  b 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  make  the  ap- 
proaches with  great  caution,  and  to  se- 
cure them  as  much  as  possible. 

The  besieged  frequently  make  coun- 
ter-approaches, to  interrupt  and  defeat 
the  enemy's  approaches. 

APPROPRIATION,  the  annexing  a 
benefice  to  the  proper  and  perpetual  use 
of  a  religious  house,  bishopric,  college, 
&c.  Where  the  king  is  patron,  he  may 
make  appropriations  himself;  but  in 
other  cases,  after  obtaining  his  licence  in 
chancery,  the  consent  of  the  ordinary, 
patron,  and  incumbent,  is  requisite.  Ap- 
propriations cannot  be  assigned  over, 
but  those  to  whom  they  are  granted  may 
make  leases  of  the  profits.  There  are  in 
England  2845  impropriations. 

APPROVER,  in  law,  a  person,  who, 
being  indicted  of  treason  or  felony,  for 
which  he  is  not  in  prison,  confesses  the 
indictment  :  and  being  sworn  to  reveal  all 
the  treasons  and  felonies  he  knows,  en- 
ters before  the  coroner  his  appeal  against 
all  his  partners  in  the  crime.  All  per- 
sons may  be  approvers,  except  peers  of 
the  realm,  persons  attainted  of  treason  or 
felony,  orout-lawed,  infants,  women,  per- 
sons non  compos^  or  in  holy  orders. 

APPROXIMATION,  in  arithmetic  and 
algebra,  the  coming  nearer  and  nearer  to 
a  root,  or  other  quantity  sought,  without 
expecting  to  be  ever  able  to  find  it  ex- 
actly. There  are  several  methods  for 
doing  this,  to  be  found  in  mathematical 
books,  being  nothing  but  infinitely  con- 
verging series,  some  approaching  quick- 
er, others  slower,  towards  the  truth. 

By  such  an  approximation  the  value  of  a 
quantity  may  be  found,  though  not  to  the, 
utmost  degree  of  exactness,  yet  sufficiently 
so  for  practice.  Thus  v/  2  =  1.41421356, 
&c.  =  the  approximating  series  1  -}- 

T4o  +  T^o  +  To4**  +  -,*&*  +'  &c'.or 
supposing  x  =  _^,  equal  to  the  senes 


.,       . 

Again,  supposing  a2-\-b  to  be  a  non-qua- 
drate number,  and  aS-^-b  to  be  a  non- 
cubic  one  ;  then  will  */  a-  +  b  =  a  -f- 

O  o 


APT 


APT 


ab 


,  and 


4-  b  =  a 


"There  is  a  general  method  of  investi- 
gating  the  value  of  such  series,  for  which 
see  SERIES. 

APPULSE,  in  astronomy,  the  approach 
of  a  planet  towards  a  conjunction  with 
the  sun,  or  any  of  the  fixed  stars.  The 
appulses  of  the  planets  to  the  fixed  stars 
have  always  been  of  great  use  to  astrono- 
mers, in  order  to  fix  the  places  of  the 
former.  The  ancients,  wanting  an  easy 
method  of  comparing  the  planets  with 
the  ecliptic,  which  is  not  visible,  had 
scarce  any  other  way  of  fixing  their  situa- 
tions, but  by  observing  their  tract  among 
the  fixed  stars,  and  remarking  their  ap- 
pulses to  some  of  those  visible  points.  Dr. 
Halley  has  published  a  method  of  deter- 
mining the  places  of  the  planets,  by  ob- 
serving their  near  appulses  to  the  fixed 
stars. 

APPURTENANCES,  in  common  law, 
signify  things  corporeal  and  incorporeal, 
that  appertain  to  another  thing  as  princi- 
pal ;  as  hamlets  to  a  manor,  and  common 
of  pasture  and  fishery.  Things  must  agree 
in  nature  and  quality  to  be  appurtenant, 
as  a  turbary,  or  a  seat  in  a  church,  to  a 
house. 

APRICOT,  in  botany,  a  species  of  pru- 
nus,  with  rosaceous  flowers,  and  a  deli- 
cious fleshy  fruit,  of  a  roundish  figure. 
See  PRUJTCS. 

APRON,  in  gunnery,  the  piece  of  lead 
which  covers  the  touch-hole  of  a  cannon. 

The  dimensions  of  aprons  are  as  fol- 
low :  viz.  for  42,  32,  and  24  pounders,  15 
inches  by  13  ;  for  18,  12,  and  9  pounders, 
12  inches  by  10  ;  and  for  cannon  of  less 
calibre,  10  inches  by  8.  They  are  tied  by 
two  strings  of  white  marline. 

APSIS,  in  astronomy,  a  term  used  indif- 
ferently for  either  of  the  two  points  of  a 
planet's  orbit,  where  it  is  at  the  greatest 
or  least  distance  from  the  sun  or  earth. 
Hence  the  line  connecting  these  points  is 
called  the  line  of  the  apsides. 

APTENODYTES,  in  ornithology,  pen- 
guin, a  genus  of  the  order  Anseres.  The 
bill  is  straight,  rather  compressed,  and 
sharp  along  the  edges;  the  upper  mandi- 
ble is  obliquely  sulcated,  lengthwise ;  feet 
palnuted,  shackled  ;  wings  fin-shaped, 
and  without  quill-feathers ;  feet  fettered, 
four-toed.  This  genus  resembles  the  alca 
in  colour,  food,  stupidity,  eggs,  nes-,  po- 
sitions of  legs  behind  the  equilibrium,  and 
consequent  erect  posture.  They  are  to- 


tally unfit  for  flight,  but  swim  dexteroush 
nostrils  linear,  hid  in  the  groove  of  the. 
bill,  palate  as  well  as  the  tongue  beset 
with  a  few  rows  of  conic,  retroflected, 
stiff  papillae ;  wings  covered  with  a  strong 
broad  membrane  ;  tail  short,  wedged,  the 
feathers  very  rigid.  There  are  nine  spe- 
cies according  to  Latham,  but  Gmelin 
enumerates  eleven. 

This  genus  of  birds  seems  to  hold  the 
same  place,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
world  as  the  awks  do  in  the  northern, 
and  are  by  no  means  to  be  confounded 
the  one  with  the  other,  however  authors 
may  differ  in  opinion  in  respect  to  this 
matter.  The  penguin  is  seen  only  in  the 
temperate  and  frigid  zones,  on  that  side  of 
the  equator  which  it  frequents  ;  and  the 
same  is  observed  of  the  awk  in  the  oppo- 
site latitudes  ;  and  neither  of  the  genera 
has  yet  been  observed  within  the  tropics. 
The  awk  has  true  wings  and  quills,  though 
small;  the  penguin  mere  fins  only,  instead 
of  wings.  This  last  has  four  toes  on  each 
foot ;  but  the  fofmer  only  three.  The 
penguin,  while  swimming,  sinks  quite 
above  the  breast ;  the  head  and  neck  only 
appearing  out  of  the  water,  rowing  itself 
along  with  its  finny  wings,  as  with  oars ; 
while  the  awk,  in  common  with  most 
other  birds,  swims  on  the  surface.  Seve- 
ral other  circumstances  peculiar  to  each 
might  be  mentioned ;  but  we  trust  the 
above  will  prove  fully  sufficient  to  charac- 
terize this  genus.  The  bodies  of  the  pen- 
guin tribe  are  commonly  so  well  and 
closely  covered  with  feathers,  that  no  wet 
can  penetrate  ;  and  as  they  are  in  general 
excessively  fat,  these  circumstances  unit- 
ed secure  them  from  the  cold.  They  have 
often  been  found  above  seven  hundred 
leagues  from  land  ;  and  frequently  on  the 
mountains  of  ice,  on  which  they  seem  to 
ascend  without  difficulty,  as  the  soles  of 
their  feet  are  very  rough,  and  suited  to 
the  purpose. 

Aptenodytes  antarctica,  is  full  25  inches 
long,  and  weighs  eleven  or  twelve  pounds: 
it  inhabits  the  south  sea  from  48°  to  the 
antarctic  circle,  and  is  frequently  found 
on  the  ice  mountains  and  islands  on  which 
it  ascends.  It  is  a  numerous  tribe  ;  and 
they  were  found  in  great  plenty  in  the 
Isle  of  Desolation. 

The  black-footed  penguin  is  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  but  particularly  in  Robbean  or  Pen- 
guin Isles,  near  Saldanic  Bay.  Like  all  the 
genus,  this  is  an  excellent  swimmer  and 
diver;  but  hops  and  flutters  in  a  strange 
and  aukward  manner  on  the  land,  and,  if 
hurried,  stumbles  perpetually  ;  and  fre- 
quently runs  for  some  distance  like  a  qua- 


APTENODYTES. 


imped,  making  use  of  the  wings  instead 
ef  legs,  till  it  can  recover  its  upright 
posture  ;  crying  out  at  the  same  time  like 
a  goose,  but  in  a  much  hoarser  voice.  It 
is  said  to  clamber  some  way  up  the  rocks 
in  order  to  make  a  nest,  in  doing  which 
it  has  been  observed  to  be  assisted  with 
the  bill.  The  eggs  are  two,  and  esteemed 
at  the  Cape  very  delicious. 

Aptenodytes  chrysocome.  This  beauti- 
ful species  measures  twenty-three  inches 
in  length.  The  bill  is  thre'e  inches  long ; 
the  colour  of  it  red,  with  a  dark  rurrow 
running  along  on  each  side  to  the  tip  ; 
the  upper  mandible  is  curved  at  the  end, 
the  under  obtuse;  irides  of  a  dull  red; 
the  head,  neck,  back,  and  sides  are  black; 
over  each  eye  a  stripe  of  pale  yellow  fea- 
thers, which  lengthens  into  a  crest  be- 
hind, of  near  four  inches  in  length  t  the 
feathers  on  each  side  of  the  head,  above 
this  stripe,  are  longer  than  the  rest,  and 
stand  upward,  while  those  of  the  crest  are 
decumbent,  but  can  be  erected  on  each 
side  at  will ;  the  wings,  or  rather  fins,  are 
black  on  the  outside,  edged  with  white  ; 
on  the  inside  white  ;  the  breast,  and  all 
the  under  parts,  white ;  the  legs  are 
orange  ;  claws  dusky.  The  female  has  a 
streak  of  pale  yellow  over  the  eye,  but  it 
is  not  prolonged  into  a  crest  behind  as  in 
the  male.  Inhabits  Falkland's  Islands, 
and  was  likewise  met  with  in  Kir^uelin's 
Land,  or  Isle  of  Desolation,  as  well  as  at 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  New  Holland, 
particularly  in  Adventure  Bay.  Are  call- 
ed Hopping  Penguins  and  Jumping  Jacks, 
from  their  action  of  leaping  quite  out  of 
the  water,  on  meeting  with  the  least  ob- 
stacle, for  three  or  four  feet  at  least ;  and 
indeed,  without  any  seeming  cause,  do  the 
same  frequently,  appearing  chiefly  to  ad- 
vance by  that  means.  This  species  seems 
to  have  a  greater  air  of  liveliness  in  its 
countenance  than  others,  yet  is  in  fact  a 
very  stupid  bird,  so  much  so,  as  to  suffer 
itself  to  be  knocked  on  the  head  with  a 
stick,  when  on  land,  When  angered,  it 
erects  its  crest  in  a  beautiful  manner. 
These  birds  make  their  nests  among  those 
of  the  pelican  tribe,  living  in  tolerable 
harmony  with  them,  and  lay  seldom  more 
than  one  egg,  which  is  white,  and  larger 
than  that  of  a  duck.  They  are  mostly 
seen  by  themselves,  seldom  mixing  with 
other  penguins,  and  often  met  with  in 
great  numbers  on  the  outer  shores,  where 
they  have  been  bred.  Are  frequently  so 
regardless  as  to  suffer  themselves  to  be 
taken  by  the  hand.  The  females  of  this 
species  lay  their  eggs  in  burrows,  which 
they  easily  form  of  themselves  with  their 
bills,  throwing  out  the  dirt  with  their  feet. 


In  these  holes  the  eggs  are  deposited  on 
the  bare  earth.  The  general  time  of  sitting 
is  in  October ;  but  some  of  the  species, 
especially  in  the  colder  parts,  do  not  sit 
till  December,  or  even  January.  How 
long  they  sit  is  not  known. 

Aptenodytes  magellanica,  inhabits  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  Staaten  Land,  Terra 
del  Fuego,  and  the  Falkland  isles;  is  a 
very  numerous  species,  and  is  often  seen 
by  thousands,  retiring  by  night  to  the 
highest  parts  of  the  islands.  Its  voice  is 
not  much  unlike  the  braying  of  an  ass. 
It  is  not  a  timid  bird,  for  it  will  scarcely 
get  out  of  the  way  of  any  one  ;  but  will 
rather  attack  and  bite  a  person  by  the  legs . 
They  were  killed  by  hundreds  by  the 
crews  of  Captain  Cooke's  expedition,  and 
were  found  not  unpalatable  food.  They 
often  mix  with  the  sea-wolves,,  among  the 
rushes,  burrowing  in  holes  like  a  fox. 
When  they  swim,  only  the  neck  and 
shoulders  appear  out  of  the  water,  and 
they  advance  with  such  agility,  that  no  fish 
seems  able  to  follow  them  ;  if  they  meet 
with  any  obstacle,  they  leap  four  or  five 
feet  out  of  the  water ;  and  dipping  into  it 
again  continue  their  rout.  It  is  suppos- 
ed by  Latham  that  Penrose  alludes  to  this 
species,  of  which,  he  says  the  chief  curi- 
osity is  the  laying  their  eggs  ;  this  they 
do  in  collective  bodies,  resorting  in  in- 
credible numbers  to  certain  spots,  which 
their  long  residence  has  freed  from  grass, 
and  to  which  were  given  the  name  of 
towns.  The  eggs  are  rather  larger  than 
those  of  a  goose,  and  are  laid  in  pairs. 
They  lay  some  time  in  November,driving 
away  the  albatrosses,  which  have  hatched 
their  young  in  turn  before  them. 

Aptenodytes  patachonica.  This  is  the 
largest  of  the  genus  yet  known,  being  four 
feet  three  inches  in  length  ;  and  stands 
erect  at  least  three  feet ;  the  weight  forty 
pounds.  This  species  was  first  met  with 
in  Falkland  Islands,  and  has  also  been  seen 
in  Kerguelen's  Land,  New  Georgia,  and 
New  Guinea.  M.  Bougainville  caught  one 
which  soon  became  so  tame  as  to  follow 
and  know  the  person  who  had  care  of  it ; 
it  fed  on  flesh,  fish,  and  bread,  but  after  a 
time  grew  lean,  pined  away,  and  died. 
The  chief  food,  when  at  large,  is  thought 
to  be  r-sh  ;  the  remains  of  which,  as  well 
as  crabs,  shell-fish,  and  molluscx,  were 
found  in  the  stomach.  This  species  is  the 
fattest  of  the  tribe  ;  most  so  in  January, 
when  they  moult.  Supposed  to  lay  and 
sit  in  October.  Are  met  with  in  the  most 
deserted  places.  Their  flesh  is  black, 
though  not  very  unpalatable.  This  has 
been  considered  as  a  solitary  species,  but 
has  now  and  then  been  wet  wifh  in  con 


/H">      0?  Tl 


APT 


APU 


siderable  flocks.  They  are  found  in  the 
same  places  as  the  papuan  penguins,  and 
not  unfrequently  mixed  with  them;  but  in 
general  show  a  disposition  of  associating 
with  their  own  species.  See  Plate  III. 
Aves.  fig.  6. 

AFTER  A,  in  the  Linnaean  system  of 
zoology,  the  seventh  and  last  order  of  in- 
sects, the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
which  is,  that  the  insects  comprehended 
in  it  have  no  wings.  Of  this  order  there 
are  three  divisions.  In  A.  the  insects  are 
distinguished  by  having  six  legs ;  head 
distinct  from  the  thorax :  there  are  five 
genera ;  viz.  the 


Lepisma, 

Pediculus, 

Podura, 


Pulex, 
Termes. 


In  the  division  B,  the  insects  have  from 
8  to  14  legs ;  head  and  thorax  united :  of 
these  there  are  eight  genera ;  viz.  the 


Acarus, 
Aranea, 
Cancer, 
Hydrancha, 


Monoculus, 
Oniscus, 
Phalangium, 
Scorpio. 


In  the  division  C,  the  legs  are  nume- 
rous ;  head  distinct  from  the  thorax  ;  of 
which  there  are  two  species  ;  viz.  the 

Julus,  and 
Scolopendra. 

This  order  comprehends  all  kinds  of 
spiders,  the  lice  of  different  animals,  scor- 
pions, and  crabs.  Upon  these  we  may 
make  a  few  general  observations.  The 
nets  spread  out  by  spiders,  to  catch  their 
prey,  are  composed  of  similar  materials  to 
the  silk  of  the  silk-worm,  and  are  also 
spun  from  the  animal's  body.  The  cob- 
webs of  the  gossamer  are  frequently  seen 
floating  in  the  air  in  a  sunny  day,  and  are 
sometimes  so  abundant  as  to  fall  in  show- 
ers. Each  of  these  has  been  compared  to 
a  balloon  transporting  the  little  aeronaut 
that  formed  it,  by  means  of  its  specific 
lightness.  This  species  of  spider  attach- 
ing its  first  formed  thread  to  the  leaf  or 
branch  of  a  tree,  by  dropping  to  a  certain 
distance  lengthens  it,  then  climbs  up  the 
thread,  and  dropping  again,  draws  out 
another,  and  so  on,  till  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  this  silk  is  formed  to  buoy  ihe  spi- 
der up  in  the  air.  He  then  separates  the 
\\hoit-  from  the  leaf,  and  running  down  to 
his  seat  at  the  bottom,  trusts  himself  and 
his  balluon  to  the  Mercy  of  the  wind.  Ma- 
ny species  of  spiders  effect  the  same  thing 


by  attaching  themselves  to  an  eminence 
by  their  claws,  and  after  ejecting  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  web,  which  is  wafted  on- 
wards by  the  wind,  they  suddenly  relax 
the  hold,  and  appear  to  spring  into  the 
air.  By  this  method  these  animals  are 
transported  from  tree  to  tree,  and  from 
wood  to  wood,  in  search  of  food.  The 
cobwebs  that  are  spread  over  the  surface 
of  the  grass,  and  that  offer  so  beautiful  an 
object  to  the  eye  early  in  the  summer's 
morning,  through  the  brilliancy  of  the 
dew-drops  formed  and  suspended  on  their 
silken  threads,  and  the  reflexion  of  the 
sun's  rays  from  each,  are  the  work  of 
another  species  of  spiders. 

The  different  kinds  of  lice  are  exceed- 
ingly numerous,  almost  every  kind  of  ani- 
mal having  its  particular  sort  of  vermin. 
They  are  all  carnivorous,  or  perhaps  ra- 
ther sanguivorous  insects,  living  on  the 
blood  of  other  animals.  Their  eggs  are 
all  nits.  The  Scorpio  genus  abound  in 
hot  climates,  and  are  troublesome  in  ne- 
glected places,  and  where  cleanliness  is 
not  attended  to.  The  crab  tribes  cast  their 
shells  every  year,  and  are  then  in  a  soft, 
helpless  state,  unable  to  make  resistance, 
and  therefore  at  that  time  become  the 
prey  of  many  kinds  offish,  when  not  pro- 
vided with  a  guardian.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  that  the  edible  crab  of  the  United 
States,  when  in  this  state  of  imbecility, 
places  itself,  for  security,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  one  of  its  own  species  whose 
shell  is  hard  and  firm.  This  confidence  is 
never  misplaced ;  his  protector  defends 
him  against  every  assault  at  the  risk  of 
his  own  life  or  limbs  and  even  when 
taken  in  the  net,  and  thrown  on  shore,  is 
still  firmly  held  by  his  faithful  companion. 
Their  shells,  but  more  especially  those  of 
the  class  testacea,  afford  a  principal  con- 
stituent in  the  formation  of  chalk-beds, 
and  beds  of  marl,  which  are  formed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  Specimens  of  entire 
shells  are  frequently  met  with  in  chalk- 
pits which  are  now  many  miles  inland ; 
and  there  is  little  doubt  that,  in  a  commi- 
nuted state,  they  form  a  principal  ingredi- 
ent in  most  calcareous  earth.  Under  each 
genus  will  be  found  an  account  of  a  few 
of  the  more  remarkable  species.  See 
ACARUS,  ARANEA,  CANCER,  SCORPIO,  &c. 

APUS,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  of 
the  southern  hemisphere,  placed  near  the 
pole,  between  the  Triangulum  Australe 
and  the  Chameleon,  supposed  to  repre- 
sent the  bird  oi  paradise.  There  are  four 
stars  of  the  sixth,  three  of  the  fifth,  and 
four  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  in  the  con- 
stellation Apus.  Dr.  Haley,  in  1677,  ob- 


AQU 

served  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  the 
stars  in  A  pus,  which  Hevelius  in  his  pro- 
dromus  reduced  with  some  alteration  to 
the  year  1700.  P.  Noel  has  also  given  the 
places  of  these  stars,  with  their  right  as- 
censions and  declinations  for  the  year 
1687,  but  his  observations  differ  widely 
from  those  of  Dr.  Halley.  Hevelius  has 
represented  the  figure  of  Apus,  and  its 
stars,  in  his  Firmamentum  Sobiescianum, 
according  to  Halley's  account ;  Noel  has 
done  the  like,  according  to  his  own  ac- 
count. Wolfius,  with  what  justice  we 
will  not  pretend  to  say,  gives  the  prefer- 
ence to  this  last. 

AQUA  fortis.  Another  name  for  NI- 
TRIC ACID,  which  see.  This  name  is  ap- 
plied to  denote  the  common  nitric  acid 
used  by  workmen,  which  often  contains  a 
slight  portion  of  muriatic  acid.  See  CHE- 
MISTRY. 

AQ.UA  res-la,  another  name  for  the  nitro 
muriatic  acid.  See  MURIATIC  ACID. 

AQUJEDUCT,  a  conduit  of  -water,  in 
architecture  and  hydraulics,  is  a  construc- 
tion of  stone  or  timber,  built  on  an  un- 
even ground,  to  preserve  the  level  of  wa- 
ter, and  convey  it,  by  a  canal,  from  one 
place  to  another.  Some  of  these  aque- 
ducts are  visible,  and  others  subterrane- 
ous. Those  of  the  former  sort  are  con- 
structed at  a  great  height,  across  vallies 
and  marshes,  and  supported  by  piers  and 
ranges  of  arches.  The  latter  are  formed 
by  piercing  the  mountains,  and  construct- 
ing them  below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
They  are  built  of  stone,  brick,  &c.  and 
covered  above  with  vaulted  roofs  or  flat 
stones,  serving  to  shelter  the  water  from 
the  sun  and  rain.  Of  these  aqueducts 
some  are  double,  and  others  triple  ;  that 
is,  supported  on  two  or  three  ranges  of 
arches.  Of  the  latter  kind  are  the  Pout- 
'clu-garcl,  in  Languedoc,  supposed  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Romans  to  carry  water 
to  the  city  of  Nismes;  that  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  that  which,  according  to  Pro- 
copius,  was  constructed  by  Cosroes,  King 
of  Persia,  near  Petra,  in  Mingrelia,  and 
which  had  three  conduits  in  the  same  di- 
rection, each  elevated  above  the  other. 
Some  of  these  aqueducts  were  paved, 
and  others  conveyed  the  water  through  a 
natural  channel  of  clay  :  and  it  was  fre- 
quently conducted  by  pipes  of  lead  into 
reservoirs  of  the  same  metal,  or  into 
troughs  of  hewn  stone.  Aquxducts  of 
every  kind  were  reckoned  among  the 
wonders  of  ancient  Rome :  their  great 
number,  and  the  immense  expense  of 
bringing  water  30,  40,  or  60,  and  even  100 
miles,  either  upon  continued  arches,  or 
by  means  of  other  works,  when  it  was 


AQU 

necessary  to  penetrate  mountains  and 
rocks,  may  well  astonish  us.  If  we  con- 
sider the  incredible  quantity  of  water 
broyght  to  Rome  for  the  uses  of  the  pub- 
lic, for  fountains,  baths,  fish-ponds,  pri- 
vate houses,  gardens,  and  country-seats ; 
if  we  represent  to  ourselves  the  arches 
constructed  at  a  great  expense,  and  car- 
ried on  through  a  long  distance,  moun- 
tains levelled,  rocks  cut  through,  and 
vallies  filled  up,  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  there  is  nothing  in  the  whole  world 
more  wonderful.  For  440  years,  the  Ro- 
mans contented  themselves  with  the  wa- 
ters of  the  Tiber,  and  of  the  wells  and 
fountains  in  the  city  and  its  neighbour- 
hood. But  when  the  number  of  houses 
and  inhabitants  was  considerably  aug- 
mented, they  were  obliged  to  bring  water 
from  remote  places  by  means  of  aque- 
ducts. Even  Tiberius,  Claudius,  Caligula, 
and  Caraccalla,  though  in  other  respects 
not  of  the  best  character,  took  "care  of  the 
city  in  this  useful  article.  There  are  still 
to  be  seen  in  the  country  about  Rome 
wonderful  remains  of  the  ancient  aquae- 
ducts,  some  elevated  above  the  ground  by 
arches  continued  and  raised  one  above 
the  other,  and  others  subterraneous,  pass- 
ing through  rocks ;  such  is  that  seen  at 
Vicovaro,  beyond  Tivoli,  in  which  a  canal 
pierces  a  rock  to  the  extent  of  more  than 
a  mile,  and  about  five  feet  deep  and  four 
broad.  At  certain  distances  vents  were 
provided,  so  that  the  water  which  was 
accidentally  obstructed  in  its  passage, 
might  be  discharged  till  its  ordinary  pas- 
sage was  cleared  ;  and  in  the  canal  of  the 
aqueduct  itself  there  were  cavities,  into 
which  the  water  was  precipitated,  and 
where  it  remained  till  its  mud  was  depo- 
sited ;  and  ponds,  in  which  it  might  purify 
itself.  In  the  construction  of  these  aquae- 
ducts,  there  was  a  considerable  variety : 
that  called  the  Aqua  Martia,  had  an  arch 
of  sixteen  feet  in  diameter;  it  was  con- 
structed of  three  kinds  of  stone,  and  was 
formed  with  two  canals,  one  above  the 
other.  The  most  elevated  was  supplied 
by  the  waters  of  the  Tiverone  and  Anio- 
novus  ;  the  lowest  by  the  Claudian  water. 
The  entire  edifice  was 70  Romanfeet  high. 
The  arch  of  the  aqueduct,  which  brought 
to  Rome  the  Claudian  water,  wras  con- 
structed of  beautiful  hewn  stone.  This  is 
represented  by  Pliny  as  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  that  had  been  built  for  the  use  ot" 
Rome.  It  conveyed  the  water  through  a 
vaulted  canal,  through  the  distance  of  40 
miles,  and  was  so  high,  that  it  sup, 
the  hills  of  the  city.  According  to  him,  and 
the  computation  of  Budseus,  the  charge  of 
this  work  amounted  to  1,385,500  crowns. 


AQU 


AQU 


This  aqueduct  wus  begun  by  Caligula, 
and  finished  by  Claudius,  who  brought 
its  waters  from  two  springs,  called  Cxru- 
leus  and  Curtius.  Vespasian,  Titus,  Mar- 
cus Aurelius,  and  Antoninus  Pius,  repair- 
ed and  extended  it :  it  is  now  called  Aqua 
Felice.  The  three  chief  aqueducts  now 
in  being  are  those  of  the  Aqua  Virginea, 
Aqua  Felice,  and  Aqua  Paulina.  The  first 
was  repaired  by  Pope  Paul  IV.  The  se- 
cond was  constructed  by  Pope  Sixtus  V. 
and  is  called  from  the  name  which  he  as- 
sumed before  he  was  exalted  to  the  Papal 
throne.  It  proceeds  from  Palsestrina  at 
the  distance  of  twenty-two  miles,  and  dis- 
charges itself  at  the  Fonlana  di  Termini, 
which  was  also  built  at  his  expense,  and 
consists  of  three  arches,  supported  by 
four  Corinthian  pillars,  and  the  water 
gushes  out  through  three  large  apertures. 
Over  the  middle  arch  stands  a  beautiful 
statue  of  Moses  striking  the  rock  with 
his  rod  ;  over  another  arch  is  a  basso-re- 
lievo of  Aaron  lending  the  people  to  the 
miraculous  springs  in  the  wilderness;  and 
the  third  exhibits  Gideon  trying'  his  sol- 
diers by  their  drinking  water.  Round  it 
are  four  lions,  two  of  marble,  and  the 
other  two  of  oriental  granite,  said  to  be 
brought  thither  from  a  temple  of  Serapis. 
All  the  four  lions  eject  water;  and  on  the 
front  is  an  inscription,  importing  that  this 
aqueduct  was  begun  in  the  first,  and  com- 
pleted in  the  third  year  of  the  pontificate 
of  Sixtus  V.  1588.  The  third  was  repair- 
ed by  Pope  Paul  V.  in  the  year  1612. 
This  divides  itself  into  two  principal  chan- 
nels, one  of  which  supplies  Mount  Jani- 
culus,  and  the  other  the  Vatican  and  its 
neighbourhood.  It  is  conveyed  through 
the  distance  of  thirty  miles,  from  the  dis- 
trict of  Bracciano,  and  three  of  its  five 
streams  are  not  inferior  to  small  rivers, 
and  sufficient  to  turn  a  mill.  The  famous 
aqueducts  of  Constantinople,  about  six 
miles  from  the  village  of  Belgrade,  were 
built  by  Valentinian  the  First,  Clearchus 
being  prxfect,  and  afterwards  repaired  by 
Solyu.an  the  Magnificent,  who  exempted 
twelve  adjacent  Greek  villages  from  the 
customary  tribute  of  the  empire,  in  con- 
sideration of  their  keeping  these  aquae- 
ducts  in  repair.  Of  these  the  most  re- 
markable are  three  large  and  lofty  fabrics, 
built  over  so  many  vallies  betwixt  the  ad- 
joining hills,  of  which  the  longest  has 
many  but  less  arches,  and  may  possibly 
be  the  entire  work  of  Solyman.  The  other 
two  have  the  appearance  of  a  more  an- 
cient and  regular  architecture,  consisting 
of  two  rows  of  arches  one  over  the  other; 
3  ml  those  of  the  second  were  enclosed 


by  pillars  tut  through  the  middle,  so  as 
to  reader  the  fabric  both  passable  like  a 
bridge,  and  useful  for  the  conveyance  of 
water.  The  more  considerable  of  these 
two  consists  of  only  four  large  arches, 
each  twenty  yards  long,  and  somewhat 
above  twenty  high,  supported  by  octan- 
gular pillars  of  about  56  yards  in  circum- 
ference towards  the  bottom.  For  an  in- 
quiry into  the  nature  and  construction  of 
the  aquxducts  of  the  Romans,  see  Go- 
vernor Pownal's  Notices  and  Descriptions 
of  Antiquities  of  the  Provincia  Romanaof 
Gaul,4to.  1788.  The  aquaduct  built  by 
Lewis  XIV.  near  Maintinon,  for  carrying 
the  river  Bure  to  Versailles,  is  perhaps 
the  greatest  now  in  the  world.  It  is  7000 
fathoms  long,  and  its  elevation  2560  fa- 
thoms ;  containing  242  arcades. 

AQUARIUS,  in  astronomy,  a  constel- 
lation which  makes  the  eleventh  sign  in 
the  zodiac,  marked  thus,  !$%.  It  consists 
of  45  stars  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  of  41 
in  Tycho's,  and  in  the  Britannic  catalogue 
of  108.  It  was  called  Aquarius,  or  the  Wa- 
ter-bearer, as  some  say,  because^  during 
the  sun's  motion  through  this  sign,  it  is 
generally  rainy  weather. 

AQUARTIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Tetrandria  Monogynia  class  and  order. 
Calyx  cam  panulate:  corol.  wheel-shaped, 
with  linear  segments ;  berry  many-seed- 
ed. There  are  two  species. 

AQUATIC,  in  natural  history,  an  ap- 
pellation given  to  such  things  as  live  or 
grow  in  the  water :  thus  we  say,  aquatic 
animals,  aquatic  plants,  &c. 

AQUEOUS  humour,  or  the  watery  hu- 
mour of  the  eye ;  it  is  the  first  and  outer- 
most, and  that  which  is  less  dense  than 
either  the  vitreous  or  crystalline.  It  is 
transparent  and  colourless  like  water,  and 
fills  up  the  space  that  lies  between  the 
cornea  and  the  crystalline  humour.  See 
OPTICS. 

AQUILA,  the  eagle,  in  ornithology. 
See  FALCO. 

AQ.UILA,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  consisting  of 
15  stars  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  19  in  Ty- 
cho  Brahe's,  42  in  that  of  Hevelius,  and 
71  in  Flamstead's  ;  the  principal  star  be- 
ing Lucida  Aquila,  and  is  between  the 
first  and  second  magnitude. 

AQU1LARIA,  in  botany,  a  large  tree, 
affecting  a  lofty  situation.  Class  Decan- 
dria  Monogynia;  cal.  perianth  one-leafed, 
permanent ;  tube  bell-shaped ;  limb  five- 
cleft  ;  clefts  ovate,  acute,  flat,  spreading  ; 
cor.  none  ;  nectary  one-leafed,  pitcher- 
shaped,  of  the  length  of  the  tube  of  the 
calyx,  half  five-cleft ;  clefts  bifid,  obtuse  ; 


AQtl 


ARA 


gtam.  filaments  ten,  alternating  with  the 
clefts  of  the  nectary  ;  anthers  oblong,  ver- 
satile ;  pist.  germ  ovate,  superior ;  style, 
none ;  stigma,  simple  ;  per.  capsule  on  a 
very  short  pedicle,  obovate,  woody,  two- 
celled,  two  valved,  with  the  partition  con- 
trary,  and  bipartite  ;  seeds  solitary,  ob- 
long. There  is  but  one  species.  Aquilaria 
ovata;  leaves  alternate,  ovate  mucronate. 
This  is  a  large  tree  covered  with  greyish 
bark.  Its  leaves  are  entire,  smooth  vein- 
ed, about  eight  inches  long,  and  stand 
on  short  hairy  foot-stalks.  The  flowers 
terminate  the  branches,  on  many-flower- 
ed peduncles.  A  native  of  the  mountains 
of  Malacca  and  Cochin-China.  The  wood 
of  this  tree  has  been  long  used  as  a  per- 
fume ;  and  was  formerly  an  article  of  the 
materia  medica  under  the  name  of  agal- 
lochum,  lignum  aloes,  or  aloes  wood. 
This  wood  in  its  natural  state  is  white 
and  inodorous.  That  which  possesses  the 
peculiar  aroma,  for  which  it  is  valued, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  consequence  of  a 
diseased  process  in  the  tree,  causing  the 
oleaginous  particles  to  stagnate  and  con- 
crete into  a  resin  in  the  inner  parts  of  the 
trunk  and  branches,  by  which  the  natural 
appearance  of  the  wood  is  altered,  so  as 
to  become  of  a  darker  colour  and  of  a  fra- 
grant smell.  At  length  the  tree  dies,  and 
when  splitten,  the  resinous  part  is  taken 
out.  The  perfumes  which  this  wood  af- 
fords are  highly  esteemed  by  the  oriental 
nations  ;  and  from  the  bark  of  the  tree  is 
made  the  common  paper  which  the  Co- 
chin-Chinese use  for  writing ;  in  the  same 
manner  the  Japanese  make  use  of  the 
bark  of  a  species  of  mulberry  (morus  pa- 
pyrifera.)  This  perfume  is  said  to  be 
useful  in  vertigo  and  palsy  :  given  in  the 
form  of  powder,  it  is  recommended  to 
restrain  vomitings  and  alvine  fluxes.  To 
us,  however,  it  seems  to  contain  little  else 
than  that  camphoraceous  matter  common 
to  many  other  vegetable  substances. 
From  its  bitter  taste  it  has  the  name  of 
aloes,  although  no  otherwise  allied  to  it. 
AQUILEGIA,  columbine,  in  botany  a 
genus  of  the  Polyandria  Pentagynia  class 
of  plants,  having  no  calyx ;  the  corolla 
consists  of  five  plane,  patent,  equal  petals, 
of  a  lanceolate,  ovate  figure;  the  nectaria 
are  five  in  number;  they  are  equal,  and 
stand  alternately  with  the  petals  ;  the 
fruit  consists  of  five  straight,  parallel,  cy- 
lindric,  accumulated  capsules,  each  of 
which  consists  of  a  single  valve.  The 
seeds  are  numerous,  oval,  carinated,  and 
adhere  to  the  suture.  There  are  five 
species. 


ARA,  in  astronomy,  a  southern  con- 
stellation, consisting  of  eight  stars. 

ARAB1S,  in  botany,  -wall-cross,  a  genus 
of  the  Tetradinamia  Siliquosa  class  of 
plants,  the  calyx  of  which  is  a  deciduous 
perianthium,  consisting  of  four  ovato-ob- 
iong,  acute,  gibbous,  concave  leaves;  the 
corolla  consists  of  four  oval,  patent,  cruci- 
form petals;  the  fruit  is  a  very  long  com- 
pressed pod,  containing  several  roundish 
compressed  seeds.  There  are  twenty-one 
species. 

ARACHIS,  in  botany,  ground-nut,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  Diadelphia  Decandria  class  of 
plants,  the  flower  of  which  is  papilionace- 
ous, and  consists  of  three  petals ;  and  its 
fruit  is  an  oblongunilocular  pod,  contract- 
ed in  the  middle,  and  containing  two  ob- 
long, obtuse,  and  gibbous  seeds.  There 
is  but  one  species,  found  in  the  Inches,  a 
tree,  stem  herbaceous,  haiiy,  procum- 
bent. The  branches  trail  on  the  ground, 
and  the  germ,  after  flowering,"  thrusts  it- 
self under  ground,  where  the  food  is  form- 
ed and  ripened. 

ARACHNO1DES,  in  zoology,  a  name 
given  to  those  echini  marini,  or  sea-hedge- 
hogs, which  are  of  a  circular  form,  but 
variously  indented  at  the  edges.  See 
ECHINUS. 

ARALIA,  berry-bearing  angelica,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  Pentandria  Pentagy- 
nia class  of  plants,  the  flowers  of  which 
are  collected  into  an  umbel,  of  a  globose 
figure,  with  a  very  small  involucrum  ;  the 
perianthium  is  very  small,  divided  into 
five  parts,  and  placed  on  thegermen:  the 
corolla  consists  of  five  ovato-acute,  ses- 
sile, reflex  petals;  the  fruit  is  a  roundish, 
coronated,  striated  berry ;  having  five 
cells  :  the  seeds  are  single,  hard,  and  ob- 
long. There  are  four  divisions,  viz.  A. 
leaves  entire  ;  B.  leaves  lobed  ;  C.  leavei 
in  finger-like  divisions;  D.  leaves  decom- 
pound, and  more  than  decompound.  In 
the  first  there  are  three  species  ;  in  the 
second  one ;  in  the  third  two  ;  and  in  the 
fourth  four. 

ARANE  A,  in  natural  history,  the  spider, 
a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  Aptera. 
Gen.  char,  legs  eight;  eyes  eight,  some- 
times six ;  mouth  furnished  with  two 
hooks,  or  holders  ;  feelers  two,  jointed,, 
the  tips  of  which  in  the  mule  distinguish 
the  sex ;  abdomen  terminated  by  papillx, 
or  teats,  through  which  the  insect  draws 
the  thread. 

One  of  the  largest  of  the  European  spi- 
ders is  the  Aranea  diadema  of  .Linnaeus, 
which  is  extremely  common  in  England^ 
and  is  chiefly  seen  during  the  autumnal 


ARANEA. 


season  in  gardens,  Sec.  The  body  of  lliis 
species,  when  full  grown,  is  not  much  in- 
ferior in  size  to  a  small  hazel  nut;  the 
abdomen  is  beautifully  marked  by  a  lon- 
gitudinal series  of  round,  or  drop-shaped 
milk-white  spots,  crossed  by  others  of 
similar  appearance,  so  as  to  represent,  in 
some  degree,  the  pattern  of  a  small  dia- 
dem.  This"  spider,  in  the  months  of  Sep- 
tember and  October,  forms,  in  some  con- 
venient spot  or  shelter,  a  large  round, 
close,  or  thick  web  of  yellow  silk,  in  which 
it  deposits  its  eggs,  guarding  the  round 
web  with  a  secondary  one  of  a  looser  tex- 
ture. The  young  are  hatched  in  the  en- 
suing May,  the  parent  insects  dying  to- 
wards the  close  of  autumn.  The  Aranea 
diadema,  being  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
common  spiders,serves  to  exemplify  some 
of  the  principal  characters  of  the  genus  in 
a  clearer  manner  than  most  others.  At 
the  tip  of  the  abdomen  are  placed  five 
papillae  or  teats,  through  which  the  insect 
draws  its  thread ;  and  as  each  of  these 
papillae  is  furnished  with  a  vast  number 
of  foramina  or  outlets,  disposed  over  its 
whole  surface,  it  follows,  that  what  we 
commonly  term  a  spider's  thread,  is  in 
reality  formed  of  a  collection  of  a  great 
many  distinct  ones,  the  animal  possessing 
the  power  of  drawing  out  more  or  fewer 
at  pleasure ;  and  if  it  should  draw  from 
all  the  foramina  at  once,  the  thread  might 
consist  of  many  hundred  distinct  filaments 
The  eyes, which  are  situated  on  the  upper 
part  or  front  of  the  thorax,  are  eight  in 
number,  placed  at  a  small  distance  from 
each  other,  and  having  the  appearance  of 
the  stemmata  in  the  generality  of  insects. 
The  fangs,  or  piercers,  with  which  the 
animal  wounds  its  prey,  are  strong,  curv- 
ed, sharp-pointed,  and  each  furnished  on 
the  inside,  near  the  tip,  with  a  small  ob- 
long hole  or  slit,  through  which  is  eva- 
cuated a  poisonous  fluid  into  the  wound 
made  by  the  point  itself,these  organsope- 
rating  in  minature  on  the  same  princi- 
ple with  the  fangs  in  poisonous  serpents. 
The  fee;  are  of  a  highly  curious  structure; 
the  two  claws  with  which  each  is  termi- 
nated being  furnished  on  its  under  side 
with  several  parallel  processes,  resemb- 
ling the  teeth  of  a  comb,  and  enabling  the 
animal  to  dispose  aud  manage  with  the 
utmost  facility  the  disposition  of  the 
threads  in  its  web,  8cc. 

Aranea  tarantula,  or  Tarantula  spider, 
of  which  so  many  idle  recitals  have  been 
detailed  in  the  works  of  the  learned,  and 
which,  even  to  this  day,  continues  in  some 
countries  to  exercise  the  faith  and  igno- 
rance of  the  vulgar,  is  a  native  of  the 


warmer  parts  of  Italy,  and  other  warm 
European  regions,  and  is  generally  found 
in  dry  and  sunny  plains.  It  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  European  spiders,  but  the  ex- 
traordinary symptoms  supposed  to  ensue 
from  the  bite  of  this  insect,  as  well  as 
their  supposed  cure  by  the  power  of  mu- 
sic alone,  are  entirely  fabulous,  and  are 
now  sufficiently  exploded  among  all  ra- 
tional philosophers.  The  gigantic  Aranea 
avicularia,  or  Bird-catching  spider,  is  not 
uncommon  in  many  parts  of  the  East  In- 
dies and  South  America,  where  it  resides 
among  trees,  frequently  seizing  on  small 
birds,  which  it  destroys  by  wounding  with 
its  fangs,  and  afterwards  sucking  their 
blood.  During  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century,  a  project  was  entertained  by  a 
French  gentleman,  Monsieur  Bon,  of 
Montpellier  of  instituting  a  manufacture 
of  spiders'  silk,  and  the  royal  Academy, 
to  which  the  scheme  was  proposed,  ap- 
pointed the  ingenious  Reaumur  to  repeat 
the  experiments  of  Monsieur  Bon,  in  or- 
der to  ascertain  how  far  the  proposed 
plan  might  be  carried ;  ;but,  after  making 
the  proper  trials,  Mr.  Reaumur  found  it 
to  be  impracticable,  on  account  of  the 
natural  disposition  of  these  animals,  which 
is  such  as  will  by  no  means  admit  of  their 
living  peaceably  together  in  large  num- 
bers. Mr.  Reaumur  also  computed  that 
663,522  spiders  would  scarcely  furnish  a 
single  pound  of  silk.  Monsieur  Bon,  how- 
ever, the  first  projector,  carried  his  expe- 
riments so  far  as  to  obtain  two  or  three 
pair  of  stockings  and  gloves  of  this  silk, 
which  were  of  an  elegant  grey  colour,and 
were  presented  as  samples,  to  the  Royal 
Academy.  It  must  be  observed,  that  in 
this  manufacture  it  is  the  silk  of  the  egg- 
bags  alone  that  can  be  used,  being  far 
stronger  than  that  of  the  webs.  Monsieur 
Bon  collected  twelve  or  thirteen  ounces 
of  these,  and  having  caused  them  to  be 
well  cleared  of  dust,  by  properly  beating 
with  sticks,  he  washed  them  perfectly 
clean  in  warm  water.  After  this  they 
were  laid  to  steep,  in  a  large  vessel,  with 
soap,  saltpetre,  and  gum-arabic.  The 
whole  was  left  to  boil  over  a  gentle  fire 
for  three  hours,  and  were  afterwards 
again  washed  to  get  out  the  soap  ;  then 
laid  to  dry  for  some  days,  after  which 
they  were  carded,  but  with  much  smaller 
cards  than  ordinary.  The  silk  is  easily 
spun  into  a  fine  and  strong  thread,  the 
difficulty  being  only  to  collect  the  silk- 
bags  in  sufficient  quantity.  There  re- 
mains one  more  particularity  in  the  histo- 
ry of  spielers,  viz.  the  power  of  flight.  1 1 
is  principally  in  the  autumnal  season  thai 


ARB 


ARC 


tbese  diminutive  adventurers  ascend  the 
air,  and  contribute  to  fill  it  with  that  infi- 
nity of  floating1  cobwebs  which  are  so  pe- 
culiarly conspicuous  at  that  period  of  the 
year.  When  inclined  to  make  these  aerial 
excursions,  the  spider  ascends  some  slight 
eminence,  as  the  top  of  a  wall,  or  the 
branch  of  a  tree  ;  and  turning  itself  with 
its  head  towards  the  wind,  ejaculates 
several  threads,  and  rising  from  its  sta- 
tion, commits  itself  to  the  gale,  and  is 
thus  carried  far  beyond  the  height  of  the 
loftiest  towers,  and  enjoys  the  pleasure 
of  a  clearer  atmosphere.  During  their 
flight  it  is  probable  that  spiders  employ 
themselves  in  catching  such  minute  wing- 
ed insects  as  may  happen  to  occur  in  their 
progress ;  and  when  satisfied  with  their 
journey  and  their  prey,  they  suffer  them- 
selves to  fall,  by  contracting  their  limbs, 
and  gradually  disengaging  themselves 
from  the  thread  which  supports  them. 
See  Plate  I.  Entomology,  fig.  7  and  8. 

ARAUCAR1A,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Dioecia  Monadelphia  class  and  order. 
Male,  calyx  scales  of  an  ament,  terminated 
by  a  leaflet ;  no  corol. ;  antherae  10  to 
12,  without  filaments.  Female  calyx,  an 
ament  with  many  germs  ;  no  corol ;  stig- 
ma two-valved,  unequal ;  seeds  numer- 
ous, in  a  roundish  cone. 

ARBITER,  in  civil  law,  a  judge  nomi- 
nated by  the  magistrate,  or  chosen  volun- 
tarily by  two  parties,  in  order  to  decide 
their  differences  according  to  law. 

The  civilians  make  this  difference  be- 
tween arbiter  and  arbitrator ;  though 
both  ground  their  power  on  the  compro- 
mise of  the  parties,  yet  their  liberty  is  dif- 
ferent, for  an  arbiter  is  to  judge  accord- 
ing to  the  usages  of  the  law,  but  the  arbi- 
trator is  permitted  to  use  his  own  discre- 
t  ion,  and  accommodate  the  difference  in 
the  manner  that  appears  to  him  most  just 
and  equitable. 

ARBITRATION,  a  power  given  by  two 
or  more  contending  parties  to  some  per- 
son or  persons  to  determine  the  dispute 
between  them  ;  if  the  two  do  not  agree,  it 
is  usual  to  add,  that  another  person  be 
called  as  umpire,  to  whose  sole  judgment 
it  is  then  referred.  The  submission  to 
arbitration  is  the  authority  given  by  the 
parties  in  controversy  to  the  arbitrators, 
to  determine  and  end  their  grievances ; 
and  this  being  a  contract  or  agreement, 
must  not  be  strictly  taken,  but  largely, 
according  to  the  intent  of  the  parties 
submitted.  There  are  five  things  incident 
to  an  arbitration  :  1.  Matter  of  controver- 
sy. 2.  Submission.  3.  Parties  to  the  sub- 
mission. 4.  Arbitrators.  5.  Giving  up  the 

VOL.  I 


arbitration.  Matters  relating  to  a  free- 
hold, debts  due  on  bond,  and  criminal  of- 
fences, are  not  to  be  arbitrated. 

ARBITRATOR,  a  private  extraordina- 
ry judge,  chosen  by  the  mutual  consent 
of  parties,  to  determine  controversies  be- 
tween them.  Arbitrators  are  to  award 
what  is  equal  between  both  parties,  and 
the  performance  must  be  lawful  and  pos- 
sible. An  action  of  debt  may  be  brought 
for  money  adjudged  to  be  paid  by  arbitra- 
tors. 

ARBOR  Dia-iue.     See  CHEMISTRT. 

ARBOR  vitx.     See  THUJA. 

AHBOR,  in  mechanics,  the  principal 
part  of  a  machine  which  serves  to  sustain 
the  rest ;  also  the  axis  or  spindle  on 
which  a  machine  turns,  as  the  arbor  of  a 
crane,  windmill.  &c. 

ARBUTUS,  the  strawberry-tree,  in  bo, 
tany,  a  genus  of  the  Decandria  Monogynia 
class  of  plants,  the  calyx  of  which  is  a 
very  small,  obtuse,  permanent  perianthi- 
um,  divided  into  five  segments  ;  the  corol- 
la consists  of  a  single  oval  petal,  divided 
also  into  five  segments;  the  fruit  is  a  round- 
ish berry,  containing  five  cells,  and  small 
osseous  seeds.  There  are  ten  species. 

ARC  concentric,  is  that  which  has  the 
same  centre  with  another  arc. 

ARC  diurnal,  that  part  of  a  circle  de- 
scribed by  a  heavenly  body  between  its 
rising  and  setting- ;  as  the  nocturnal  arc  is 
that  described  between  its  setting  and 
rising-:  both  these  together  are  always 
equal. 

ARCS  equal,  those  which  contain  the 
same  number  of  degrees,  and  whose  radii 
are  equal. 

ARCA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
worms  of  the  order  Testacea ;  animal  a 
tethys;  shell  bivalve,  equivalve  ;  hinge 
with  numerous  sharp  teeth,  alternately 
inserted  between  each  other.  There  are, 
according  to  Gmelin,  43  species ;  but  they 
are  separated  into  four  divisions,  viz.  A. 
margin  very  entire,  beaks  recurved  ;  B. 
margin  entire,  beaks  inflected;  C.  margin 
crenate,  beaks  recurved;  D.  margin  cre- 
nate,  beaks  inflected :  of  the  latter  we  shall 
notice  A.  nucleus ;  shell  obliquely  ovate, 
smoothish,  with  a  triangular  hinge  .-  in- 
habits European  geas,  and  is  sometimes 
found  fossile,  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut,  cov- 
ered with  an  olivaceous  skin,  under  which, 
it  is  white,  within  silvery;  shell  unequally 
triangular,  with  very  fine  perpendicular 
striae,  crossed  by  a  few  arched  transverse 
ones;  depression  behind  the  beak  heart- 
shaped. 

Of  the  division  C.  is  the  A.  antiquata, 
which  occurs  frequently  on  the  coast  of 


ARfc 


ARC 


£he  United  States,  and  is  in  many  places 
called  Jiloody  Clam;  when  opened  the  in- 
cluded liquid  has  a  dirty  red  appearance  ; 
shell  obliquely  heart-shaped,  with  numer- 
ous unarmed  grooves;  it  is  white,  but  cov- 
ered with  a  brownish  hairy  skin  :  the  an- 
terior slope  with  a  compressed  prominent 
angle, 

ARCH,  or  ARC,  in  geometry,  any  part 
of  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  or  curved 
line,  lying  from  one  point  to  another,  by 
Which  the  quantity  of  the  whole  circle  or 
line,  or  some  other  thing  sought  after, 
may  be  gathered. 

All  angles  are  measured  by  arcs.  For 
this  purpose  an  arc  is  described  having  its 
centre  in  the  point  or  vertex  of  the  angle : 
and  as  every  circle  is  supposed  to  be  di- 
vided into  360°,  an  arc  is  estimated  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  degrees  which 
it  contains.  Thus  an  arc  is  said  to  be  of 
30,  50,  or  100  degrees,  &c. 

ARCH,  in  architecture,  a  concave  build- 
ing, with  a  mould  bent  in  the  form  of  a 
curve,  erected  to  support  some  structure. 
Arches  are  either  circular,  elliptical,  or 
straight,  us  they  are  improperly  called  by 
workmen.  Circular  arches  are  also  of 
thre:  kinds  :  1.  Semicircular,  which  have 
their  centre  in  the  middle  of  aline  drawn 
betwixt  the  feet  of  the  arch.  2.  Scheme 
or  skene,  which  are  less  than  a  semicircle, 
containing  some  90  and  some  70  degrees. 
3.  Arches  of  the  third  and  fourth  point, 
consisting  of  two  arches  of  a  circle  meet- 
Ing  in  an  angle  at  the  top,  being  drawn 
from  the  division  of  a  chord  into  three  or 
more  parts  at  pleasure. 

Elliptical  arches  consist  of  a  semi-ellip- 
sis, and  have  commonly  a  key-stone  and 
imposts :  they  are  usually  described  by 
workmen  on  three  centres. 

Straight  arches  are  those  used  over 
doors  and  windows,  having  plain  straight 
edges,  both  upper  and  under,  which  are 
parallel,  but  both  the  ends  and  joints  point 
towards  a  centre. 

The  term  arch  is  peculiarly  used  for  the 
space  between  two  piers  of  a  bridge,  in- 
tended for  the  passage  of  water,  vessels, 
&c. 

ARCH  of  equilibration,  is  that  which  is 
in  equilibrium  in  all  its  parts,  having  no 
tendency  to  break  in  any  one  part  more 
than  in  another;  and  which  is,  therefore, 
safer  and  stronger  than  any  other  figure. 
No  other  arch  than  this  can  admit  of  a 
horizontal  line  at  top  :  it  is  of  a  form  both 
graceful  and  convenient,  as  it  may  be 
made  higher  or  lower  at  pleasure,  with 
the  same  span.  All  other  arches  require 
extrados  that  are  curved,  more  or  less, 
either  upwards  or  downwards ;  of  these, 


the  elliptical  arch  approaches  the  nearest 
to  that  of  equilibration  for  strength  and 
convenience,  and  it  is  the  best  form  for 
most  bridges,  as  it  can  be  made  of  any 
height  to  the  same  span,  its  haunches  be- 
ing at  the  same  time  sufficiently  elevated 
above  the  water,  even  when  it  is  very  flat 
at  top.  Elliptical  arches  also  appear  bold- 
er and  lighter,  are  more  uniformly  strong, 
and  tire  cheaper  than  most  others,  as  they 
require  less  materials  and  labour.  Of  the 
other  curves,  the  cycloidal  arch  is  next  in 
quality  to  the  elliptical  one,  and  lastly  the 
circle 

ARCHANGEL,  in  botany.  See  LA- 
Mirsr. 

ARCHES,  or  Court  of  ARCHES,  the 
supreme  court  belonging  to  the  Arch- 
bishcn  of  Canterbury,  to  which  appeals 
lie  from  all  the  inferior  courts  within  his 
province. 

ARCHETYPE,  the  first  model  of  a 
work  which  is  copied  after,  to  make  ano- 
ther like  it.  Among  minters  it  is  used  for 
the  standard  weight  by  which  the  others 
are  adjusted.  The  archetypal  world, 
among  Platonists,  means  the  world  as  it 
existed  in  the  idea  of  God,  before  the  vi- 
sible creation. 

ARCHIL.     See  LICIIE*. 

ARCHIMEDES,  in  biography,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  mathematicians 
among  the  ancients,  who  flourished  about 
250  years  before  Christ,  being  about  50 
years  later  than  Euclid.  He  was  born  at 
Syracuse  in  Sicily,  and  was  related  to 
Hiero,  who  was  then  king  of  that  city. 
The  mathematical  genius  of  Archimedes 
set  him  with  such  distinguished  excel- 
lence in  the  view  of  the  world,  as  render- 
ed him  both  the  honour  of  his  own  age, 
and  the  admiration  of  posterity.  He  was 
indeed  the  prince  of  the  ancient  mathe- 
maticians, being  to  them  what  Newton  is 
to  the  moderns,  to  whom  in  his  genius 
and  character  he  bears  a  very  near  re- 
semblance. He  was  frequently  lost  in  a 
kind  of  reverie,  so  as  to  appear  hardly 
sensible;  he  would  study  for  days  and 
nights  together,  neglecting  his  food  ;  and 
Plutarch  tells  us  that  he  used  to  be  car- 
ried to  the  baths  by  force.  Many  parti- 
culars of  his  life,  and  works,  mathemati- 
cal and  mechanical,  are  recorded  by  se- 
veral of  the  ancients,  as  Polybius,  Livy, 
Plutarch,  Pappus,  &c.  He  was  equally 
skilled  in  all  the  sciences,  astronomy, 
geometry,  mechanics,  hydrostatics,  op- 
tics, &c.  in  all  of  which  he  excelled,  and 
made  many  and  great  inventions. 

Archimedes,  it  is  said,  made  a  sphere 
of  glass,  of  a  most  surprising  contrivance 


ARCHIMEDES* 


and  workmanship,  exhibiting  the  motions 
Df  the  heavenly  bodies  in  a  very  pleasing 
manner. 

Many  wonderful  stories  are  told  of  his 
discoveries,  and  of  his  very  powerful  and 
curious  machines,  Sec.  Hiero  once  ad- 
miring1 them,  Archimedes  replied,  these 
effects  are  nothing,  "  but  give  me,"  said 
he,  "  some  other  place  to  fix  a  machine 
on,  and  I  will  move  the  earth."  He  fell 
upor  v  curious  device  for  discovering  the 
decei  which  had  been  practised  by  a 
workman,  employed  by  the  said  king 
Hievo  to  make  a  golden  crown  H;ero 
hav.ng  a  mind  to  make  an  ottlring  to  the 
gods  of  a  golden  crown,  agreed  for  one 
of  great  value,  and  weighed  out  the  gold 
to  the  artificer.  After  some  time  he 
brought  the  crown  home,  of  the  full 
weight ;  but  it  was  afterwards  discovered 
or  suspected  that  a  part  of.  the  gold  had 
been  stolen,  and  the  like  weight  of  silver 
substituted  in  its  stead.  Hiero,  being 
angry  at  this  imposition,  desired  Archi- 
medes to  take  it  into  consideration,  how 
such  a  fraud  might  be  certainly  discover- 
ed. While  engaged  in  the  solution  of  this 
difficulty,  he  happened  to  go  into  the 
bath  ;  where  observing  that  a  quantity  of 
water  overflowed,  equal  to  the  bulk  of 
his  body,  it  presently  occurred  to  him, 
that  Hiero's  question  might  be  answered 
by  a  like  method ;  upon  which  he  leap- 
ed out,  and  ran  homeward,  crying  out 
svgjix.01 !  evgtwa  '.  I  have  found  it  out !  I 
have  found  it  out !  He  then  made  two 
masses,  each  of  the  same  weight  as  the 
crown,  one  of  gold  and  the  other  of  silver; 
this  being  done,  he  filled  a  vessel  to  the 
brim  with  water,  and  put  the  silver  mass  in- 
to it,  upon  which  a  quantity  ofwater  over- 
flowed equal  to  the  bulk  of  the  mass  ; 
then  taking  the  mass  of  silver  out,  he  fill- 
ed up  the  vessel  again,  measuring  the 
water  exactly  which  he  put  in ;  this 
-shewed  him  what  measure  of  water  an- 
swered to  a  certain  quantity  of  silver. 
Then  he  tried  the  gold  in  like  manner, 
and  found  that  it  caused  a  less  quantity 
of  water  to  overflow,  the  gold  being  less 
in  bulk  than  the  silver,  though  of  the  same 
weight.  He  then  filled  the  vessel  a  third 
time,  and  putting  in  the  crown  itself,  he 
found  that  it  caused  more  water  to  over- 
flow than  the  golden  mass  of  the  same 
weight,  but  less  than  the  silver  one  ;  so 
that,  finding  its  bulk  between  the  two 
masses  of  gold  and  silver,  and  that  in 
certain  known  proportions,  he  was  able 
to  compute  the  real  quantities  of  gold 
and  silver  in  the  crown,  and  so  manifestly 
'liscoveycd  the  fraud. 


Archimedes  also  contrived  many  ma- 
chines  for  useful  and  beneficial  purposes; 
among  these,  engines  for  launching  large 
ships;  screw  pumps  for  exhausting  the 
water  out  of  ships,  marshes  or  overflow- 
ed lands,  as  Egypt,  &c.  which  they  would 
do  from  any  depth. 

But  he  became  most  famous  by  his  cu- 
rious contrivances,  by  which  the  city  of 
Syracuse  was  so  long  defended,  when  be- 
sieged by  the  Roman  consul  Marcellus  ; 
showering  upon  the  enemy  sometimes 
long  darts  and  stones  of  vast  weight  and 
in  great  quantities;  at  other  times  lifting 
their  ships  up  into  the  air,  that  had  come 
near  the  walls,  and  dashing  them  to  pieces 
by  letting  them  fall  down  again  :  nor 
could  they  find  their  safety  in  removing 
out  of  the  reach  of  his  cranes  and  levers, 
for  there  he  contrived  to  set  fire  to  them 
with  the  rays  of  the  sun  reflected  from 
burning  glasses. 

However,  notwithstanding  all  his  art, 
Syracuse  was  at  length  taken  by  storm, 
and  Archimedes  was  so  very  intent  upon 
some  geometrical  problem,  that  he  neither 
heard  the  noise,  nor  regarded  any  thing 
else,  till  a  soldier  that  found  him  tracing 
lines  asked  his  name,  and  upon  his  re- 
quest to  begone,  and  not  disorder  his 
figures,  slew  him.  "  What  gave  Marcel- 
lus the  greatest  concern,  says  Plutarch, 
was  the  unhappy  fate  of  Archimedes,  who 
was  at  that  time  in  his  museum ;  and  his 
mind,  as  well  as  his  eyes,  so  fixed  and  in- 
tent upon  some  geometrical  figures,  that 
he  neither  heard  the  noise  and  hurry  of 
the  Romans,  nor  perceived  the  city  to  be 
taken.  In  the  depth  of  study  and  contem- 
plation^ soldier  came  suddenly  upon  him, 
and  commanded  him  to  fellow  him  to 
Marcellus  ;  which  he  refusing  to  do,  till 
he  had  finished  his  problem,  the  soldier 
in  a  rage  drew  his  sword,  and  ran  him 
through."  Livy  says  he  was  slain  by  a 
soldier,  not  knowing  who  he  was,  while 
he  was  drawing  schemes  in  the  dust ;  that 
Marcellus  was  grieved  at  his  death,  and 
took  care  of  his  funeral  ;  and  made  his 
name  a  protection  and  honour  to  those 
who  could  claim  a  relationship  to  him. 
His  death  it  seems  happened  about  the 
142d  or  143d  Olympiad,  or  210  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Christ. 

When  Cicero  was  quaestor  for  Sicily, 
he  discovered  the  tomb  of  Archimedes, 
all  overgrown  with  bushes  and  brambles; 
which  he  caused  to  be  cleared,  and  the 
place  set  in  order.  There  were  a  sphere 
and  cylinder  cut  upon  it,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion, but  the  latter  part  of  the  verses  were 
quite  worn  out. 

Many  of  the  works  of  this  great  man 


ARCHIMEDES. 


are  still  extant,  though  the  greatest  parts 
of  them  are  lost.  The  pieces  remaining 
are  as  follow:  1.  Two  books  on  the  Sphere 
and  Cylinder. — 2.  The  Dimension  of  the 
Circle,  or  Proportion  between  the  Diame- 
ter and  the  Circumference. — 3.  Of  Spiral 
lines. — 4.  Of  Conoids  and  Spheroids. — 5. 
Of  Equiponderants,  or  Centres  of  Gravity. 
— 6.  The  Quadrature  of  the  Parabola. — 
7.  Of  bodies  floating  on  Fluids. — 8.  Lem- 
mata.— 9.  Of  the  Number  of  the  Sand. 

Among  the  works  of  Archimedes  which 
are  lost  maybe  reckoned  the  descriptions 
of  the  following  inventions,  which  may  be 
gathered  from  himself  and  other  ancient 
authors.  1.  His  account  of  the  Method 
•which  he  employed  to  discover  the  Mix- 
ture of  Gold  and  Silver  in  the  crown  men- 
tioned by  Vitruvius. — 2.  His  Description 
of  the  Cochleon,  or  engine  to  draw  water 
out  of  places  where  it  is  stagnated,  still  in 
use  under  the  name  of  Archimedes's 
Screw.  Athenxus,  speaking  of  the  pro- 
digious ship  built  by  the  order  of  Hiero, 
says,  that  Archimedes  invented  the  coch- 
leon,  by  means  of  which  the  hold,  notwith- 
standing its  depth,  could  be  drained  by 
one  man.  And  Diodorus  Siculus  says,  that 
he  contrived  this  machine  to  drain  Egypt, 
and  that,  by  a  wonderful  mechanism,  it 
would  exhaust  the  water  from  any  depth. 
3.  The  Helix,  by  means  of  which,  Athe- 
nxus  informs  us. he  launched  Hiero's  great 
ship. — 4.  The  Trispaston,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Tzetzes  and  Oribasius,  could  draw 
the  most  stupendous  weights. — 5.  The 
Machines,  which,  according  to  Polybius, 
Livy,  and  Plutarch,  he  used  in  the  defence 
of  Syracuse  against  Marcellus,  consisting 
of  Tormenta,  Balistae,  Catapults,  Sagitta- 
rii,  Scorpions,  Cranes,  &c. — 6.  His  Burn- 
ing Glasses,  with  which  he  set  fire  to  the 
Roman  gallies. — 7.  His  Pneumatic  and 
Hydrostatic  Engines,  concerning  which 
subjects  he  wrote  some  books,  according 
to  Tzetzes,  Pappus,  and  Turtullian. — 8. 
His  Sphere,  which  exhibited  the  celestial 
motions.  And  probably  many  others. 

A  considerable  volume  might  be  writ- 
ten upon  the  curious  methods  and  inven- 
tions of  Archimedes,  that  appear  in  his 
mathematical  writings  now  extant  only. 
He  was  the  first  who  squared  a  curvilineal 
space;  unless  Hippocratesbe  exceptedon 
account  of  his  lunes.  In  his  time  the  conic 
sections  were  admitted  into  geometry ,and 
he  applied  himself  closely  to  the  measur- 
ing of  them,  as  weli  as  other  figures. 
Accordingly  he  determined  the  relations 
of  spheres,  spheroids,  arid  conoids,  to  cy- 
linders and  cones ;  and  the  relations  of 
parabolas  to  rectilinealplanes, whose  quad- 
ratures had  long  before  been  determined 


by  Euclid.  He  has  left  us  also  his  attempts 
upon  the  circle  :  he  proved  that  a  circle 
is  equal  to  a  right-angled  triangle  whose 
base  is  equal  to  the  circumference,  and  its 
altitude  equal  to  the  radius  :  and  conse- 
quently, that  its  area  is  equal  to  the  rec- 
tangle of  half  the  diameter  and  half  the 
circumference  ;  thus  reducing  the  quad- 
rature of  the  circle  to  the  determination 
of  the  ratio  between  the  diameter  and  cir- 
cumference ;  which  determination  how. 
ever  has  neveryetbeendone.Beingdisap- 
pointed  of  the  exact  quadrature  of  the 
circle,  for  want  of  the  rectification  of  its  cir* 
cumference,  which  all  his  methods  would 
not  effect,  he  proceeded  to  assign  an. 
useful  approximation  to  it :  this  he  effect- 
ed by  the  numeral  calculation  of  the  peri- 
meters of  the  inscribed  and  circumscribed 
polygons  :  from  which  calculation  it  ap- 
pears that  the  perimeter  of  the  circum- 
scribed regular  polygon  of  192  sides  is  to 
the  diameter  in  a  less  ratio  than  that  of  3*. 
or  3j.o  to  1 ;  and  that  the  perimeter  of  the 
inscribed  polygon  of  96  sides  is  to  the  di- 
ameter in  a  greater  ratio  than  that  of 
3.1.0  to  I-  ancj  consequently  that  the  ra- 
tio of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter 
lies;between  these  two  ratios.  Now  the  first 
ratio,  of  3^.  to  1,  reduced  to  whole  num. 
bers,  gives  that  of  22  to  7,  for  3| :  1  :  : 
22  :  7  ;  which  therefore  is  nearly  the 
ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diame- 
ter. From  this  ratio  between  the  circum- 
ference and  the  diameter,  Archimedes 
computed  the  approximate  area  of  the  cir- 
cle, and  he  found  that  it  is  to  the  square 
of  the  diameter  as  11  is  to  14.  He  de- 
termined also  the  relation  between  the 
circle  and  eclipse  with  that  of  their  simi- 
lar parts.  And  it  is  probable  that  he  like- 
wise attempted  the  hyperbola  ;  but  it  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  he  met  with  any 
success,  since  approximations  to  its  area 
are  all  that  can  be  given  by  the  various 
methods  that  have  since  been  invented. 

Besides  these  figures,  he  determined 
the  measures  of  the  spiral,  described  by  a 
'  point  moving  uniformly  along  a  right  line, 
the  line  at  the  same  time  revolving  with 
a  uniform  angular  motion  ;  determining 
the  proportion  of  its  area  to  that  of  the 
circumscribed  circle,  as  also  the  propor- 
tion of  their  sectors. 

Throughout  the  whole  works  of  this 
great  man,  we  every  where  perceive  the 
deepest  design,  and  the  finest  invention. 
He  seems  to  have  been,  with  Euclid,  ex- 
ceedingly careful  of  admitting  into  his  de- 
monstrations nothing  but  principles  per- 
fectly geometrical  and  unexceptionable  : 


ARCHITECTURE. 


and  although  his  most  general  method  of 
demonstrating  the  relations  of  curved  fi- 
gures to  straight  ones  be  by  inscribing 
polygons  in  them,  yet,  to  determine  those 
relations,  he  does  not  increase  the  num- 
ber, and  diminish  the  magnitude,  of  the 
sides  of  the  polygon  adinfinitwn  ;  but  from 
this  plain  fundamental  principle,  allowed 
in  Euclid's  Elements,  (viz.  that  any  quan- 
tity may  be  so  often  multiplied,  or  added 
to  itself,  as  that  the  result  shall  exceed 
any  proposed  finite  quantity  of  the  same 
kind,)  he  proves,  that  to  deny  his  figures 
to  have  the  proposed  relations  would  in- 
volve an  absurdity.  And  when  he  de- 
monstrated many  geometrical  properties, 
particularly  in  the  parabola,  by  means  of 
certain  progressions  of  numbers,  whose 
terms  are  similar  to  the  inscribed  figures, 
this  was  still  done  without  considering 
such  series  as  continued  ad  infinitum,  and 
then  collecting  or  summing  up  the  terms 
of  such  infinite  series. 
There  have  been  various  editions  of 


the  existing  writings  of  Archimedes.  But 
the  most  complete  of  any  is  the  magnifi- 
cent edition,  in  folio,  lately  printed  at  the 
Clarendon  press,  Oxford,  1792.  This 
edition  was  prepared  ready  for  the  press 
by  the  learned  Joseph  Torelli,  of  Verona, 
and  in  that  state  presented  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  The  Latin  translation  is 
a  new  one.  Torelli  also  wrote  a  preface, 
a  commentary  on  some  of  the  pieces,  and 
notes  on  the  whole.  An  account  of  the 
life  and  writings  of  Torelli  is  prefixed,  by 
Clemens  Sibiliati.  And  at  the  end  a 
large  appendix  is  added,  in  two  parts ; 
the  first  being  a  Commentary  on  Archi- 
medes's  paper  upon  bodies  that  float  on 
fluids,  by  the  Rev.  Adam  Robertson,  of 
Christ  Church  College ;  and  the  latter 
is  a  large  collection  of  various  readings 
in  the  manuscript  works  of  Archimedes, 
found  in  the  library  of  the  late  king  of 
France,  and  of  another  at  Florence,  as 
collated  with  the  Basil  edition  above 
mentioned. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


General  observations  on  the  history  and  prac- 
tice of  Civil  Architecture. 

All  the  variety  of  edifices  appropriated 
to  the  purposes  of  civil  life  is  denominat- 
ed Civil  Architecture. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  for  us  at  this 
day  to  trace  the  earliest  stage  of  this  art, 
so  indispensable  to  our  comfort  and  pro- 
tection in  a  natural  or  civilized  state,  un- 
til we  find  its  permanence  of  construction 
fixed  on  the  basis  of  science  and  propor- 
tion. 

The  subterraneous  cavern  was  without 
doubt  the  first  habitation  of  man.  Who 
cannot  but  contemplate  with  astonish- 
ment the  variety  of  massy  shapes,  sup- 
porting arched  roofs,  decorated  with  in- 
numerable surfaces  of  crystallized  forms, 
excelling  in  splendour  of  design  and  ar- 
rangement the  most  magnificent  produc- 
tions of  human  art  ?• 

All  our  impressions  of  wisdom,  strength 
and  beauty,  are  derived  from  the  exami- 
nation of  the  works  of  the  God  of  nature  : 
All  our  energy  in  art,  is  employed  to  de- 
duce from  these  works  the  proximity  of 
man  to  his  Creator,  and  all  our  perfection 
a  humble  acknowledgment  of  our  im- 
perfection. 

In  sculpture  and  painting,  the  closest 
imitation  of  a  model  in  nature  at  once 
constitutes  the  excellence  of  the  artist. 


In  architecture,  invention  is  employed 
in  the  search  of  form  and  proportion,  that 
is  not  so  immediately  obvious,  owing  to 
the  whimsicality  in  matters  of  taste, 
which  is  perhaps  very  justly  regulated  by 
antique  proportion. 

History  furnishes  us  with  very  vague 
and  unsatisfactory  accounts  of  the  rise  or 
progress  of  this  science ;  although  a  va- 
riety of  speculation  has  been  indulged,  to 
locate  and  fix  its  origin  and  aera  of  con- 
struction in  India  and  Egypt,  we  are  at 
this  late  day  left  to  doubt,  whether  the 
eastern  quarter  of  the  world  has  any  de- 
cided claim  to  originality  over  that  of 
Egypt. 

The  splendid  excavations  that  consti- 
tute the  temples  or  sacred  edifices  of  the 
Hindoos,  particularly  the  cave  at  Ele- 
phanta,  which  is  sculptured  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  exhibits  a  very  early  know- 
ledge of  the  art  with  this  barbarous  peo- 
ple. The  cave  is  120  feet  square,  and 
contains  four  rows  of  mass\  pillars,  re- 
sembling a  fluted  ballusti-ade,  resting  on  a 
long  right  angular  plinth  ;  the  whole  pil- 
lar is  surmounted  by  a  broad  projecting1 
capital  in  form  of  a  fla^  vuse,  richly  and 
highly  decorated  Colossal  statues  and 
busts  in  alto  relievo  protrude  from  the 
sides  of  the  cavern,  some  with  four,  and 
some  with  six  arms,  beoring  sceptres,  tro- 
phies, and  symbols  of  their  mythology, 


ARCHITECTURE. 


T-he  altar  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  one 
tri  the  sides,  the  entrance  to  which  is 
guarded  by  two  huge  figures,  bearing-  very 
little  resemblance  to  humanity.  Columns 
of  an  octagonal  shape  are  sometimes 
mounted  on  the  backs  of  elephants,  hor- 
ses and  tygers,  supporting  a  cornice  de- 
corated with  human  figures  sitting  cross- 
legged.  A  gallery  extends  from  pillar  to 
pillar  profusely  sculptured  with  men  in 
acts  of  devotion  to  serpents,  tygers,  and 
other  animals.  The  base  of  the  columns 
being  an  elephant  (their  favourite  beast) 
sometimes  displays  a  man  astride  of  the 
trunk,  which  gives  the  general  mass  the 
effect  of  being  put  in  motion  by  these 
mighty  animals. 

The  whole  may  be  considered  original, 
and  peculiar  to  the  habits  of  an  unciviliz- 
ed people,  intuitively  representing  natu- 
ral objects  of  their  religious  devotion,  in 
crude,  disproportioned  sculpture. 

From  the  magnificent  ruins  of  Perse- 
polis  in  Persia,  which,  according  to  Le 
JJrun,  originally  consisted  of  205  columns, 
70  feet  in  height,  we  are  alone  enabled 
to  give  any  account  ofthe  ancient  style  of 
architecture  in  that  country  ;  for  the  cha- 
racter and  remains  of  this  interesting  pa- 
lace, the  world  is  indebted  to  the  able  re- 
search of  this  gentleman,  who  has  left  no 
stone  unturned  that  could  elucidate,  or 
bring  to  light,  a  knowledge  of  the  science 
at  that  early  day. 

The  arrangement,  construction,  and 
proportions  of  Persepolis  differ  very  ma- 
terially from  the  Indian  or  Egyptian  style 
of  building,  yet  we  find  Egyptian  door- 
ways at  its  entrance,  and  Indian  sculptur- 
ed excavation  in  the  tomb  of  Darius. 

The  Persians  held  Egyptian  mytholo- 
gy in  detestation,  and  it  appears  were  not 
devoted  to  the  erection  of  sacred  edifices, 
as  no  remnant  of  a  religious  symbol,  or 
hieroglyphic,  is  to  be  found  in  their  ruins ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  they  appear  to  have 
been  wholly  absorbed  in  the  erection  of 
gorgeous  palaces  and  tombs. 

Their  sculptures  are  very  numerous, 
and  consist  of  triumphal  processions,  of- 
ferings of  horses  to  the  sun,  and  oxen  to 
the  moon ;  figures  bearing  the  parasol, 
and  armed  with  the  lance,  in  conflict  with 
the  lion.  The  number  of  men  and  ani- 
mals found  on  their  tombs  are  nearly 
thirteen  hundred.  Their  columns  have 
no  diminish,  being  uniform  from  top  to 
bottom,  and  thirteen  diameters  in  height, 
having  a  capital  one-fourth  their  height, 
carved  in  imitation  of  feathers  tied  or 
banded  with  silk;  being  the  materials  with 
which  eastern  monarchs  formed  their 


most  splendid  decorations.  From  the  slen- 
der make  of  these  columns,  and  no  frag- 
ments of  a  cornice  or  roof  being  found 
among  the  ruins,  we  are  led  to  suppose 
that  Persepolis  was  a  summer  residence, 
and  that  they  supported  a  temporary  cov- 
ering, slightly  constructed  of  wood",  and 
lined  with  silken  drapery. 

These  ruins  bear  incontrovertible  evi- 
dence of  antiquity,  with  features  distinct- 
ly marked  to  characterize  a  separate 
school  of  architecture.  The  devastation 
which  followed  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
Cambyses,  whose  jealousy  ofthe  perfec- 
tion of  the  Egyptians  in  art  and  science, 
caused  him  to  prostrate  their  palaces  and 
temples,  carrying  ofFthe  artists  as  well  as 
the  spoils  to  grace  this  palace,  accounts 
very  satisfactorily  for  the  mixture  of 
Egyptian  with  Persepolitan  ruins. 

The  whole  of  Upper  Egypt  furnishes 
prodigies  in  science  and  art.  Their  py- 
ramids, palaces,  temples,  and  excavated 
sepulchres.  Their  system  of  hierogly- 
phical  sculpture  is  calculated  to  impress 
us  with  a  very  elevated  idea  of  that  once 
learned  and  powerful  people  ;  who,  not- 
withstanding the  inroads  of  frequent  con- 
querors, jealous  of  their  acquirements, 
and  laying  waste  their  works  of  art,  rose, 
Phoenix  like,  from  her  ashes,  invigorated 
by  persecution. 

The  pyramids  of  Cheops,  Cephren,  and 
Mycerines,  are  alone  sufficient  to  call 
forth  the  attention  of  mankind,  as  stupen- 
dous monuments  of  industry  and  impe- 
rishability. Although  history  can  give  us 
no  satisfactory  date  of  their  construction, 
many  learned  men  have  discussed  their 
antiquity,  and  concluded  that  Cheops, 
which  is  the  largest,  (being  448  feet  in 
height,  and  728  feet  square  at  the  base) 
was  erected  490  years  before  the  first 
Olympiad,  or  about  3000  years  ago. 

The  researches  of  Denon,  and  the 
French  commission  of  arts,  are  the  best 
authorities  that  can  be  quoted  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Egyptian  architecture  :  they  have 
examined  with  zeal  and  accuracy  each 
well  collected  fragment,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  an  armed  force  :  we  will  there- 
from proceed  in  giving  a  general  outline 
of  its  particular  character  in  Upper  Egypt. 

On  approaching  the  edifices  of  Karnac 
and  Luxor,  the  first  grand  masses  of  build- 
ings are  the  moles,  of  an  oblong  plan, 
with  battering  or  tapering  sides,  from  50 
to  60  feet  in  height,  decorated  on  their 
facade  profusely  with  hieroglyphics,  in 
the  front  of  which  stand  the  obelisks,  on 
each  side  ofthe  principal  entrance,  also 
crowded  with  symbols  of  mythology, 


ARCHITECTURE. 


astronomy,  history  and  agriculture.  The 
tapering  moles  are  crowned  hy  a  cavetto 
or  flat*  segment  of  a  circle,  richly  fluted 
in  a  vertical  manner,  resting  on  a  beed  or 
torus  that  covers  the  corners  of  the  pile. 
The  entrance  or  door-way  is  between  the 
moles,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  similar 
cavetto  over  the  architrave,  upon  which 
is  frequently  carved  the  globe,  wings,  and 
serpent.  This  entrance  opens  into  a 
grand  court,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a 
portico,  consisting  of  two  ranges  of  co- 
lumns, 48  in  number  ;  at  the  extremity  of 
this  court,  and  opposite  the  entrance,  the 
sanctuary  is  placed,  and  contains  apart- 
ments for  the  priests — two  small  porticos 
or  covered  ways  conduct  to  those  of  the 
kings,  and  are  distinguished  by  doors  of 
black  granite.  Other  avenues  lead  to 
buildings  of  considerable  magnitude,  or- 
namented with  rows  or  alleys  of  lions, 
sphinxes  and  rams,  from  15  to  16  feet  in 
length,  couchant  upon  pedestals  ten  feet 
asunder. 

Some  of  their  sculpture  is  merely  a 
deep  cut  outline,  and  is  no  doubt  the  first 
dawning  of  the  art.  Basso  relievo,  semi 
relief,  and  alto  relief,  is  every  where  to  be 
seen,  producing  bold  and  decisive  effects. 

Although  a  perfect  uniformity  exists  in 
all  the  edifices  of  Upper  Egypt  as  to  plan 
and  general  arrangement,  it  appears  they 
were  very  capricious  in  the  proportions 
and  sculpture  of  columns.  The  capitals  of 
the  columns  of  the  temple  of  Appolinipo- 
lis,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
buildings  in  Egypt,  has  two  rowsot  leaves, 
bearing  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
Corinthian  of  the  Greeks.  At  the  tombs 
of  Silsilis,  the  columns  are  in  imitation  of 
bundles  ofreeds  bound  together  at  the  top 
by  a  cord,  and  gradually  swelling  into  a 
capital,  ornamented  with  leaves  and  blos- 
soms of  the  lotus,  or  lily  of  the  Nile.  At 
Tentyra,  one  entire  column  of  hierogly- 
phics supports  a  capital,  containing  four 
heads  of  die  goddess  Isis.  At  the  Memno- 
nium,  human  figures  are  used  as  columns, 
called  by  the  Greeks  cariatides,  at  which 
place  the  ruins  of  a  statue  64  feet  in 
height  is  to  be  seen,  and  supposed  to  have 
been  thrown  down  by  Cambyses. 

Their  edifices  and  statuary  are  princi- 
pally composed  of  granite  and  sand  stone 
quarried  upon  the  Nile,  with  aqueducts 
leading  from  them  into  the  river,  through 
which  means,  and  its  annual  rise,  the  huge 
masses  of  stone  used  in  obelisks  and  co- 
lumns were  floated  to  their  respective 
situations  ;  but  how  these  immense  slabs 
and  blocks  were  raised  upon  terraces  and 
Columns,  of  great  height,  is  an  exertion 


columns 


of  the  mechanic  powers  totally  obsolete 
at  the  present  day. 

It  is  only  from  the  indestructible  re- 
mains of  the  architecture  of  Egypt,  that 
we  are  enabled  to  form  any  distinct  idea 
of  the  progress  of  science  with  this  learn- 
ed people  ;  who  are  said  to  have  invented 
geometry,  and  applied  its  principles  to 
the  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  At 
Tentyra,  the  great  circle  of  the  sphere  is 
described  upon  the  ceiling  of  the  temple 
containing  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
with  many  other  astronomical  figures  in 
the  surrounding  spaces. 

Their  knowledge  of  geometry,  and  the 
application  of  its  principles  to  mechanics, 
was  astonishing,  from  the  size  and  weight 
of  their  materials,  and  principles  of  con- 
struction, by  which  they  have  ensured  du- 
rability ;  and  transmitted  to  posterity  5 
palaces  and  34  temples,  as  monuments  of 
their  science  and  industry  3000  years  ago. 

Upon  an  examination  of  the  principles 
and  practice  of  the  architecture  of  the 
three  countries,  India,  Persia,  and  Egypt, 
it  will  appear  upon  investigation  that  the 
edifices  of  Hindostan  consist  principally 
of  excavation,  where  the  column  and  hu- 
man figure  are  rudely  carved,  without  re. 
ference  to  proportion  or  the  nature  of  the 
subject;  and  although  we  cannot  fail  to  be 
disgusted  with  the  effect  of  the  perform- 
ance, we  are  compelled  to  admire  their 
industry.  The  resemblance  of  many 
leading  features  of  Hindoo  architecture 
to  that  of  Egypt  and  Persia,  particularly 
those  of  Elephanta  and  Vellore,  has  in- 
duced Sir  William  Jones  and  Dr.  Robert- 
son to  conclude  that  the  eastern  quarter 
of  the  world  has  a  preferable  claim  to 
originality  ;  and  that  all  rudiments  of 
knowledge  in  the  science  was  furnished 
by  India  to  both  the  other  countries : 
this  is  a  mere  matter  of  opinion,  and  can 
only  amount  to  evidence  of  an  early  inter- 
course or  communication  of 'architectural 
knowledge,  as  there  is  unquestionably 
sufficient  distinction  in  the  character  and 
proportions  of  the  whole,  or  parts,  to 
form  separate  schools.  That  of  India 
may  be  characterized  by  circular  outlines 
resembling  the  pagoda  of  the  Chinese. 
The  ancient  Persian,  consisting  princi- 
pally of  edifices  above  ground  with  slender 
columns  of  small  diameter,  lightly  and 
delicately  decorated  with  feathers  and 
silk,  ornamental  pannels  in  basso  relievo, 
resembling  the  sumptuous  corinthian  of 
the  Romans. 

That  of  Egypt,  grand  and  massy  fea- 
tures, diminishing  from  the  base  upward, 
forming  pyrimidal  figures,  remarkable 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ft>r  sameness  of  character  and  proportion. 
Temples  generally  peripteral,  that  is,  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  columns  at  some 
distance  from  the  cell,  decorated  with  the 
Lotus,  Hawk,  and  Ibis,  being  favourite 
emblems,  and  purely  their  own.  Upon 
the  whole,  we  may  conclude  that  the 
Egyptians  borrowed  no  ideas,  nor  copied 
the  style  or  practice  of  any  other  nation. 
A  perfect  uniformity  in  their  sculpture 
and  facade  is  seen  every  where,  from  the 
most  ancient  down  to  the  destructive  in- 
road of  Cambyses. 

Before  we  proceed  to  point  out  the  cha- 
racterand  sublimity  of  Greek  architec- 
ture, it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  few 
general  ideas  as  to  the  principles  of  the 
science,  and  upon  what.  Order  is  founded. 

All  the  variety  of  objects  that  present 
themselves  to  our  view  in  the  material 
world,  are  considered  beautiful  or  deform- 
ed in  relation  to  their  shape  and  size, 
corresponding  with  the  fitness  of  the  parts 
to  the  end  designed.  Proportion  and 
symmetry  always  convey  pleasureble 
ideas ;  and  their  adaptation  to  the  ex- 
pression of  design  should  always  coincide 
with  the  uses  of  the  object  in  view.  Skill 
and  dexterity  may  be  expressed,  without 
accommodation  or  correspondence  to  the 
nature  of  the  character,  and  must  bead- 
mired  as  a  part,  without  any  reference  to 
the  whole  :  thus  a  building  may  be 
crowded  with  highly  decorated  mould- 
ings and  pannel-work,  where  the  nature 
of  the  subject  is  not  consulted,  and  by 
many  unaquainted  with  the  science  be 
pronounced  beautiful)  receiving  the  appel- 
Jation  from  a  close  examination  of  a  par- 
ticular part,  when  the  fitness  or  proper 
correspondence  of  the  minutiae  ought  to 
be  judged  of  with  reference  to  the  nature 
of  the  subject. 

Therefore  the  sensations  of  pleasure 
that  are  felt,  from  the  observance  of  an 
object  well  proportioned,  must  owe  their 
existence  to  the  proper  distribution  of  all 
the  parts  combined  in  unison,  to  the  ex- 
pression of  a  decided  character.  Objects 
that  are  destitute  of  natural  beauty  are 
made  so  when  regarded  in  the  light  of 
their  uses. 

The  orders  of  architecture,  in  which 
all  the  variety  of  genius  and  art  has 
evolved  itself,  and  which  is  regulated  by 
settled  proportion,  with  such  certainty  as 
to  defy  and  mock  all  attempts  at  innova- 
tion, receive  theirsanction  from  the  above 
remarks  on  the  observance  of  design  ac- 
commodating itself  to  uses;  whereby 
beauty  and  harmony  ^established. 

There  are  five  orders   in  architecture., 


viz.  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian, 
and  Composite.  These  are,  properly 
speaking,  but  three,  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and 
Corinthian,  being  originally  invented  by 
the  Greeks.  Proportion  constitutes  an 
Order,  and  consists  of  three  grand  divi- 
sions, viz.  the  base,  column,  and  entabla- 
ture. These  are  governing  principles  ; 
and  the  proportions  of  the  base  and  shaft 
are  such,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  order,  as  appear,  and  are  absolutely 
adequate  to  the  support  of  the  entabla- 
ture which  rests  upon  them.  The  great 
object  derived  from  the  difference  or  va- 
riety of  the  orders  is,  the  fitness  of  their 
respective  parts  to  the  support  of  the 
crowning  weight,  which  must  appear  evi- 
dent to  all  who  have  paid  the  least  atten- 
tion to  the  subject. 

It  is  rather  astonishing  from  what  cause 
we  feel  pleasant  sensations  upon  viewing 
the  Gr~ek  structures,  whether  it  is  the 
nature  in  the  architecture  itself  that  im- 
parts pleasurable  ideas,  or  the  associations 
connected  with  them,  that  calls  forth  our 
admiration,  knowing  them  to  be  reared 
upon  classic  ground,  and  the  relics  of  a 
brave  and  enlightened  people  ;  but  cer- 
tain it  is,  their  science,  skill,  and  taste,  in 
the  arts,  far  surpassed  all  other  nations 
before  and  since  their  time. 

This  singular  and  industrious  people, 
untrammelled  with  tyranny,  situated  in  a 
rugged  country,  of  fine  climate,  and 
abounding  with  forests,  gave  full  scope 
to  their  imagination  in  the  construction  of 
wooden  edifices  ;  in  the  prosecution  of 
which  the  rude  forest  tree  covered  with 
a  block  or  tile,  suggested  the  idea  of  the 
Doric  order ;  the  beams  laid  horizontally 
on  the  top  and  projecting  over  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  and  rafters  rising  to  a  point  in 
the  centre,  composed  the  leading  fea- 
tures of  a  primitive  Greek  edifice. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  Greeks 
were  originally  colonies  of  Egypt  and 
Persia  at  the  time  when  those  empires 
existed  in  great  splendour,  and  construct- 
ed edifices  of  great  magnificence;  being 
also  the  countries  from  whence  their 
sages  drew  their  earliest  information,  ren- 
dered it  more  than  probable  that  they 
borrowed  their  first  ideas  of  building  from 
those  places  ;  they  unquestionably  were 
acquainted  with  the  state  of  architecture 
in  those  countries ;  but  that  they  adopted 
or  applied  this  information  is  very  doubt- 
ful, from  the  circumstance  of  their  mate- 
rials, in  the  first  instance,  being  altoge- 
ther wood,  and  consequently  requiring 
different  principles  and  practice  in  its  ex- 
ecution and  arrangement.  Stone  edifices 


ARCHITECTURE. 


were  afterwards  constructed  in  conformi- 
ty with  the  wooden  mode],  and  under- 
went at  different  periods  of  time,  such 
additional  arrangement  as  their  genius 
and  taste  suggested. 

The  Greeks,  untaught  by  their  more 
rich  neighbours,  abounding  in  granite, 
porphyry,  and  marble,  with  a  variety  of 
other  local  advantages,  established  a  per- 
fect school  of  architecture,  by  the  inven- 
tion of  three  complete  orders,  each  having 
a  peculiar  and  separate  character,  calcu- 
lated for  all  kinds  of  structures,  ascending 
from  the  most  simple  and  robust,  to  those 
of  a  more  delicate  susceptibility  of  orna- 
ment ;  completing  a  perfect  system  in 
the  art,  that  defies  all  human  attempts  to 
surpass  or  amend. 

The  most  magnificent  temple  at  Athens, 
and  one  which  exhibits  the  perfection  of 
Greek  taste,  is  that  dedicated  to  Minerva 
Parthenon.  It  is  situated  on  the  summit 
of  the  rock  of  the  citadel,  within  the 
Acropolis,  which  appears  as  though  na- 
ture had  formed  it  as  a  pedestal,  express- 
ly for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  beau- 
tiful edifices  upon  its  crown.  It  was  ex- 
ecuted under  the  direction  of  Phidias,  by 
Callicrates  and  Ictinus  ;  and  from  the  de- 
scription of  Mr.  Stuart,  who  spent  seven 
years,  in  the  faithful  delineation  of  the 
works  of  art  in  that  once  splendid  city, 
is  a  perfect  specimen  of  the  Doric  order. 
Its  extreme  length  is  225  feet,  and  breadth 
100  feet,  surrounded  by  46  columns,  sup- 
porting an  entablature  of  12  feet  in  height, 
upon  which  is  sculptured,  in  the  finest 
alto  relievo,  the  wars  between  the  Lapi- 
thx  and  the  Centaurs.  The  frize  which 
surrounds  the  cell,  contains  the  Panathe- 
naic  procession  of  charioteers,  horsemen, 
and  the  coronation  of  a  youthful  victor  in 
the  chariot  races.  On  the  eastern  pedi- 
ment is  represented  a  convention  of  the 
gods,  consisting  of  five  and  twenty  figures: 
Jupiter  presides,  and  is  in  the  act  of  re- 
ceiving his  daughter  Minerva. 

The  blocks  of  stone,  with  which  the 
columns  are  formed,  being  six  feet  in 
diameter,  are  so  nicely  and  accurately 
wrought,  that  the  most  strict  scrutiny  is 
required  to  discover  the  joints,  being  no 
thicker  than  the  finest  hair.  In  order  to 
attain  this  perfection,  the  marble  is  re- 
duced to  the  proper  size  by  the  chisel, 
after  which  two  pieces  are  rubbed  one 
upon  the  other,  with  sand  and  water 
placed  between  them  as  a  cutting  medi- 
um, until  the  top  and  bottom  beds  come 
so  closely  in  contact,  as  to  exclude  the 
atmosphere,  and  bed  themselves  together. 
After  which  process,  thev  were  regulated 

VOL.  I. 


by  a  square  pivot  of  olive  wood  with  as- 
tonishing accuracy;  so  much  so,  as  to 
give  the  whole  pillar  the  effect  of  having 
passed  through  a  lathe. 

Chauteaubriand,  seated  on  a  fragment 
at  the  summit  of  the  Acropolis,  describes 
the  ruins  of  the  Parthenon  with  all  the 
enthusiasm  of  a  poet  and  artist:  "From 
the  summit  of  the  Acropolis,  I  beheld 
the  sun  rise  between  the  two  peaks  of 
mount  Hymettus.  The  crows,  which 
build  their  nests  around  the  citadel,  but 
never  soar  to  its  summit,  hovered  below 
us ;  their  black  and  polished  wings  were 
tinged  with  roseate  hues  by  the  first  ra- 
diant beams  of  Aurora.  Columns  of  light 
blue  smoke  ascended  in  the  shade  along 
the  sides  of  the  Hymettus.  Athens,  the 
Acropolis,  and  the  ruins  of  the  Parthenon, 
were  coloured  with  the  most  beautiful 
tints  of  peach  blossom.  The  sculptures 
of  Phidias,  struck  horizontally  by  a  ray 
of  gold,  started  into  life,  and  seemed  to 
move  upon  the  marble,  from  the  mobility 
of  the  shadows  of  relief." 

Athens  abounds  with  numerous  and 
prodigious  relics  of  the  works  of  art. 
Adjacent  to  the  Parthenon  stands  the 
temples  of  Neptune  and  Minerva  Polias, 
the  temples  of  Theseus,  Propylea,  and 
Jupiter  Olympus,  which  was  composed  of 
128  columns,  sixty  feet  in  height ;  the 
distance  round  this  temple  is  said  to  be 
half  a  mile.  The  walls  of  the  city  ex- 
tended over  a  space  of  nine  leagues,  and. 
broad  enough  to  admit  of  two  chariots  to 
run  abreast,  being  equal  to  the  huge  for- 
tified walls  of  the  Romans. 

Many  of  these  masterpieces  of  antiqui- 
ty, which  excite  the  veneration  of  the 
modern  world,  120  years  ago  were  per- 
fect, and  had  suffered  but  little  dilapida- 
tion from  the  attacks  of  time,  until  some 
penetrative  and  investigating  travellers 
paid  them  a  visit,  more  from  curiosity 
than  information,  and,  not  unlike  children 
with  a  new  toy,  broke  off  the  pretty  parts, 
in  order  to  discover  how  it  was  made, 
and,  like  Ulysses  with  his  presents  from 
the  Phoenicians,  return  home  with  large 
chests  full  of  stones,  to  enrich  museums, 
and  tickle  connoisseurs. 

The  most  daring  outrage  of  this  kind 
was  committed  by  Lord  Elgin,  who  em- 
ployed the  Turks  to  break  off  and  throw 
down  part  of  the  frize  and  pediment  of 
the  Parthenon.  His  sole  object  in  bear- 
ing off  the  works  of  Phidias  was,  merely 
to  show  the  British  nation  the  wonderful 
degree  of  perfection  the  Greeks  had  ar- 
rived to  in  the  art  of  sculpture  ;  and,  as  a 
further  extenuation  of  his  conduct,  Jo 

Qq 


ARCHITECTURE. 


preserve  them  unimpaired  by  the  hand  of 
ignorant  barbarism,  so  peculiar  to  Mussel- 
men  and  Frenchmen  :  for  which  his  zeal 
and  judgment,  in  literally  robbing  a 
church,  has  received  the  warmest  ac- 
knowledgments of  the  British  artists,  who 
still  suffer  him  to  keep  an  Italian  merce- 
nary in  Greece,  destroying  and  pilfering 
what  is  termed  the  "  Elgin  Marbles." 

Such  inconsiderate  love  of  the  arts,  con- 
trasted with  the  laudable  exertions  of  the 
scientific  Stuart,  is  truly  disgusting.  This 
ingenious  traveller  was  indefatigable  in 
drawing,  measuring,  and  accurately  de- 
scribing these  interesting  works  of  anti- 
quity, and  devoted  seven  years  in  the  ac- 
complishment of  a  work  that  does  honour 
to  the  British  arts,  by  transmitting  to  pos- 
terity the  genius  and  taste  of  the  Greeks, 
under  the  influence  of  Pericles  and  Ad- 
rian ;  in  the  perusal  of  whose  pages  we 
may  exclaim,  "  There  was  a  time,  when 
Greece,  when  Athens  existed :  now  nei- 
ther is  there  an  Athens  in  Greece,  nor  is 
Greece  itself  any  longer  to  be  found." 
And  when  we  search  for  architecture,  we 
may  find  it  buried  in  its  own  ruins. 

The  Romans  were  humble  copyers  of 
Greek  Architecture  in  every  thing  but 
its  simplicity ;  they  laboured  in  compli- 
cated forms,  and  dressed  out  the  chaste 
orders  into  unmeaning  frivolities.  Co- 
lumns were  coupled,  and  piled  on  co- 
lumns, enormous  basements  were  erected 
on  the  tops  of  porticoes,  crushing  all  be- 
neath with  the  superincumbent  weight, 
plane  surfaces  were  intersected  with  flut- 
ed pilasters,  and  the  intermediate  space 
filled  up  and  enriched  with  tablets  of 
festoons,  and  perforated  with  stories  of 
small  windows. 

The  Romans  acquired  all  their  know- 
ledge of  the  arts  by  the  prowess  of  their 
arms;  and,  not  possessing  any  native  taste, 
acquired  by  the  unremitting  attempts  of 
rival  artists,  they  could  not  be  supposed 
to  select  the  most  chaste  features,  but 
eagerly  seized  upon  the  Corinthian,  be- 
ing the  most  sumptuous  of  the  Greek 
orders,  and  applied  it  in  their  public 
buildings,  almost  to  the  total  exclusion  of 
all  others,  inventing  an  order  still  more 
rich  and  profuse,  called  the  Composite, 
which  is  compounded  of  the  Corinthian 
leaves,  surmounted  by  the  ionic  Echinus 
and  Volutes. 

The  edifices  erected  during  the  repub- 
lican state  of  the  country  are  known  by 
their  simplicity  and  usefulness,  while 
those  of  the  emperors  are  remarkable  for 
ornament.  The  emperor  Adrian  jour- 
neyed over  all  his  provinces,  building-  and 


restoring  cities  and  public  edifices.  At 
Athens  he  built  the  immense  Temple  of 
Jupiter  Olympus,  repaired  the  gates  of 
the  city,  which  by  inscription  he  claimed 
as  his  own.  He  built  the  aqueducts  that 
supplied  the  city  of  Corinth  with  water, 
and  the  great  wall  across  the  Island  of 
Great  Britain,  from  New-Castle  to  Carlisle, 

The  emperor  Augustus  said  he  found 
Rome  composed  of  brick,  but  he  had 
changed  it  into  marble.  Among  the 
numerous  edifices  constructed  during  his 
reign  were,  the  Temple  and  Forum  of 
Mars  the  avenger;  Jupiter  Tonans  in  the 
capital  pantheon,  dedicated  to  all  the 
gods ;  and  a  temple  to  Minerva,  compos- 
ed entirely  of  brass ;  and  he  brought  the 
Aqua  Virginis  to  Rome  through  an  aque- 
duct 14  miles  in  length. 

Dioclesian  reared  the  stately  Corinthian 
in  the  ancient  city  of  Tedmor  in  the  wil- 
derness, built  by  Solomon,  and  called  by 
the  Romans  Palmyra. 

Throughout  the  Roman  dominions  the 
Corinthian  was  the  prevailing  order.  The 
Ionic  appears  to  have  been  the  favourite 
order  in  Asia  Minor ;  the  Corinthian  in 
the  colonies  of  Rome  ;  and  the  sober  Do- 
ric, every  where  the  most  ancient  and 
lasting  of  them  all. 

At  Palmyra  and  Bulbec  their  rectangu- 
lar temples  are  very  extraordinary  in 
point  of  extent ;  and  the  superb  style  of 
decoration  to  which  their  arts  were  carri- 
ed— the  immense  si£e  of  the  materials  in 
the  temple  atBalbec — is  perhaps  greater 
than  any  employed  in  Egypt.  In  the 
quarry  without  the  walls  of  the  city  lies 
a  stone  70  feet  in  length,  and  14  feet 
square,  in  the  shape  of  aparallelopipedon, 
containing  14,128  cubic  feet,  and  weigh- 
ing upwards  of  1130  tons. 

Although  the  Romans  can  claim  but 
little  merit  of  originality  in  what  relates 
to  civil  architecture,  the  modern  world  is 
very  much  indebted  to  them  for  a  very 
important  feature  in  the  science  of  build- 
ing :  that  is,  the  invention  of  the  arch, 
which  was  entirely  unknown  to  the 
Greeks  previous  to  the  Roman  conquest. 
The  utility  and  grandeur  of  this  impor- 
tant invention  is  fully  demonstrated  in 
the  extensive  vaults,  domes,  bridges,  and 
aqueducts,  with  ^hich  their  most  superb 
edifices  were  construcied  and  adorned, 
the  judicious  arrangement  of  which  never 
fails  to  produce  the  most  pleasing  effects, 
particularly  when  constructed  on  an  ex- 
tended span. 

The  profuse  introduction  of  arches  in 
the  facades  of  edifices  generally  destroys 
the  effect  of  other  features,  composed  of 


ARCHITECTURE. 


straight  lines.  The  Romans  became  so 
enamoured  with  them,  as  to  spring- them 
from  the  base  capital  of  a  column,  which 
is  intended  solely  for  perpendicular  sup- 
port, and  not  to  counteract  lateral  pres- 
sure. From  one  absurdity  to  another  more 
gross,  their  original  purity  became  almost 
extinct.  The  orders,  which  had  already 
become  overloaded  with  ornament,  were 
scarcely  able  to  support  the  unmeaning 
trappings  with  which  they  were  disguis- 
ed, and  their  ingenuity,  being  almost 
without  bounds,  discovered  and  added 
traits  to  their  character  not  much  unlike 
the  Gothic.  This  anarchy  in  the  state  of 
architecture  was  happily  relieved  by  an 
interregnum  of  the  Gothic  style,  which 
branched  forth  its  delicate  limbs  and 
beautiful  tracery.  A  short  time  previous 
to  the  incursions  of  the  Goths  and  Huns, 
a  decidedly  new 'character  appeared  in 
the  art.  The  basilicx  of  all  the  great 
cities  of  the  empire  were  converted  into 
Christian  churches,  keeping  up  the  same 
form  of  rectangular  parallelograms,  divid- 
ing the  cell  into  aisles  by  two  rows  of 
columns,  with  arches  springing  from 
their  capitals  to  support  the  roof;  wings 
were  added  to  the  flanks  of  these  build- 
ings, forming  on  the  ground  plan  the 
Latin  cross,  which  has  continued  to  be 
the  model  of  most  Christian  churches  to 
this  day. 

It  is  very  certain  that  the  declension  of 
Roman  architecture  began  to  make  its 
appearance  in  the  reign  of  Constantine, 
shortly  after  his  conversion  to  christiani- 
ty ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he  favour- 
ed or  promoted  this  style  in  the  founda- 
tion of  his  city  of  Constantinople. 

During  this  period,  until  the  sixteenth 
century,  Gothic  architecture  continued 
to  supplant  all  other  styles,  and  during  a 
few  centuries  was  practised  throughout 
Europe.  Charlemagne  introduced  it  into 
France,  when  many  magnificent  churches 
were  erected,  which  continue  to  be  the 
ablest  specimens  of  the  style  to  this  day. 
The  Roman  style  again  revived,  when  the 
term  Gothic  was  applied,  in  derision,  by 
the  Italian  school  of  Palladio. 

The  variety  of  features  it  underwent, 
in  its  application  to  church  architecture, 
has  given  rise  to  many  speculations  of 
men  of  science  and  learning,  as  to  its  rise 
and  progress.  One  of  the  theories,  and 
not  an  improbable  one,  is,  that,  during 
the  crusade,  worship  was  conducted  in 
the  groves,  and  in  order  to  procure  shel- 
ter and  shade,  they  bent  the  limbs  of 
opposite  limbs  together  at  the  top,  and 
bound  them  at  the  intersection,  thereby 
producing1  the  pointed  arch,  a  continua- 


tion of  which  method  from  tree  to  tree 
would  furnish  a  complete  Gothic  arcade. 
The  Saxon  and  Norman  Gothic  was  the 
first  practised,  and  seems  to  have  been 
constructed  with  considerable  reference 
to  the  Roman  style  of  its  time.  The  pil- 
lars massy,  and  consising  of  several  shafts, 
cylindrical,  and  octagonal,  supporting  a 
heavy  decorated  cornice,  ornamented 
with  diamond  net-work.  The  capitals 
composed  of  leaves  and  flowers. 

One  of  the  finest  features  of  this  style, 
and  which  in  many  instances  form  the 
most  striking  ornaments  of  a  city,  is  the 
tall  tapering  spire ;  they  were  first  built 
of  wood  by  the  Normans,  and  since,  with 
as  much  dexterity,  by  their  decendants  in 
stone,  as  in  Salisbury  tower  and  spire, 
being  40'.)  feet  in  height. 

The  most  remarkable  property  belong- 
ing to  the  Gothic  is  magnitude  ;  as  it  ne- 
ver succeeds  in  producing  its  characteris- 
tic beauties  when  projected  on  a  small 
scale,  and  should  always  be  constructed 
of  stone  or  wood. 

Buildings  of  a  public  nature  ought  to 
express,  in  the  design,  the  uses  and  pur- 
poses to  which  they  are  erected  and  ap- 
propriated, so  that  strangers,  when  they 
behold  a  church,  bank,  court-house, 
prison,  &c.  may  understand  them  to  be 
so,  from  some  external  characters,  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  painted  sign  or  inscribed 
tablet. 

Allegorical  representations,  applied 
to  architecture,  is  a  source  through  which 
we  always  derive  pleasure  and  informa- 
tion, by  calling  forth  the  taste,  judgment, 
and  literary  acquirements,  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  objects  in  the  fine  and  digni- 
fied arts.  In  a  young  country  like  ours, 
where  its  inhabitants  are  scattered  over 
an  immense  tract  of  territory,  a  great 
portion  of  which  is  unsettled  and  uncul- 
tivated ;  and  where  its  only  resources  are 
drawn  from  agriculture  and  commerce, 
distributing  and  equalizing  wealth,  it 
cannot  be  reasonably  expected  that  archi- 
tectural works  of  great  magnificence  and 
duration  should  be  constructed,  to  bear 
any  kind  of  comparison  with  those  exe- 
cuted under  the  controul  of  a  despotic 
power, where  materials,  labour,  and  funds, 
are  directed  by  sovereignty  and  an  inde- 
pendent priesthood. 

The  associations  of  men  of  wealth  for 
the  construction  of  edifices  of  a  public 
nature,  and  in  the  establishment  of  insti- 
tutions for  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts 
and  sciences,  are  highly  honourable  to 
the  taste  and  liberality  of  the  American 
character  :  and  it  is  entirely  owing  to  such 
objects  and  exertions,  that  we  can  trace 


ARCHITECTURE. 


the  advancement  of  them  in  this  country 
to  the  summit  of  their  present  perfec- 
tion. 

The  native  enterprize  and  perseverance 
of  the  country  at  large,  in  the  advance, 
ment  of  science  and  art,  has  fully  evinced 
itself  in  the  many  flourishing  and  popu- 
lous cities  spread  over  an  immense  con- 
tinent, that  two  centuries  ago  was  the 
abode  of  man  in  a  state  of  nature. 

The  splendid  and  extensive  edifices  at 
Washington,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and 
New-York,  exhibit  great  taste  in  the  sci- 
ence of  architecture.  The  capitol  at 
Washington  is  perhaps  the  greatest  effort 
of  our  republic,  in  point  of  extent  and 
workmanship,  and  reflects  great  credit 
on  the  talents  of  Mr.  Latrobe,  the  archi- 
tect. The  next  in  point  of  magnitude  is 
the  city  hall  in  New-York,  and  a  number 
of  beautiful  churches  built  of  stone. 

The  Pennsylvania  bank  in  Philadelphia, 
also  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Latrobe,  is 
the  most  beautiful  building  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  is  a  perfect  model  of  a  Grecian 
hexastyle  temple  ;  it  has  never  failed  to 
be  universally  admired  for  its  symmetry 
and  proportion.  "  The  value  attached  to 
works  of  this  nature  may  be  judged  of, 
from  the  city  of  Ephesus  refusing  to  suf- 
fer the  temple  of  Diana  to  be  inscribed 
with  the  name  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
although  that  prince  offered  to  purchase 
that  honour  by  defraying  the  whole  ex- 
pense attending  its  erection ;  from  the 
Athenians  rejecting  a  like  offer  from  Pe- 
ricles, with  regard  to  the  splendid  and 
extensive  edifices  with  which  he  had  or- 
name nted  Athens ;  and  from  the  city  of 
Gnidia  refusing  to  part  with  one  statue, 
the  Venus  of  Praxiteles,  although  king 
Nicomedes  proposed  to  free  them  from 
tribute,  if  they  complied  with  the  re- 
quest.'* [War.  STRICKLAND,  Architect.} 

In  the  vast  structures  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
greatness  of  design,  ponderosity  of  parts, 
and  stones  of  immense  magnitude,  seem 
to  have  been  regarded  more  than  ele- 
gance or  utility :  in  all  those  great  works 
there  is  no  trace  of  an  arch,  but  what  is 
excavated  out  of  the  solid  rock,  or  may 
be  made  of  a  single  stone.  The  Greeks 
profess  to  have  derived  the  knowledge  of 
architecture  from  the  Egyptians,  but  the 
art  of  building  has  been  so  much  im- 
proved by  transplanting,  that  scarcely 
any  trace  of  the  original  remains  :  their 
edifices  were  at  first  constructed  of  wood 
and  clay,  but  they  soon  began  to  imitate 
the  wooden  posts  and  beams  of  the  origi- 
nal hut  in  stone  and  marble  :  from  tins 
.imitation  arose  the  first  order  in  architec- 


ture, which  also  gave  birth  to  two  others, 
This  ingenious  people,  favoured  by  na- 
ture with  marble  and  other  building  ma- 
terials, and,  like  the  Egyptians,  being- 
anxious  to  make  their  works  durable, 
employed  very  weighty  stones  in  the 
construction,  which,  although  laid  with- 
out  cement,  as  was  the  practice  of  all  an- 
cient  nations,  yet  they  were  jointed  with 
the  utmost  accuracy,  which  is  the  reason 
of  the  perfect  state  of  their  edifices  at 
this  day.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that 
the  Greeks  were  the  inventors  of  the 
arch,  though  they  never  considered  it  as 
an  ornament :  it  is  only  to  be  found  in  the 
theatres  and  gymnasia,  the  apertures  of 
walls  and  intercolumns  being  linteled. 

Greece,  though  a  mild  climate,  is  some- 
times liable  to  rain  :  the  architects  of  this 
country,  therefore,  found  it  necessary  to 
raise  the  roofs  of  their  edifices  to  a  ridge 
in  the  middle,  the  section  being  that  of  a 
rectilineal  isosceles  triangle  :  the  base 
being  the  span  or  distance  between  the 
opposite  walls.  This  form  of  roof,  called 
a  pediment  roof,  was  frequently  covered 
with  marble  tiles. 

The  Grecians  surpassed  all  contempo- 
rary nations  in  the  arts  of  design  ;  the  re- 
mains of  their  ancient  structures  are  mo- 
dels of  imitation,  and  confessed  standards 
of  excellence.  They  were  the  inventor* 
of  tkree  orders  of  architecture,  of  which 
we  have  already  hinted,  and  which  we 
shall  detail  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this 
article.  The  remains  of  their  sculptures 
far  exceed  those  of  any  other  people,  and 
are,  even  at  this  day,  most  perfect  models. 
Modern  artists  have  no  means  so  certain, 
in  attaining  a  just  knowledge  of  their  pro- 
fession, as  in  the  study  of  those  exquisite 
master-pieces. 

The  progress  of  Grecian  architecture 
appears  to  have  occupied  a  period  of 
about  three  centuries,  from  the  age  of 
Solon  to  the  death  of  Alexander ;  and  in 
this  period  it  advanced  rapidly,  particu- 
larly from  the  defeat  of  Xerxes  to  the 
death  of  Pericles,  at  which  time  it  attain- 
ed its  utmost  degree  of  excellence,  and 
continued  to  flourish  till  the  time  it  be- 
came a  Roman  province. 

Prior  to  the  Macedonian  conquest,  all 
the  temples  of  Greece,  and  its  colonies  in 
Sicily  and  Italy,  appear  to  have  been  of 
the  Doric  order :  and  of  one  general  form, 
though  slightly  varied  in  particular  parts, 
us  occasional  circumstances  might  re- 
quire :  their  plan  was  an  oblong,  having- 
one  column  more  on  the  flank  than  dou- 
ble the  number  of  those  in  front. 

The  ancient  Etrurians  have  left  many 
excellent  monuments  of  taste,  and  to  them 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ia  generally  ascribed  the  method  of  build- 
ing- with  small  stone,  and  mortar  made  of 
calcareous  stone  ;  and  this  seems  proba- 
ble, as  the  most  ancient  vestiges  of  ce- 
mentitious  building's  are  to  be  found  in 
the  country  which  the  present  Tuscans 
inhabit. 

They  were  employed  by  the  Romans 
in  many  public  works  ;  the  walls  of  the 
city  of'Rome  were  made  of  hewn  stone, 
the  capitol  and  the  cloaca  maxima  are  of 
their  construction  ;  the  last  of  these  is 
esteemed  a  very  extraordinary  piece  of 
architecture,  as  is  sufficiently  proved  by 
its  remains.  To  these  people  is  attribut- 
ed the  invention  of  one  of  the  orders  of 
architecture,  called  after  them  the  Tus- 
can. 

We  are  told  by  Vitruvius,  that  the  in- 
lercolumns  of  their  temples  were  wide, 
and  that  they  were  linteled  with  wooden 
architraves. 

The  Romans  appear  to  have  had  their 
first  knowledge  of  architecture  from  the 
Etrurians :  but  it  was  not  till  after  the 
conquest  of  Greece,  that  they  acquired  a 
just  relish  for  its  beauties.  It  seems  to 
have  attained  to  its  highest  degree  of  ex- 
cellence in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and 
continued  to  flourish  till  the  seat  of  em- 
pire was  removed  to  Bizantium.  The 
works  of  the  Romans  were  much  more 
numerous  than  those  of  any  other  people. 
The  remains  of  their  palaces,  theatres, 
amphitheatres,  baths,  mausoleums,  and 
other  works,  excite  at  this  day  the  admi- 
ration and  astonishment  of  every  judicious 
beholder.  Their  first  temples  were  round 
and  vaulted,  and  hence  they  are  account- 
ed the  inventors  of  the  dome.  The  plans 
of  their  buildings  were  more  varied  than 
those  of  the  Greeks,  who,  excepting  but 
in  a  few  instances  of  small,  but  beautiful, 
specimens,  such  as  the  Tower  of  the 
"Winds,  and  the  monument  of  Lycicrates, 
erected  their  principal  edifices  upon  rec- 
tangular plans.  The  Romans  constructed 
circular  temples  crowned  with  domes, 
amphitheatres  upon  elliptic  plans,  and 
their  theatres  and  many  other  buildings 
upon  mixt-lined-plans.  By  this  variety 
they  formed  a  style  that  was  both  elegant 
and  magnificent.  But  let  it  be  remem- 
bered,that,  notwithstanding  the  grandeur, 
the  magnitude,  and  number  of  their 
works,  their  style  was  never  so  pure  as 
in  the  flourishing  ages  of  Greece.  Among 
the  Romans,  entablatures  were  frequent- 
ly omitted  :  columns  were  made  to  sup- 
port arches  and  groined  vaults ;  arcades 
were  substituted  for  colonades,  and  vaults 
for  ceilings.  In  several  of  their  most 
magnificent  public  buildings,  we  find  sto- 


ries of  arcades  upon  each  other,  or  in  the 
same  front  with  the  solid  parts  of  the  ma- 
sonry, decorated  with  the  orders,  which, 
instead  of  forming  an  essential  part  in  the 
construction,  are  degraded  to  idle  and 
ostentatious  ornaments.  This  is  very  con- 
spicuous in  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  and 
in  the  Coliseum. 

It  is  probable  that  the  arch  was  invent- 
ed in  Greece,  but  was  almost  constantly 
employed  by  the  Romans,  who  not  only 
considered  it  necessary  in  the  construc- 
tion, but  as  an  ornament,  which  they  la- 
vishly employed  in  the  apertures  of  walls, 
and  in  the  ceilings  over  passages  and 
apartments  of  their  buildings.  Particu- 
larly in  the  decline  of  the  empire,  from 
the  reign  of  Constantine,  and  upon  the 
establishment  of  Christianity,  external 
magnificence  was  every  where  sacrificed 
to  internal  decoration.  The  purity  of 
taste  in  the  arts  of  design  declined  rapid- 
ly, and  finally  perished  with  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  empire.  The  most  beautiful 
edifices  erected  in  the  preceding  reigns, 
were  divested  of  their  ornaments,  to  de- 
corate the  churches.  In  this  age  of  spo- 
liation, architects,  deficient  in  the  know- 
ledge of  their  professions,  adopted  the 
most  ready  modes  of  construction  :  to  ac- 
compljsh  this,  many  beautiful  structures 
were  deprived  of  their  columns,  and 
placed  at  wide  intervals  in  the  new  build- 
ings ;  and  over  the  capitals  were  thrown 
arches  for  the  support  of  the  superstruc- 
ture :  most  of  the  ornamental  parts  were 
taken  from  other  buildings,  which  were  ' 
spoiled  for  the  purpose.  The  edifices  of 
Italy  now  assumed  the  same  general  fea- 
tures as  those  which  characterised  the 
middle  ages.  This  disposition  is  the  plan 
of  the  Roman  basilicas,  but  is  more  near- 
ly allied,  in  the  elevation,  to  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  Egyptian  oeci,  which  has  also 
the  same  plan  as  the  basilica,  and  which 
was  of  similar  construction  to  the  churches 
in  after  times,  excepting  in  the  \vant  of 
arches  :  both  had  a  nave,  with  an  aisle 
upon  each  flank,  separated  from  the  nave 
by  a  range  of  columns,  which  supported 
a  wall,  pierced  with  windows  for  lighting 
the  nave  :  against  this  wall,  and  over  the 
columns  were  placed  other  attached  co- 
lumns. This,  when  roofed  over  with  a 
groined  ceiling',  such  as  that  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Peace,  will  form  the  interior  of  a 
building  similar  to  that  of  the  Saxon 
churches. 

The  Corinthian  order  was  the  favourite 
order  among1  the  Romans,  and,  as  far  as 
existing  examples  enable  us  to  judge,  the 
only  order  \vell  understood,  and  happily 
executed. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


What  We  now  call  the  Composite  order 
rs  of  Roman  extraction  :  it  was  employed 
in  many  of  their  building's,  but  chiefly  in 
the  triumphal  arches :  from  what  we  find 
in  Vitruvius,  it  was 'never  counted  a  dis- 
tinct order,  but  as  a  species  of  the  Co- 
rinthian only.  The  only  existing1  exam- 
ple that  Rome  affords  of  the  Doric  order  is 
that  executed  in  the  theatre  of  Marseilles, 
and,  though  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  is 
but  a  vitiated  composition  :  the  columns 
are  meagre  and  plain,  divested  of  that 
sublime  grandeur  and  elegance  which  are 
so  conspicuous  in  the  solidity  and  flutings 
of  the  Grecian  Doric.  The  dentilsin  the 
cornice  arc  too  effeminate  a  substitute  for 
the  masculine  mutules,  which  are  so  cha- 
racteristic of  the  origin  of  this  order. 

The  Ionic  in  the  same  building  is  ill 
executed.  The  channels  of  the  volutes, 
of  the  capitals,  of  the  Ionic  columns  on  the 
Coliseum,  and  the  dentil  band  of  the  cor- 
nice are  not  cut.  The  Ionic  order  of  the 
Temple  of  Fortune,  though  it  has  been 
held  out  as  a  model,  is  ill  proportioned, 
and  the  spirals  of  the  volutes  are  un- 
gracefully formed.  The  Ionic  of  the 
Temple  of  Concord  is  out  of  character, 
the  volutes  are  insignificantly  small,  and 
mutules  supply  the  place  of  dentils  in  the 
cornice.  The  Romans  placed  one  order 
upon  another,  on  the  exterior,  in  the  se- 
veral stories  of  some  of  their  buildings  : 
but  the  Greeks  only  employed  them 
around  the  cells  of  their  temples,  forming 
a  peristyle. 

The  Romans  carried  the  method  of  ce- 
mentitious  buildings  to  the  utmost  degree 
of  perfection.  Their  most  considerable 
edifices  had  the  facings  of  their  walls,  and 
the  arches  and  angles,  of  brick,  or  small 
rubble  stones  squared ;  the  cores  built 
with  pebble  and  rubble  stones,  grouted  or 
run  with  liquid  mortar ;  and  at  regular 
intervals  were  strengthened  with  courses 
of  bond  stones.  This  construction  of 
walls  was  frequently  stuccoed,  or  incrust- 
*'d  with  marble.  It  is  much  more  expe- 
ditious and  economical  than  that  built  of 
wrought  stone,  which  occasions  a  greater 
waste  of  materials  and  loss  of  time.  The 
durability  and  solidity  of  the  Roman  ce- 
mentitious  buildings  is  such,  that  mortar 
has  acquired  a  hardness  superior  to  the 
stones  which  are  connected  by  it.  This, 
when  compared  with  the  fragility  and 
crumbling  nature  of  the  mortar  used  by 
modern  builders,  had  led  some  to  suppose 
1  hat  the  ancients  possessed  processes  in 
the  making  of  cements,  which  have,  from 
1'he  lapse  of  time,  been  lost  to  the  present 
day.  But  the  information  and  experi- 
ments of  ingenious  men  have  -exploded 


this  opinion  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt,  thai, 
if  proper  attention  be  paid  to  the  choice 
of  limestone  and  sand,  to  the  burning  of 
j  the  lime,  and  above  all,  that  care  be  taken 
in  the  mixing  and  tempering  these  mate- 
rials, workmen  will  be  enabled  to  rival 
those  of  Rome.  This  has  been  tried  in 
some  instances,  though  the  lapse  of  ages 
may  be  necessary  to  make  the  comparison 
complete  ;  however,  it  will  appear,  from 
the  following  account  of  Vitruvius,  that 
the  method  of  making  lime  by  the  Ro- 
mans was  not  very  different  from  what  it 
is  at  the  present  day.  "  Lime  should  be 
burnt  from  white  stone,  or  flint,  of  which 
the  thick  and  hard  sort  are  more  proper 
for  building  walls,  as  those  which  are  po- 
rous are  for  plastering.  When  the  lime 
is  burnt  the  ingredients  are  thus  to  be 
mixed  :  with  three  parts  of  pit  sand,  one 
partoflime  is  to  be  mingled;  but  if  river 
or  sea  sand  is  used,  two  parts  of  sand  and 
one  of  lime  must  be  united  :  for  in  these 
proportions  the  mortar  will  have  a  proper 
consistence  :  if  bricks  or  tiles,  pounded, 
and  sifted,  be  joined  with  river  or  pit 
sand,  to  the  quantity  of  a  third  part,  it 
will  make  the  mortar  stronger  and  fitter 
for  use." 

The  works  of  wrought  stone  of  the  Ro- 
mans, as  well  as  those  of  the  Greeks,  were 
constructed  without  cement ;  but  cramps 
and  ligatures  of  iron  and  bronze  were 
used  in  great  abundance.  The  use  of 
metal  was  not  confined  to  cramps  and 
bolts,  for  they  even  constructed  roofs  of 
bronze,  which  was  also  used  in  magnifi- 
cent profusion  in  the  decorations  of  build- 
ings. It  excites  regret,  to  reflect  that 
the  means  employed  by  the  ancients  to 
increase  the  beauty,  and  ensure  the  du- 
ration of  their  edifices,  have  only,  in  mu- 
ny  instances,  served  to  accelerate  their 
destruction. 

These  valuable  materials  have  caused 
much  dilapidation,  and  more  buildings 
have  been  ruined  by  rapine,  than  by  the 
injuries  of  time.  In  the  works  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  of  hewn  stone, 
they  appear  to  have  wrought  only  the 
beds  of  the  stones,  before  they  were 
placed  in  the  building,  leaving  the  faces 
to  be  worked  after  the  completion  of  the 
edifice.  By  this  means,  the  arises  and 
the  mouldings  were  preserved  from  in- 
jury, and  the  faces  made  exactly  in  the 
same  plane,  or  surface,  which  is  not  gene- 
rally the  case  in  the  facings  of  our  mo- 
dern works.  Our  workmen  pass  them 
over  in  the  most  slovenly  manner,  with 
the  greatest  indifference,  by  rounding- 
the  stones  which  happen  to  project  at  the 
joints,  which  gives  them  a  false  and  irre- 


ARCHITECTURE. 


g-ular  appearance  in  sunshine.  By  this 
means,  also,  the  ancients  diminished  and 
fluted  their  columns,  which  could  not  be 
done  with  the  same  accuracy  any  other 
way. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the 
Goths,  having  now  the  dominion  of  those 
places  formerly  the  seat  of  the  arts,  and 
having  soon  become  converts  to  Christi- 
anity, but  having  no  established  rules  of 
their  own  in  the  principles  of  architec- 
ture, either  built  their  churches  in  the 
form  of  the  Roman  Basilica,  or  converted 
the  basilica  into  churches.  Architecture 
continued  during  their  government,  with 
little  alteration,  in  the  general  forms,  from 
that  which  had  been  practised  at  the  de- 
cline of  the  Roman  empire ;  but  igno- 
rance in  proportion,  and  a  depraved  taste 
in  the  ornamental  department,  at  last  de- 
prived their  edifices  of  that  symmetry 
and  beauty,  which  were  so  conspicuous 
in  the  works  of  the  ancients.  However, 
the  knowledge  of  architectural  elements 
was  still  preserved  among  them,  and  of 
the  various  forms  of  vaulting  used  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  they  adopted  that 
of  groins  or  cross-arching. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be 
easy  to  shew,  that  the  Goths  had  no  share 
in  the  invention  of  that  style  of  building 
which  still  bears  their  name.  The  archi- 
tecture of  Italy,  at  the  time  they  ceased 
to  be  a  nation,  was  nothing  but  debased 
Roman,  which  was  the  archetype  for  the 
first  Saxon  churches  erected  in  this  coun- 
try. The  term  Gothic  seems  to  have  ori- 
ginated, in  Italy,  with  the  restorers  of  the 
Grecian  style,  and  was  applied,  by  the 
followers  of  Palladio  and  Inigo  Jones,  to 
all  the  structures  erected  in  the  interval 
between  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  and 
end  of  the  fifteenth  centuries,  probably 
with  a  view  to  stigmatize  those  beautiful 
edifices,  and  to  recover  the  ancient  man- 
ner. This  term  is  therefore  of  modern  ap- 
plication :  it  was  not  used  in  Italy  till  the 
pointed  style  had  gained  the  summit  of 
perfection,  nor  yet  in  England,  when  this 
species  of  architecture  ceased  to  be  in 
use,  and  the  Grecian  restored.  This  man- 
ner of  building,  like  most  other  arts,  re- 
quired a  succession  of  ages  to  bring  it  to 
maturity,  and  the  principal  cause  which 
seems  to  have  effected  this  was,  that  de- 
sire of  novelty  so  inherent  in  the  mind  of 
man  to  produce  something  new,  and  a  to- 
tal disregard  to  the  proportions  of  ancient 
edifices.  Having  now  traced  the  Grecian 
style  from  the  place  of  its  invention  to  its 
decline  in  italy,  we  shall  follow  the  steps 
]>y  which  this  corrupted  ill-proportioned 


Italian  style  at  last  assumed  a  character 
so  different  from  the  original,  as  to  he- 
come  in  a  few  centuries  a  distinct  species 
of  architecture,  which  not  only  exhibited 
beautiful  proportions,  and  elegant  deco- 
rations, but  also  majestic  grandeur,  and 
sublimity  in  its  fabrication.  To  do  this, 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  seek  abroad 
for  those  successive  changes,  aslhe  dif- 
ferent gradations  can  be  distinctly  traced 
at  home.  The  first  Saxon  churches  here 
were  either  constructed,  with  however 
rude  imitation,  after  models  of  Roman 
temples,  which  we  may  presume  then  re- 
mained in  Britain,  or  by  foreigners  brought 
from  Rome  and  France.  The  manner  of 
building  at  this  time  was  called  Roman, 
the  term  Gothic  not  being  applied  till  the 
end  of  several  centuries. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  a  quadran- 
gular walled  enclosure,  divided  in  the 
breadth  into  three  parts,  by  two  colona- 
ded  arcades,  supporting,  on  the  imposts 
of  the  arches,  two  other  opposite  higher 
walls,  through  which  the  light  descended 
into  the  middle  part,  and  upon  which  the 
roof  rested,  was  known  to  the  Romans 
before  the  Goths  appeared  in  Italy.  Now 
this  construction  is  the  general  outline 
of  the  Saxon,  Norman,  and  the  pointed 
styles  of  building  churches,  and  is  also 
that  form  of  structure,  most  advantageous 
for  lighting  the  interior  upon  the  same 
plan;  for,  though  the  roof  might  have 
been  equally  well  supported  by  columns, 
instead  of  the  interior  walls,  and  extend- 
ing those  of  the  exterior  to  the  whole 
height,  the  intensity  of  light  produced 
from  the  same  number  of  windows  on  the 
sides,  thus  far  removed  from  the  middle 
of  the  edifice,  would  have  been  great.lyr 
diminished.  It  may  also  be  farther  ob- 
served, that  no  other  form  of  building 
was  so  favourable  for  vaulting :  for  a 
vaulted  roof  could  neither  have  been 
thrown  to  the  whole  breadth,  nor  in  the 
three  compartments,  without  walls  of 
enormous  thickness,  which  would  not  on- 
ly have  added  to  the  breadth,  but  would 
have  been  attended  with  prodigious  addi- 
tional expenses. 

The  Saxon  style  is  easily  recognized  by 
its  massive  columns  and  semicircular 
arches,  which  usually  spring  from  capi- 
tals without  the  intervention  of  the  enta- 
blature. In  the  first  Saxon  buildings  the 
mouldings  were  extremely  simple,  the 
greater  part  consisting  of  fillets  and  plat- 
bands, at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and 
to  the  general  fayade.  The  archivolts 
and  imposts  were  similar  to  those  found 
in  Roman  edifices.  The  general  plan  and 


ARCHITECTURE, 


disposition  of  the  latter  Saxon  churches 
were  as  follow ;  the  chief  entrance  was  at 
the  west  end  into  the  nave,  at  the  upper 
end  of  which  was  a  cross,  with  the  arms 
of  it  extending1  north  and  south  ;  the  east 
end,  containing  the  choir,  terminated  in  a 
semicircular  form.  A  tower  was  erected 
over  the  centre  of  the  cross,  and  to  con- 
tain the  bells  another  was  frequently  add- 
ed, and  sometimes  two. 

The  large  churches  contained  a  nave 
and  two  side  aisles,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  nave,  and  were  divided  into  three 
tiers  or  stories,  the  lower  consisting  of  a 
range  of  arcades  on  each  side;  the  middle, 
a  range  of  galleries  between  the  roof  and 
the  vaulting  of  the  isles ;  and  the  upper- 
most, a  range  of  windows.  The  pillars 
were  either  square,  polygonal,  or  circular. 
Such  was  the  thickness  of  the  walls  and 
pillars,  that  buttresses  were  not  necessa- 
ry, neither  were  they  in  use.  The  aper- 
tures are  splayed  from  the  mullions  on 
both  sides.  The  dressings  are  generally 
placed  on  the  sides  of  :he  splayed  jambs 
and  heads  of  the  arches,  and  but  seldom 
against  the  face  of  the  walls,  and  when 
this  is  the  case,  the  prefectures  are  not 
very  prominent.  The  dressings  of  the 
jambs  frequently  consist  of  one,  or  seve- 
ral, engaged  columns  upon  each  side. 
The  imposts,  particularly  those  of  the 
windows,  have  frequently  the  appearance 
of  being  a  part  of  the  wall  itself.  The 
doors  in  general  are  formed  in  deep  re- 
cession, and  a  series  of  equidistant  en- 
gaged columns  placed  upon  each  jamb, 
and  were  such,  that  two  horizontal 
straight  lines  would  pass  through  the  ax- 
is of  each  series,  and  would,  if  produced, 
terminate  in  a  point.  Each  column  is  at- 
tached to  a  recess  formed  by  two  planes, 
constituting  an  interior  right  angle.  The 
angle  at  the  meeting  of  every  two  of  these 
recesses  formed  an  exterior  right  angle, 
which  was  sometimes  obtunded,  and  fre- 
quently hollowed.  The  ucrhivolts  rest- 
ing on  the  capitals  of  the  columns  are 
formed  on  the  soffit  shelving,  like  the 
jambs  belovr.  The  ornaments  of  columns 
and  mouldings  are  of  very  simple  forms. 
The  rudely  sculptured  figures  which  of- 
ten occur  in  door-cases,  when  the  head  of 
the  door  itself  is  square,  indicate  a  Ro- 
man original  and  are  mostly  referable  to 
an  rera  immediately  preceding  the  con- 
quest. 

Aiter  the  Norman  conquest,  the  gene- 
ral forms  of  the  parts  remai ned  ih  e  same, 
though  the  extent  and  dimensions  1/1'  'he 
churches  were  greatly  enlarged ;  the 
vaultings  became  much  more  lofty,  the 


pillars  of  greater  diameter,  the  ornaments 
more  frequent  and  elaborately  finished; 
towers  of  very  large  dimensions  and  great 
height  were  placed  either  in  the  centre, 
or  at  the  west  end  of  the  cathedral  and 
conventual  churches.  These  were  often 
ornamented  with  arcades  in  tiers  of  small 
intersecting  arches  on  the  outside.  About 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  circular 
arches,  thick  walls  without  prominent 
buttresses,  and  massive  pillars  with  a  kind 
of  regular  base  and  capital,  generally  pre- 
vailed ;  the  capitals  of  the  pillars  were 
often  left  plain,  though  there  were  a  few 
instances  of  sculptured  capitals,  foliage, 
and  animals.  The  shafts  of  the  pillars 
were  usually  plain  cylinders,  or  had  se- 
micolumns  attached  to  them.  The  first 
transition  of  the  arch  appears  to  have 
taken  place  towards  the  close  of  the  reign 
of  Stephen,  its  figure,  which  had  hitherto 
been  circular,  becoming  slightly  pointed, 
and  the  heavy  single  pillar  made  into  a 
pilastered  cluster,  which  was  at  first  ill 
formed,  but  gradually  assumed  a  more 
elegant  figure  and  graceful  proportion, 
the  archi volts  still  retaining  many  of  the 
Saxon  ornaments.  It  may  here  be  ob- 
served, that,  antecedent  to  this  period, 
neither  tabernacles,  nor  niches  with  cano- 
pies, statues  in  whole  relief,  pinnacles, 
pediments,  or  spires,  nor  any  tracery  in 
the  vaultings,  were  used;  but  at  this  time, 
or  soon  after,  these  began  to  obtain.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  13th  century,  the 
pillars,  then  supporting  sharply  pointed 
arches,  were  much  more  slender ;  the 
ceilings  were  seemingly  sustained  by 
groined  ribs,  resting  on  the  capitals  of  the 
pillars,  and  the  windows  were  lighted  by 
several  openings,  in  place  of  one. 

After  the  reign  of  Stephen,  the  circular 
and  pointed  arches  were  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  same  building ;  but  the 
pointed  style,  gaining  more  and  more  up- 
on the  circular,  prevailed  ultimately  at 
the  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  "and 
prevented  all  farther  confusion  of  mixture. 
The  architecture  of  this  age  now  exhibit- 
ed uniformity  of  parts,  justness  of  propor- 
tions, and  elegance  of  decoration  ,  the  ar- 
cades and  pillars  became  numerous,  the 
single  shafts  were  divided  into  a  multipli- 
city of  equal,  slender,  distinct  shafts,  con- 
structed of  purbeck  marble,  and  collected 
under  one  capital,  luxuriantly  decorated 
with  leaves  of  the  palm-tree.  The  east 
and  west  windows  began  to  be  widely  ex- 
panded ;  these  required  a  number  of  mul- 
lions, which,  as  well  as  the  ribs  and  tran- 
soms of  the  vaulting,  begun  to  ramify, 
from  the  springing  of  the  arches,  into  u 


ARCHITECTURE. 


variety  of  tracery,  which  was  uniformly 
ornamented  with  rosettes  or  polyfoil,  cus- 
pidated figures,  forming  trefoils,  quatre- 
ibils,  &c.  Canopies  were  introduced  over 
the  arches,  and  in  rich  work  were  deco- 
rated with  crockets  and  creeping  foliage, 
and  terminated  in  a  flower.  The  but- 
tresses were  made  in  several  diminished 
stages  towards  the  top,  and  mostly  termi- 
nated with  purfled  pinnacles. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  detached 
columns  were  laid  aside,  and  pillars, 
nearly  of  the  same  proportion  as  former- 
ly, with  vertical  or  columnar  mouldings 
wrought  out  of  the  solid,  were  adopted. 
The  east  and  west  windows  were  so  en- 
Sarged  as  to  take  up  nearly  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  nave,  and  carried  up  al- 
most as  high  as  the  vaulting,  and  were 
beautifully  ornamented  with  lively  colours 
on  stained  glass. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.  arcades  with  low  arches  and  sharp 
points  prevailed ;  over  the  arcades  was 
generally  placed  a  row  of  open  galleries, 
originally  introduced  in  Saxon  churches. 

About  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Richard 
II.,  A.  D.  1399,  the  pillars  became  more 
tall  and  slender,  forming  still  more  lofty 
and  open  arcades ;  the  columns  which 
formed  the  cluster  were  of  different  dia- 
meters, the  capitals  more  complicated, 
the  vaults  at  the  intersection  of  the  ribs 
were  studded  with  knots  of  foliage,  the 
canopies  of  the  arches  were  universally 
purfled,  and  terminated  with  a  rich  knot 
of  flowers :  the  pilastered  buttresses 
flanking  the  sides  were  crowned  with 
elaborate  finials,  the  flying  buttresses 
were  formed  on  segments  of  c'  ies,  in 
order  to  give  them  lightness,  and  strength 
at  the  same  time. 

From  the  close  of  the  14th  century  no 
remarkable  change  appears  to  have  taken 
place  ;  the  grander  members  continued 
their  original  dimensions  and  form,  and 
the  ornamental  parts  became  distinguish- 
ed by  greater  richness  and  exuberance. 

Another  change  took  place  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  IV.  Its  leading  features  are 
principally  to  be  seen  in  the  vaultings, 
the  horizontal  sections  of  which  had  been 
generally  projecting  right  angles,  but 
were  now  arches  of  circles  ;  the  surface 
of  the  vaults  being  such  as  might  be  ge- 
nerated by  a  concave  curve  revolving 
round  a  vertical  line  as  an  axis,  which 
was  immediately  over  the  pillars.  This 
species  of  groining,  unknown  in  preced- 
ing ages,  was  favourable  for  a  beautiful 
display  of  tracery.  Equi-distant  concave 
•i  bs  in  vertical  planes  were  intersected 

VOL.  1. 


by  horizontal  convex  circular  ribs,  and 
the  included  pannels  were  beautifully 
ornamented  with  cusps,  forming  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  the  most  elegant  tracery, 
which,  from  its  appearance,  has  been  de- 
nominated fan  work. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  reign 
of  King  Henry  VIII.,  a  mixed  or  debased 
style  began  to  take  place,  from  our  in- 
tercourse with  the  Italians.  The  ingenious 
Mr.  Britton,  in  his  valuable  architectural 
antiquities  of  Great  Britain,  has  classed 
the  various  styles  in  the  following  order, 
which  we  shall  adopt,  and  shall  be  happy 
to  find  the  same  appropriate  terms  adopt- 
ed also  in  future  publications,  wherever 
ideas  of  the  objects  represented  by  them 
are  the  subjects  of  inquiry.  We  are  sen- 
sible this  is  the  only  means  of  facilitating 
a  knowledge  of  this  study,  by  removing 
equivocal  words,  and  thereby  making  ar- 
chitectural language  intelligible." 

First  Style.  Anglo  Saxon ;  this  will 
embrace  all  buildings  that  were  erected 
between  the  times  of  the  conversion  of 
the  Saxons  and  the  Norman  conquest, 
from  A.  D.  599  to  A.  D.  1066. 

Second  Style.  Anglo  Norman,  by  which 
will  be  meant,  that  style  which  prevailed 
from  1066  to  1189,  including  the  reigns  of 
Williams  I.  and  II.,  Henry  1.,  Stephen,  and 
Henry  II. 

Third  Style.  English,  from  1 1 89  to  1272, 
embracing  the  reigns  of  Richard  I.,  John, 
and  Henry  III. 

Fourth  Style.  Decorated  English,  from 
1272  to  1461,  including  the  reigns  of  Ed- 
wards I.,  II.,  III.,  Richard  II.,  Henrys  IV., 
V.,  and  VI. 

Fifth  Style.  Highly  decorated  florid 
English,  from  1461  to  1509,  including  the 
reigns  of  Edwards  IV.  and  V.,  Richard 
III.,  and  Henry  VII. 

From  this  xra  we  lose  all  sight  of  con- 
gruity  :  and  the  public  buildings  erected 
during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Eliza- 
beth, and  James  I.,  may  be  characterised 
by  the  terms  of  debased  English,  or  An- 
glo-Italian. Mr.  Britton  observes,  "  that 
during  the  intermediate  time,  when  one 
style  was  growing  into  repute  and  the 
other  sinking  in  favour,  there  will  be 
found  a  mixture  of  both  in  one  building, 
which  is  not  referable  to  either,  and 
which  has  constituted  the  greatest  prob- 
lem in  antiquarian  science." 

Before  we  leave  this  subject,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  give  some  account  of  the 
materials  employed  in  the  fabrication, 
and  of  the  principles,  in  the  construction 
of  those  immense  piles,  which  at  once 
united  grandeur,  magnificence,  and  awful 

Br 


ARCHITECTURE. 


sublimity  in  their  structure.  In  the  erec- 
tion of  these  edifices,  heavy  cornices,  en- 
tablatures, and  lintels,  were  omitted,  and 
there  was  seldom  occasion  to  use  any 
stones  larger  than  a  man  might  carry  on 
liis  back,  up  a  ladder,  from  one  scaffold  to 
another,  though  spoke  wheels  and  pullies 
were  occasionally  used.  From  the  adop- 
tion of  such  light  materials,  and  the  emu- 
lation of  the  architects,  edifices  were 
raised  to  an  incredible  height.  Hence  the 
lofty  towers,  and  the  still  more  elevated 
spires,  that  occasion  such  awful  grandeur 
and  sublime  sensations  in  the  mind  of  the 
astonished  beholder.  The  ceilings  of  the 
churches  were  formed  by  groined  vault- 
ing, a  portion  of  the  pressure  of  which 
was  directed  in  the  length  to  the  ends, 
and  the  remaining  pressure  to  the  spring- 
ing points  on  the  sides. 

In  the  Roman  buildings  the  walls  were 
most  commonly  without  projections,  and 
of  vast  thickness,  which  was  necessary  in 
a  vaulted  building,  erected  upon  a  recti- 
lineal plan,  in  order  to  counteract  the  ef- 
forts of  the  resisting  arches.  Hence,  if 
the  building  had  been  groined,  the  weight 
of  the  arches  would  have  been  thrown 
upon  the  springing  points.  From  this  it  is 
evident,  that  a  vast  quantity  of  materials 
must  have  been  employed  without  effect; 
but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  pointed 
style  of  architecture,  for  the  walls  wrere 
thickened  by  buttresses  opposed  only  to 
the  pressing  points  ;  and,  to  aid  the  re- 
sistance with  still  more  powerful  effect, 
the  buttresses  were  surmounted  with 
high  pinnacles,  and,  from  their  sloping 
position,  their  general  form  was  almost 
one  continued  prop,  in  a  straght  line  to 
the  bottom  :  this  straight  line  was  a  tan- 
gent to  the  arch.  Those  that  understand 
the  nature  of  the  centre  of  gravity  will 
easily  perceive,  that  a  plain  wall  will  be 
overturned  with  much  more  ease  than 
one  with  buttresses,  of  the  'same  length 
and  height,  the  same  quantity  of  materi- 
als being  employed  in  both.  The  extre- 
mity of  the  aisles  was  sustained  by  strong 
pilastered  buttresses  on  the  outside,  and 
the  other  extremity  rested  on  the  imposts 
or  capitals  of  the  pillars.  These  pillars, 
with  their  superincumbent  walls,  not  be- 
ing assisted  as  on  the  outside  with  but- 
tresses, were  liable  to  be  bent  with  the 
pressure  of  the  arches,  unless  the  sides 
of  the  nave  had  been  of  sufficient  thick- 
ness, which,  in  many  of  our  churches, 
experience  has  proved  to  be  the  contra- 
ry, by  the  bending  of  the  walls  inwardly, 
which  is  a  serious  defect,  and  threatens 
ruin  to  many  of  those  venerable  piles  of 


building.  We  cannot  therefore  expect 
these  edifices  to  rival,  in  duration,  the 
immortal  constructions  of  Egypt,  Greece, 
and  Rome.  As  to  the  groining  of  the 
nave,  the  arches  were  equally  resisted  on 
both  sides  by  the  flying  buttresses,  which 
pressed  forcibly  at  the  imposts  of  the 
arches.  It  would  appear,  that  the  me- 
thod practised  in  the  erection  of  these 
edifices  was,  to  insert  the  springing  stones 
as  the  work  went  on,  but  to  leave  the 
vaulting  to  be  turned  after  the  walls  had 
been  carried  up  to  their  full  height,  and 
the  whole  roofed  in.  The  roofs  of  Gothic 
buildings  were  very  high  pitched,  a  form 
more  from  choice  than  necessity,  rather 
adopted  in  compliance  with  the  pointed 
and  pyramidal  style  of  architecture,  than 
rendered  necessary  by  the  climate,  being- 
generally  covered  with  lead.  These  roofs 
are  therefore  faulty,  in  burdening  the 
walls  with  an  unnecessary  load  of  timber 
and  lead  ;  and  they  are  also  deficient  in 
the  construction,  by  the  omission  of  tye- 
beams,  to  counteract  their  tendency  t» 
spread  and  thrust  out  the  walls. 

After  having  thus  discussed  the  several 
styles  of  building,  which  have  been  gene- 
rally and  unmeaningly  classed  under  the 
appellation  of  Gothic,  we  must  now  make 
a  retrogression  to  Italy,  where  the  Gre- 
cian style  had  been  revived  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  was  flourishing  in 
great  purity.  Let  us  therefore  retrace 
the  steps  by  which  it  again  rose  to  its  an- 
cient splendour  and  magnificence. 

Fillipo  Brunelleschi,  born  1377,  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  restorer  of  ancient 
architecture,  and  the  founder  of  the  mo- 
dern style. 

After  having  prepared  his  mind  by  the 
study  of  the  writings  of  the  ancient  au- 
thors, and  the  ruins  of  Roman  edifices^ 
which  he  carefully  measured,  he  disco- 
vered the  orders,  and  recognised  the  sim- 
ple forms  and  constructions  of  the  ancients, 
and  having  thus  formed  a  system  upon 
unshaken  principles,  he  was  enabled  to 
construct  works  with  beauty,  solidity,  and 
durability.  He  erected  the  dome  of  St. 
Maria  da  Fiore  at  Florence,  an  undertak- 
ing beyond  the  abilities  of  any  other 
builder  then  living  ;  Arnolfo,  the  original 
architect  of  this  vast  cathedral,  having 
been  two  years  dead.  This  dome,  rising 
from  an  octangular  plan,  is  of  great  ele- 
vation, and  is  only  inferior  in  size  to  that 
of  St.  Peter's.  It  is  constructed  by  two 
vaults,  with  a  cavity  between  them,  and 
was  erected  without  centering.  It  is  the 
only  elevated  dome  supported  by  a  wall 
without  buttresses.  From  this,  and  many 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ether  buildings  erected  by  Brunelleschi, 
the  learned  began  to  study  the  works  of 
Vitruvius,  and  a  general  taste  for  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  art  began  to  warm  the 
breasts  of  the  Italians. 

.  Leo  Battista  Alberta,  bom  A.  D.  1398, 
was  the  first  modern  author  who  publish- 
ed a  learned  treatise  on  architecture,  from 
which  he  has  acquired  great  reputation, 
and  is  justly  styled  the  modern  Vitruvius. 
Following  the  steps  of  Brunelleschi,  he 
reformed  byjhis  precepts  and  designs  ma- 
ny of  the  abuses  and  barbarous  practices 
which  then  prevailed  among  his  country- 
men. 

Bramante  had  a  considerable  share  in 
the  restoration  of  ancient  art,  and  built 
many  magnificent  edifices.  Pope  Julius 
II.  having  projected  the  rebuilding  of  St. 
Peter's  upon  a  scale  of  unequalled  mag- 
nificence, entrusted  the  execution  of  the 
design,  1513,  to  Bramante,  who  conceived 
the  idea  of  erecting  the  lofty  cupola 
upon  that  immense  structure.  This  vast 
undertaking  was  carried  on  successively 
by  Raphael,  San  Gallo,  and  Michael  An- 
gelo,  to  whom  the  final  design  and  com- 
pletion of  the  work  is  principally  due. 

Architecture  continued  to  flourish  in 
the  16th  century,  under  the  great  archi- 
tects Vignola,  Serlio,  Palladio,  and  Sca- 
mozzi.  To  the  unremitted  assiduity  of 
these  distinguished  artists  in  the  study  of 
the  Roman  edifices,  and  to  their  invalua- 
ble publications,  the  world  has  been  much 
indebted  for  the  elucidation  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  ancient  art. 

The  list  of  the  celebrated  Italian  artists 
closes  with  Bernini,  who  flourished  in  the 
17th  century. 

The  Grecian  style  of  building  was  re- 
vived in  France  in  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century,  and  afterwards  flourished 
under  several  architects  of  distinguished 
merit.  Their  principal  works  are,  the 
palace  of  Versailles,  St.  Cyr,  the  church 
of  Invalids,  the  Facade  of  the  Louvre,  a 
most  beautiful  modern  structure,  the 
Porte  St.  Dennis,  and  the  church  of  Gene- 
vieve,  the  present  Pantheon. 

Grecian  architecture  was  restored  in 
England  under  the  celebrated  Inigo  j  ones, 
born  1752.  His  distinguished  works  at 
Greenwich,  Whitehall,  and  Covent  Gar- 
den, will  ever  secure  him  a  name  among 
the  architects  of  the  highest  reputation. 

Sir  Christopher  Wren,  an  eminent  ma- 
thematician and  philosopher,  as  well  as 
an  architect  of  the  first  rank,  has  execu- 
ted many  of  the  finest  buildings  in  Lon- 
don, and  other  parts  of  England,  in  the 
modern  style.  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  infe- 
rior to  none  but  St.  Peter's,  in  point  of 


nor  1,0  noi 


magnitude,  but  perhaps  Superiofr  both  in 
skilful  constsuction  and  figuration,  will 
perpetuate  his  name  to  the  latest  posteri- 
ty. The  exterior  dome  of  St.  Paul's  is 
constructed  of  wood,  and  sustained  by  a 
cone  of  18  inch  brick  work,  which  also 
supports  the  lantern  above. 

The  interior  dome  is  also  constructed 
of  18  inch  brick  work,  which  had  a  course 
the  whole  thickness  for  every  five  feet, 
and  the  intermediate  parts  had  two  bricks 
in  length  in  the  thickness.  This  dome 
was  turned  upon  a  centre,  which  support- 
ed itself  without  any  standards  from  be- 
low. From  the  inclined  position  of  its 
supporting  walls  it  had  little  or  no  trans- 
verse pressure,  yet,  for  the  greater  secu- 
rity, it  was  hooped  with  iron  at  the  bot- 
tom. This  is  accurately  represented  in 
Gywn's  Section. 

Though  modern  architecture  is,  for  the 
far  greater  part,  indebted  to  the  construc- 
tions and  decorations  of  Grecian'  and  Ro- 
man edifices,  yet  we  still  retain  consider- 
able traces  of  the  Gothic  style  in  many  of 
our  buildings. 

The  spire  is  of  Gothic  invention ;  it  is 
imitated  in  our  churches  and  some  other 
buildings,  by  erecting  one,  or  two,  or  a  se- 
ries of  Grecian  temples  over  each  otlier, 
every  superior  one  being  less  in  its  hori- 
zontal dimensions  than  that  immediately 
below. 

Frustrums  of  pyramids  and  cones  are 
also  the  ornaments  of  our  steeples ;  but 
whether  the  component  parts  be  one,  two, 
or  a  series  of  temples,  continually  dimin- 
ished, or  temples  supporting  truncated 
pyramids,  the  general  contour  of  the  ag- 
gregate is  still  pyramidal. 

The  plans  of  Grecian  buildings  were 
simple  geometrical  forms ;  but  these  of 
our  structures  are  symmetrical  and  com- 
plex figures,  more  in  imitation  of  those 
of  the  Romans. 

The  materials  used  in  our  modern  build- 
ings are  stone,  brick  and  timber.  In  rus- 
tic buildings,  the  stones  are  either  laid 
dry  or  with  nfOrtar.  In  finished  edifices, 
the  stones  of  the  facings  are  squared  and 
laid  in  mortar,  and  the  backs  and  cores 
are  most  generally  made  up  with  brick  or 
rubble.  Walls  constructed  entirety  of 
squared  stones  are  rare  :  for,  allowing-  the 
materials  may  be  easily  procured  in  great 
abundance,  a  vast  expense  will  be  incur- 
red by  enormous  additional  workman- 
ship. This  construction  of  walling  is 
therefore  seldom  or  never  used  but  in 
aquatic  buildings,  where  the  greatest 
strength  is  frequently  necessary. 

The  French  have  not  only  shown  much 
ingenuity  in  the  binding  and  cementing 


ARCHITECTURE. 


of  walls,  but  aiso  Iii  the  cutting  of  stones 
with  geometrical  exactness,  so  as  to  fit 
vaulted  surfaces,  of  variously  formed  fi- 
gures. 

Iron  is  used  for  cramping  stones,  some- 
times in  binding  the  face  and  back  of  a 
wall  together,  when  there  is  little  heart. 
In  domes  it  is  frequently  used  in  circular 
chains,  in  order  to  remove  lateral  pres- 
sure, and  make  the  weight  of  the  super- 
structure act  perpendicularly  upon  the 
supports.  It  is  also  used  in  fastening 
wood  together,  and  wood  to  stone  work. 

Timber  is  used  .also  as  ligatures  to 
walls?  in  this  situation  it  is  called  bond 
timber,  which  also  serves  for  securing 
the  internal  finishings.  Timber  is  fre- 
quently used  in  foundations,  in  floors,  in 
roofing,  in  internal  finishing,  &c.  Tim- 
ber, besides  being  used  in  bond,  flooring, 
and  roofing,  in  conjunction  with  stone  or 
brickwork,  is  sometimes  used  as  the  only 
material,  excepting  the  chimnies,  nails, 
and  other  iron  fastenings. 

Mouldings.  In  architectural  decora- 
tions, the  materials  are  formed  into  a  va- 
riety of  shapes;  which  have  in  any  two 
places  sections  of  equal  and  similar  fi- 
gures, at  right  angles  to  their  surface,  in 
these  two  places  ;  thin  forms  of  this  pro- 
perty are  called  mouldings. 

When  the  section  is  semicircular,  or 
semieiliptical,  it  is  called  a  torus  or  astra- 
gal :  when  large,  it  is  called  a  torus  ;  and 
when  small,  an  astragal. 

When  the  section  is  a  concave  curve, 
and  when  the  concavity  recedes  beyond 
either  of  the  extremities  of  the  curve, 
the  moulding  is  called  a  scotia  or  trochilus. 

When  the  section  is  concave,  one  ex- 
tremity being  above  the  other,  and  the 
upper  extremity  projecting  out  beyond 
the  lower,  and  when  the  lower  extremity 
recedes  from  a  vertical  line,  equal  to  the 
greatest  recess  of  the  concavity,  or  more, 
the  moulding  is  called  a  cavetto. 

When  the  section  is  a  convex  curve 
with  one  extremity  below  the  other,  and 
the  upper  extremity  projecting  farther 
than  the  lower,  without  any  part  of  the 
convexity  being  lower  than  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  section,  the  moulding  is 
called  an  ovolo  or  echinus. 

When  the  section  is  a  curve  of  contra- 
ry flexure,  like  a  flat  S,  the  moulding  is 
called  an  ogee  ;  and  when  the  concave 
part  of  the  ogee  projects,  and  the  convex 
part  recedes,  the  ogee  in  this  position  is 
called  a  sima  recta  ;  but  when  the  parts 
lie  the  contrary  way,  it  is  called  a  sima 
inversa. 

When  the  section  is  straight,  and  is 
Gather  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  or 


nearly  so,  then  the  flat  member  is  called 
a  fillet,  plat-band,  or  facia,  according  to 
its  breadth  and  comparison  with  other 
contiguous  mouldings. 

When  it  is  very  narrow,  and  either 
crowns  an  upper  moulding,  or  divides 
one  member  from  another,  it  is  called  a 
fillet,  or  listello ;  when  it  is  broader,  it  is 
called  a  plat-band  or  plinth ;  and  when 
very  broad,  it  is  called  a  facia  or  face. 

Compound  Mouldings.  When  one,  two, 
or  a  collection  of  mouldings,  with  or  with- 
out fillets,  crown  a  broad,  flat  member, 
this  collection  is  called  a  cymatium. 
Other  names  are  particularly  applied  to 
the  orders,  and  are  explained  under  that 
head. 

ORDERS    OP    ARCHITECTURE. 

An  order  is  a  decorated  imitation  of 
those  primitive  huts,  which  consisted  of 
rows  of  posts,  made  of  the  trunks  of  trees, 
disposed  in  the  ground  around  a  quadran- 
gular plat,  and  supporting1  a  covering, 
which  consisted  of  four  lintelling  beams, 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  posts,  with  other 
transverse  beams,  supported  again  by  two 
of  the  opposite  lintels :  and  lastly,  of 
three  rows  of  transverse  timbers  support- 
ing each  other,  and  the  lowermost  sup- 
ported by  the  ends  of  the  transverse 
beams  on  each  side,  i;i  parallel  inclined 
planes,  rising  from  the  ends  of  the  trans- 
verse beams,  till  each  plane  of  timbers  on 
the  one  side  met  its  corresponding  plane 
on  the  other;  the  lowermost  timbers  on 
each  side  being  disposed  in  pairs,  in  the 
same  vertical  planes  with  the  transverse 
beams  forming  the  sides  of  the  triangle, 
and  projecting  beyond  the  lintels,  and  the 
uppermost  inclined  planes  of  timbers 
serving  to  fix  the  covering  of  tyle  or 
stone.  From  this  simple  construction 
arose  the  first  order  of  architecture,  call- 
ed 

Doric  Order.  The  columns  were  imi- 
tated from  the  wooden  posts  tapering  up- 
wards, as  trees  do  by  nature,  and  placed 
upon  a  stone  base,  to  prevent  them  from 
sinking :  vertical  channels,  or  flutes,  were 
cut  in  the  shafts,  to  hold  the  spears,  or 
staves,  which  the  early  Greeks  carried 
along  with  them.  The  capital  was  form- 
ed by  circular  stones,  laid  on  the  tops  of 
the  columns,  and  square  ones  again  upon 
these,  to  protect  the  shafts  from  rain,  and 
to  receive  the  lintelling  beam,  which  be- 
came the  architrave  :  the  ends  of  the 
joists  over  the  architrave  were  not  in  ver- 
tical channels,  forming  the  tri  glyphs,  for 
preventing  the  rain  from  adhering  to 
mem.  The  cornice  was  formed  by  the 


ARCHITECTURE. 


projecting  timbers  of  the  roof;  the  ends 
of  the  bottom  tier  of  these  timbers  form- 
ing the  mutules :  the  lower  sides  of  which, 
as  well  as  the  under  side  of  the  band  of 
thetriglyphs,  were  cut  into  thin  cylinders, 
or  conic  frustrums,  representing  the  drops 
of  rain  falling  from  the  edges.  These 
parts,  which  at  first  resulted  from  the 
primitive  habitation,  were  afterwards  con- 
verted into  more  elegant  decorations  of 
simple  and  natural  forms.  The  general 
figure  of  the  Attic  Doric  consists  of  but 
feu  parts,  even  as  practised  in  the  most 
refined  ages  of  Greece  :  the  fluted  shaft, 
terminating  with  one,  two,  or  three  annu- 
lar channels  ;  the  capital,  consisting  of 
the  fillets,  and  a  bold  echinus,  having  the 
same  common  axis  with  the  shaft,  and  the 
crowning  abacus,  form  the  entire  column, 
which  therefore  consists  of  a  base  and 
shaft.  The  spacious  architrave,  resting 
on  the  columns,  consisting  of  a  crowning 
band,  with  the  guttere  and  tenia  pending 
therefrom,  under  the  trigiyphs;  the  frize, 
consisting  of  a  capital,  or  cymatium,  and 
equidistant  triglyph,  leaving  square  re- 
cesses between  them,  called  metopes  ; 
and  the  cornice,  consisting  of  mutules 
over  the  triglyphs  and  over  the  metopes; 
the  corona  formed  of  a  band  and  cyma- 
tium above  ;  and  the  sirna,  or  crowning 
moulding,  formed  of  a  large  ovolo  and 
filJet,  composed  the  whole  entablature  ; 
which  therefore  consists  of  a  cornice, 
frize,  and  architrave.  This  is  the  general 
character  of  the  Grecian  Doric.  It  is  al- 
most constantly  placed  upon  three  steps, 
proportioned  to  the  height  of  the  order, 
and  not  to  the  human  step  :  the  shafts  of 
the  columns  diminish,  with  a  beautiful 
curve  line  from  the  bottom  to  the  cincture 
below  the  annulets  ;  the  flutes  are  with- 
out fillets,  of  a  circular  or  elliptic  section, 
and  terminate  immediately  below  the  an- 
nulets :  the  annulets  of  the  capital  most 
commonly  follow  the  contour  of  the  ovo- 
lo ;  above  them,  the  band,  crowning  the 
top  of  the  architrave,  is  one  continued 
string  without  breaks  ;  the  guttae  under 
the  regulu,  and  under  the  mutules,  are 
generally  of  a  cylindrical  form,  at  least 
tapering  upwards  in  a  very  small  degree. 
The  trig!yphs  are  placed  upon  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  frize,  and  not  over  the 
axis  of  the  extreme  columns;  and  consist 
of  two  whole  channels,  and  two  half  ones 
upon  the  edges  ;  the  sides  of  each  glyph, 
or  channel,  are  two  vertical  planes,  meet- 
ing each  other  in  a  right  angle  at  the 
back,  and  consequently  the  face  of  the 
triglyph  at  135  degrees  on  each  side  of 
the  glyph  ;  the  tops  of  the  channels  are 
sometimes  curved  in  the  front,  like  a  very 


eccentric  semi-ellipsis,  'placed  with  its 
greater  axis  horizontal,  as  in  the  temple 
of  Theseus ;  and  very  frequently  with  a 
horizontal  line,  joined  to  each  vertical 
line  at  the  side,  with  a  quadrant  of  a  cir- 
cle, and  the  tops  of  the  two  half  channels 
on  each  edge  of  the  triglyph  are  semi- 
circular, not  only  in  front,  but  in  the  pro- 
files also,  leaving  the  angle  pendant  at  the 
top,  as  in  the  temples  of  Minerva  at 
Athens,  and  at  Sunium,  and  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Panellenius ;  and  sometimes 
the  head  of  the  glyph  is  horizontal,  as  in 
the  Doric  portico  at  Athens,  and  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Nemaeus,  between  Ar- 
gos  and  Corinth. 

In  all  these  examples,  the  surface  form- 
ing the  head  of  a  glyph  is  perpendicular 
to  the  front,  or  such  that  a  right  line,  per- 
pendicular to  the  face,  and  touching  the 
top  line  of  the  head  in  any  point,  will 
coincide  with  the  surface  of  the.  interior 
of  the  glyph.  The  capital  of  the  triglyphs 
has  a  small  projection  on  the  face,  which 
is  not  returned  on  the  edges,  and  de- 
scends lower  than  that  over  the  metopes; 
though  both  are  on  the  same  level  at  the 
top. 

The  mutules  are  thin  parallelepipeds, 
their  lower  surface  makingan  acute  angle 
with  the  upright  of  the  frize,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  under  ends  of  the  rafters 
of  the  primitive  hut  would  ;  the  pendant 
guttae,  hung  to  them,  are  in  three  rows, 
from  front  to  rear,  having  six  on  the  front, 
and  also  in  each  of  the  two  back  rows. 
The  soffit  of  the  corona  is  parallel  to  that 
of  the  mutules,  and  consequently  makes 
an  acute  angle  with  the  upright  of  the 
frize  also.  The  lower  part  of  the  corona 
is  most  frequently  wrought  into  a  fillet ; 
its  cymatium  is  differently  formed  in  dif- 
ferent examples,  but  most  frequently 
with  a  small  ovolo  and  fillet,  both  of  which 
are  channelled  upwards,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce a  greater  variety  of  light  and  shade, 
The  sima,  or  crowning  moulding,  most 
frequently  consists  of  a  large  ovolo,  and  a 
fillet  over  it. 

The  general  proportions  of  the  Doric 
order  are  the  following.  The  columns 
are  six  diameters  in  height :  the  superior 
diameter  is  four-fifths,  and  the  altitudinal 
dimension  of  the  capital  two-fifths  of  the 
inferior  diameter,  including  the  annulets, 
echinus,  and  abacus.  The  height  of  the 
capital  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts, 
giving  the  upper  one  to  the  abacus,  and 
the  lower  one  to  the  echinus  and  annu- 
lets :  divide  the  lower  one  into  five  parts, 
giving  one  to  the  annulets,  and  four  to 
the  ovolo  :  divide  the  height  of  the  en- 
tablature into  four  parts,  giving  one  to 


ARCHITECTURE. 


the  cornice,  which  comprehends  the  dis- 
tance between  the  fillet  of  the  echinus  or 
crowning  moulding  and  the  under  side  of 
the  guttx ;  divide  the  remaining  three  in- 
to two  equal  parts,  giving  one  to  the 
height  of  the  frize,  as  seen  in  front,  and 
one  to  the  architrave. 

The  Doric  order  was  the  only  order 
known  in  Greece,  or  its  colonies,  anterior 
to  the  Macedonian  conquest.  The  Ionic 
succeeded,  and  appears  to  have  been  the 
favourite  order,  not  only  in  Ionia,  but  all 
ovti  Asia  Minor.  The  Corinthian  (says 
Mr.  Wood)  came  next  in  vogue,  and  most 
of  the  buildings  of  this  order  seem  poste- 
rior to  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  those 
countries  by  the  Romans.  The  first  Doric 
budding  was  the  temple  of  Juno,  erected 
by  Dorus,  king  of  Achaia,  and  Pelopon- 
nesus in  the  ancient  city  of  Argos,  from 
whom  this  order  derives  its  name.  It  was 
also  used  in  other  cities  of  this  prince's 
dominions,  but  its  proportions  were  not 
established,  till  an  Athenian  colony  erect- 
ed a  temple  to  Apollo  Panionos,  in  Ionia, 
so  called  from  Ion,  their  leader,  after  the 
form  of  the  temples  they  had  seen  in 
Achaia.  In  this  building  the  relative  di- 
mensions of  the  columns  were  adjusted, 
from  the  ratio  which  the  foot  of  a  man 
bears  to  its  height,  making  their  diame- 
ter one-sixth  part  of  their  altitude. 

Ionic  Order.  The  ambitious  desire  of 
novelty  soon  led  the  way  to  the  invention 
of  another  species;  and,  in  erecting  the 
temple  of  Diana,  they  sought  a  new  or- 
der from  similar  traces,  imitating  the 
proportion  and  dress  of  women.  The 
diameter  of  the  columns  was  made  an 
eighth  part  of  their  height ;  the  base  was 
made  with  folds  representing  the  shoe  ; 
the  capitals  with  volutes,  in  form  of  the 
curled  hair  worn  upon  the  right  and  left ; 
and  the  cymatium,  for  the  locks  pending 
on  the  forehead  from  the  crown.  This 
new  order  they  called  Ionic,  after  the 
name  of  the  country  in  which  it  was  in- 
vented, so  far  as  we  are  informed  by  Vitru- 
vius.  It  is  probable,  that,  in  erecting  this 
temple,  the  triglyphs  and  mutules,  the 
bold  characteristic  marks  of  the  original 
hut,  wSuld  be  omitted,  and  the  more  de- 
licate dentils,  representing  the  ends  of 
the  lath  to  which  the  tyles  were  fixed, 
employed,  representing  a  beautiful  row 
of  teeth ;  for  in  all  the  ancient  Ionian 
fragments  of  this  order  we  find  the  cor- 
nices constantly  denticulated,  and  there- 
fore the  dentils  are  no  less  characteristic 
marks  than  the  capitals  :  they  are  gene- 
rally omitted,  however,  in  the  remains  of 
those  to  be  found  at  Athens.  The  other 
parts  and  proportions  of  the  Ionian  order 


are  more  arbitrary  than  in  the  Dorian. 
The  parts  of  the  Ionic  order  on  the  tem- 
ple by  the  Ilyssus  are  few,  and  of  a  bold 
character  ;  the  height  of  the  volutes  is 
three-fifths,  and  the  whole  height  of  the 
capital  two-thirds,  of  the  diameter  of  the 
column. 

The  architrave  consists  of  one  broad 
facia,  and  its  crowning  cymatium  :  the 
parts  of  the  cornice  as  seen  in  front  are, 
the  corona,  including  its  cymatium,  and 
sima.  The  capital,  or  cymatium  of  the 
frize,  is  wrought  under  the  cornice,  and 
consists  of  a  sima  reversa,  and  bead  below 
it.  The  height  of  the  architrave  is  about 
two-fifths  of  the  entablature;  and  by  divid- 
ing the  upper  three-fifths  again  into  five 
parts,  the  plain  part  of  the  frize  will 
occupy  three  parts,  and  the  cornice  two 
parts. 

In  the  Ionic  order  of  the  temple  of 
Erechtheus,  and  of  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias,  the  architrave  consists  of  three  fa- 
cix,  and  cymatium  ;  the  cymatium  of  the 
frize  is  mostly  wrought  under  the  corona. 
If  the  height  of  the  entablature  from  the 
bottom  of  the  lower  facia  to  the  top  of 
the  cymatium  of  the  corona  be  divided 
into  nineteen  parts,  the  architrave  and 
the  part  of  the  frize  that  is  seen  will  each 
be  eight  parts,  and  the  corona,  including 
the  larymer  and  cymatium,  the  other 
three  parts.  The  volutes  of  the  capitals 
of  these  orders,  both  for  singularity  and 
beauty,  exceed  every  other  remain  of  an- 
tiquity, x 

The  Asiatic  Ionian  order  differs  great- 
ly from  the  Attic  one.  In  most  of  the  re- 
mains of  this  order,  as  represented  in  the 
Ionian  antiquities,  the  frizes  are  all  want- 
ing, except  in  one  example  ;  and  conse- 
quently the  whole  height  of  the  entabla- 
ture of  those  without  the  frizes  cannot  be 
ascertained,  though  the  architraves  and 
cornices  belonging  to  each  other  have 
been  accurately  measured.  The  one 
which  has  the  entire  entablature  belongs 
to  the  great  theatre  at  Laodicea  :  the 
frize  is  pulvinated,  and  is  something  less 
in  height  than  one-fifth  of  that  of  the  en- 
tablature. The  architraves  of  the  temple 
of  Bacchus  at  Teos,  and  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Polias  at»Priene,  are  each  divid- 
ed into  three  faciae  below  the  cymatium. 
In  all  the  Asiatic  Ionics  the  crowning 
moulding  is  constantly  a  sima  recta,  of  a 
less  projection  than  it  has  height  :  the 
dentils  are  never  omitted,  and  their 
height  is  nearly  a  mean  proportion  be- 
tween the  height  of  the  sima  recta  and 
that  of  the  larymer,  corona,  or  drip,  being 
always  greater  than  the  height  of  the  co- 
rona, and  less  than  that  of  sima  recta. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


The  cymatium  of  the  denticulated  band  is 
wrought  almost  entirely  out  of  the  soffit 
of  the  corona,  or  recessed  upwards,  and 
consequently  its  elevation  is  almost  con- 
cealed. The  height  of  the  cornice,  from 
the  top  of  the  sima  to  the  lower  edge  of 
the  dentils,  is  equal,  or  very  nearly  so,  to 
that  of  the  architrave.  The  altitude  of 
the  frize,  without  its  cymatium,  or  upper 
mouldings,  may  be  supposed  to  be  about 
a  fourth  part  of  the  whole  entablature  ; 
for  if  higher  than  this,  the  entablature 
would  be  too  great  a  portion  of  the  co- 
lumns for  any  analogy  we  are  acquainted 
with.  In  point  of  beautiful  proportions 
and  elegant  decorations,  the  entablatures 
of  these  two  last  examples  exceed  every 
other  remain ;  and  though  their  propor- 
tions are  very  different  from  those  re-, 
maining  at  Athens,  yet  they  are  still' 
pleasing. 

In  all  the  Grecian  Ionics  there  seems 
to  be  a  constant  ratio  between  the  upper 
part  of  the  cornice,  from  the  lower  edge 
of  the  corona  upwards,  and  the  height  of 
the  entablature :  this  is  nearly  as  two  to 
nine.  If  these  members  were  regulated 
in  any  other  manner,  their  breadths  would 
be  so  variable,  as  sometimes  to  be  BO  di- 
minutive that  their  forms  could  not  be 
perceived,  and  at  other  times  so  enlarged 
as  to  overload  the  whole,  when  viewed 
from  a  proper  station.  Indeed  the  great 
recess  of  the  mouldings  under  the  coro- 
na makes  this  a  very  distinct  division, 
and  on  this  account  we  never  think  the 
cornice  too  clumsy,  though  the  whole 
denticulated  band  and  cymatium  of  the 
frize  are  introduced  below  the  cornice, 
which  seems  to  be  the  reason  of  so  great 
an  apparent  difference  between  the  Asia- 
tic and  Attic  Ionics.  This  order,  as  found 
in  the  Ionian  territory,  is  complete ;  but 
those  at  Athens  are  deficient,  from  their 
want  of  the  dental  band,  though  beautiful 
in  many  other  respects. 

Moderns  have  added  a  diameter  to  the 
height  of  the  Ionic  column,  making  it 
nine  instead  of  eight.  The  shaft  is  gene- 
rally striated  into  twenty -four  flutes,  and 
as  many  fillets.  The  height  of  the  enta- 
blature in  general  may  be  two  diameters ; 
but  where  grandeur  as  well  as  elegance 
is  required,  it  should  not  be  less  than  a 
fourth.  The  base  employed  in  the  Athe- 
nian Ionics  consists  of  two  tori  and  a  sco- 
tia  or  trochilus  between  them,  and  two 
fillets,  each  separating  the  scotia  from  the 
torus  above  and  below :  the  fillet  above 
the  torus  generally  projects  as  far  as  the 
extremity  of  the  upper  torus,  and  the  low- 
er fillet  beyond  the  upper  torus ;  the  sco- 


tia  is  very  flat,  and  its  section  and  elliptic 
curve  joining  the  fillet  on  each  side :  the 
tori  and  scotia  are  nearly  of  equal  heights: 
in  the  Ionic  temple  on  the  Ilyssus,  a  bead 
and  fillet  are  employed  above  the  upper 
torus,  joining  the  fillet  to  the  scape  of  the 
column  :  the  upper  torus  of  the  basis  of 
the  same  temple,  and  that  of  the  basis  of 
the  temple  of  Erectheus,  are  both  fluted, 
preserving  the  lower  part,  that  joins  the 
upper  surface  of  the  fillet  above  the  sco- 
tia, entire.  The  upper  scotia  of  the  tern- 
pie  of  Minerva  Polias  is  enriched  with  a 
beautiful  guilloche.  The  lower  torus  of 
the  base  of  the  antae  of  the  temple  of 
Erectheus  is  receded,  and  that  of  the  base 
of  the  antsc  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  Po- 
lias  is  channelled  with  flutes,  separated 
from  each  other  by  two  small  cylindric 
mouldings  of  a  quadrantal  section,  having 
their  convexities  joining  each  other.  This 
form  of  a  base  is  by  Vitruvius  very  pro- 
perly called  the  Attic  base,  being  invent- 
ed and  employed  by  the  Athenians  in  all 
their  Ionics.  It  was  also  adopted  by  the 
Romans,  and  seems  to  have  been  their 
most  favourite  base ;  for  it  is  not  only 
employed  in  all  the  examples  of  this  or- 
der at  Rome,  but  most  frequently  in  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  orders  also. 
However,  the  proportions  of  the  Attic 
base,  as  employed  by  the  Romans,  are  dif- 
ferent from  that  employed  by  the  Greeks, 
the  upper  torus  of  the  former  being  al- 
ways of  a  less  height  than  the  lower  one, 
both  tori  plain,  and  the  scotia  containing- 
a  much  deeper  cavity.  The  proportion 
of  the  bases  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
orders  on  the  Coliseum,  the  Ionic  on  the 
theatre  of  Marcellus,  and  that  on  the 
temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  at  Rome,  have 
nearly  that  assigned  by  Vitruvius.  The 
Ionic  bases,  as  employed  in  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Polias  at  Priene,  and  in  that  of 
Apollo  Dedymaeus  near  Miletus,  consist 
of  a  large  torus,  three  pair  of  astragals, 
and  two  scotise,  inverted  in  respect  of 
each  other.  The  upper  pair  of  astragals 
is  disposed  below  the  torus,  and  the  sco- 
tize  separate  each  pair  of  astragals  from 
each  other.  In  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias  an  astragal  is  employed  above  the 
torus,  separating  it  from  the  shaft ;  the 
torus  itself  is  formed  elliptically,  and  the 
under  part  of  it  is  fluted :  it  has  also  a 
flute  cut  in  the  vipper  part,  near  to  the 
bead.  In  the  temple  of  Apollo  Dedymae- 
us,  the  upper  torus  is  of  a  semicircular 
section  and  plain,  and  each  bead  of  every 
pair  is  separated  by  a  narrow  fillet.  The 
base  of  the  Asiatic  Ionics  differs  little 
from  that  which  Vitruvius  appropriates  to 


ARCHITECTURE. 


this  order.  In  the  former  the  scotiac  are 
inverted,  which  gives  a  greater  variety  in 
the  profile  than  when  both  stand  in  the 
same  position,  as  in  the  Vitruvian  base. 
The  lonians,  besides  the  base  which  they 
appropriated  to  this  order,  sometimes 
used  the  Attic  base  also,  as  in  the  temple 
of  Bacchus  at  Teos.  This  base  seems 
not  only  to  have  been  the  most  favourite 
one  among  the  ancients,  but  is  likewise 
so  among- the  moderns.  It  is  not  so  heavy 
in  the  upper  part  as  that  denominated 
Ionic  :  its  contour  is  pleasing,  and  its  ge- 
neral appearance  elegant.  In  the  capitals 
of  the  Athenian  Ionics,  and  in  that  of  Mi- 
nerva Polias  at  Priene,  the  lower  edge  of 
the  canal  between  the  volutes  is  formed 
into  a  graceful  curve,  bending  downward 
in  the  middle,  and  revolving  round  the 
spirals  which  form  the  volute  upon  each 
side.  In  the  the  temple  of  Erectheus  and 
Minerva  Polias  at  Athens,  each  volute  has 
two  channels,  formed  by  two  spiral  bor- 
ders, and  a  spiral  division  between  them. 
The  border  which  forms  the  exterior  of 
the  volute,  and  that  which  forms  the  un- 
der side  of  the  lower  canal,  leaves  be- 
tween them  a  deep  recess,  or  spiral 
groove,  which  continually  diminishes  in 
its  breadth,  till  it  is  entirely  lost  on  the 
side  of  the  eye.  In  the  example  of  the 
temple  of  Erectheus,  the  column  is  ter- 
minated with  a  fillet  and  astragal  a  little 
below  the  lower  edg-es  of  the  volutes,  and 
that  of  Minerva  Polias  in  the  same  man- 
ner with  a  single  fillet;  and  the  colorino 
or  neck  of  each  is  charged  with  beautiful 
honeysuckles,  formed  alike  in  alternate 
succession,  but  differing  from  each  other 
in  any  two  adjacent  ones.  The  upper  an- 
nular moulding  of  the  column  is  of  a  se- 
micircular section,  and  embellished  with 
a  guilloche.  The  echinus,  astragal,  and 
fillet,  are  common  to  both  Grecian  and 
Roman  Ionic  capitals,  and  the  echinus  is 
uniformly  cut  into  eggs,  surrounded  with 
borders  of  angular  sections,  and  into 
tongues  between  every  two  borders.  The 
astragal  is  formed  into  a  row  of  beads, 
with  two  small  ones  between  every  two 
large  ones.  These  mouldings  are  cut  in 
a  similar  manner  in  all  the  Roman  build- 
ings, except  the  Coliseum,  and  what  re- 
lates to  the  taste  of  the  foliage.  In  the 
temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos,  the  great 
theatre  at  Laodicea,  and  in  all  the  Roman 
Ionics,  the  channel  connecting  the  two 
volutes  is  not  formed  with  a  border  on 
the  lower  edge,  but  is  terminated  with  a 
horizontal  line,  which  falls  a  tangent  to 
the  second  revolution  of  each  volute  at  the 
commencement  of  this  revolution.  The 


reader  will  find  the  description  of  the  v«- 
lute  among  the  descriptions  of  the  plates. 
When  columns  are  introduced  in  the 
flanks  of  a  buildin^  as  well  as  in  the 
front,  one  of  the  capitals  of  each  angular 
column  is  made  to  face  both  the  conti- 
guous sides  of  the  building,  with  two  vo- 
lutes upon  each  side,  projecting  the  two 
adjacent  volutes,  by  bending  them  in  a 
concave  curve  towards  the  angle,  as  in 
the  temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos,  of  Miner- 
va Polias  at  Priene,  of  Erectheus,  and 
that  on  the  Ilyssus  at  Athens,  as  also  that 
of  the  Manly  Fortune  at  Home.  The  ca- 
pitals of  all  the  columns  are  sometimes 
made  to  face  the  four  sides  of  ihe  abacus 
alike  on  each  side,  as  in  the  temple  of 
Concord  at  Rome,  from  which  example 
the  Scammozz'.an  capital  was  formed. 
The  ancients  employed  this  order  in  tem- 
ples dedicated  to  Juno,  Bacchus,  Diana, 
and  other  deities,  whose  character  held 
a  medium  between  the  severe  and  the 
effeminate ;  and  the  moderns  employ  it 
in  churches  consecrated  to  female  saints 
in  a  matronal  state  ;  also  in  courts  of  jus- 
tice, seminaries,  libraries,  and  other 
structures  which  have  a  relation  to  the 
arts. 

Corinthian  Order.  The  invention  of  this 
order  was  attributed  to  one  Callimachus, 
an  Athenian  sculptor,  who,  passing  by 
the  tomb  of  a  young  lady,  observed  an 
acanthus  growing  up  by  the  sides  of  a 
basket,  which  was  covered  with  a  tile  and 
placed  upon  the  tomb,  and  that  the  tops 
of  the  leaves  were  bent  downwards  by 
the  resistance  of  the  tile,  took  the  hint, 
and  executed  some  columns  with  foliated 
capitals,  near  Corinth,  which  were  made 
still  of  a  more  slender  proportion  than 
the  Ionic,  imitating  the  figure  and  delica- 
cy of  virgins.  Vitruvius  mentions  that 
the  shafts  of  Corinthian  columns  have  the 
same  symmetry  as  the  Ionic,  and  that  the 
difference  of  the  symmetry  between  the 
entire  columns  arises  only  from  the  dif- 
ference of  the  heights  of  their  capitals, 
the  Ionic  being  one-third,  and  the  Corin- 
thian the  whole  diameter  of  the  shaft, 
which,  therefore,  makes  the  height  of  the 
Corinthian  two-thirds  of  a  diameter  more 
than  that  of  the  Ionic;  hence,  as  he  has 
allowed  the  Ionic  to  be  eight  diameters, 
the  Corinthian  will  be  eight  and  two- 
thirds. 

The  sides  of  the  abacus  of  the  Corin- 
thian capital  are  concave,  and  moulded 
on  the  fronts. 

The  lower  part  of  the  capital  consists 
of  two  rows  of  leaves,  and  each  row  of 
eight  plants  ;  one  of  the  upper  leaves 


ARCHITECTURE. 


fronting  each  side  of  the  abacus,  and  the 
stalk  of  each  leaf  springing1  between  each 
two  lower  leaves.  The  height  of  the  aba- 
cus is  one  seventh,  the  upper  and  lower 
tiers  of  leaves  each  two  sevenths,  and 
the  branches  and  volutes,  which  spring 
from  the  stalks  between  every  two  leaves 
in  the  upper  row,  the  remaining  two  se- 
venths of  the  diameter.  The  breadth  of 
the  capital  al  the  bottom  is  one,  and  each 
diagonal  of  the  abacus  two,  diameters  of 
the  column.  Vitruvius  makes  no  men- 
tion of  obtunding  the  corners  of  the  aba- 
cus, as  is  generally  practised  by  the  an- 
cients as  well  as  the  moderns;  \ve  are, 
therefore,  led  to  suppose,  that  each  pair 
of  the  four  faces  of  the  abacus  were  con- 
tinued till  they  met  in  an  acute  angle,  at 
each  corner,  as  in  the  temple  of  Vesta  at 
Rome,  and  the  Stoa  or  portico  at  Athens ; 
the  division  of  the  capital  is  the  same  as 
is  frequently  used  by  the  moderns,  but 
the  entire  height  thereof  is  generally 
made  one  sixth  more  than  the  diameter  of 
the  column,  and  that  of  the  entire  column 
ten  diameters.  The  best  ancient  speci- 
mens of  the  Corinthian  order  are  to  be 
collected  from  the  Stoa,  the  arch  of  Adri- 
an, and  that  most  exquisite  and  singular 
specimen,  the  monument  of  Lysicrates  at 
Athens ;  also  in  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa, 
and  in  the  three  columns  of  the  Campo 
Vaccino  at  Rome  ;  these  two,  and  parti- 
cularly the  last,  are  allowed  to  be  the 
most  complete  existing  examples  that  are 
to  be  found  in  all  the  remains  of  antiquity. 
The  taste  of  the  foliage  of  the  Attic  Co- 
rinthian differs  considerably  from  that  of 
the  Roman  :  the  small  divisions  of  the 
leaves  are  more  pointed,  approaching 
nearer  to  the  acanthus  than  those  at  Rome, 
which  are  for  the  most  part  olive  ;  how- 
ever, in  other  respects,  thecapials  them- 
selves are  very  similar,  except  in  the 
monument  of  Lysicrates. 

The  Corinthian  capital  exhibits  the  ut- 
most degree  of  elegance,  beauty,  richness, 
and  delicacy,  that  has  ever  been  attained 
in  architectural  composition,  though  ma- 
ny attempts  have  been  made  to  exceed  it. 
The  columns  of  this  order  do  not  appear 
to  have  had  any  appropriate  entablature 
in  the  time  of  Vitruvius  ;  for,  in  B.  IV. 
chap.  i.  he  informs  us,  that  both  Doric 
and  Ionic  entablatures  were  supported  by 
Corinthian  columns,  and  that  it  was  the 
columns  alone  which  constituted  this  or- 
der, and  not  the  entablatures  ;  however, 
in  the  remains  of  Grecian  and  Roman  an- 
tiquity we  find,  almost  constantly,  Corin- 
thian columns  supporting  an  entablature 
with  a  peculiar  species  of  cornice  ;  acom- 

VOL.  I. 


position  which  seems  to  be  borrowed  from 
those  of  the  Doric  and  Ionic  orders.  In 
this  entablature  the  figure  of  the  mutules 
supporting  the  corona  is  changed  into  the 
form  of  a  console,  and  highly  decorated ; 
and  the  denticulated  Ionic  band,  with  its 
cymatium,  and  also  that  of  the  frize,  are 
introduced  below  the  consoles,  which, 
in  this  application,  are  called  modillio?is. 
This  disposition  is  inverting  the  order  of 
the  original  hut,  and  also  the  description 
given  by  Vitruvius.  The  only  example, 
where  dentils  are  placed  above  modillions, 
is  in  the  second  cornice  of  the  tower  of 
the  Winds  at  Athens.  As  to  the  archi- 
trave and  base  of  this  order,  they  may  be 
the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Ionic;  in- 
deed, the  Ionic  entablature  itself  would, 
on  many  occasionSj  be  a  very  appropriate 
one  for  the  Corinthian.  When  the  co- 
lumns are  fluted,  the  number  of  the  flutes 
and  fillets  is  generally  24,  as  in  the  Ionic 
order. 

If  the  entablature  be  enriched,the  shaft 
should  be  fluted,  unless  composed  of  va- 
riegated marble  ;  for  a  diversity  of  cor 
lours  confuses  even  a  smooth  surface,  and 
if  decorated,  the  ornament  increases  the 
confusion  to  a  much  greater  degree. 
When  the  columns  are  within  reach,  so 
as  to  be  liable  to  be  damaged,  the  lower 
part  of  the  flutes,  to  about  one  third  of 
their  height,  is  sometimes  filled  with  ca- 
bles, as  that  of  the  interior  order  of  the 
Pantheon,  with  a  view  to  strengthen  the 
edges. 

In  rich  work  of  some  modern  buildings, 
the  cables  are  composed  of  reeds,  husks, 
spiral  twisted  ribbands,  flowers,  and  vari- 
ous other  ornaments ;  but  these  niceties 
should  only  be  employed  in  the  decora- 
tions of  the  interior,  and  even  then  very 
sparingly,  as  their  cost  would  be  much 
better  employed  in  giving  majesty  and 
grandeur  to  other  parts  of  the  fabric.  As 
the  cornice  which  has  obtained  the  name 
of  Corinthian  consists  of  so  many  mem- 
bers, it  will  be  necessary  on  this  account 
to  increase  the  whole  height  of  the  en- 
tablature more  than  two  diameters,  so  as 
to  make  the  members  distinct,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  preserve  a  just,  proportion 
between  the  cornice,  frize,  and  archi- 
trave ;  making  the  height  of  the  entabla- 
ture two-ninths  of  that  of  the  column ;  but 
if  the  Ionic  cornice  is  to  be  employed,  or 
the  dentils  and  their  cymatium  omitted, 
two  diameters,  or  a  fifth  of  the  height  of 
the  column  will  be  sufficient.  From  hence 
the  absurdity  of  giving  too  many  mem- 
bers to  the  cornice  will  appear,  as 
these  slight  columns  aye  incapable  of 

S  s 


ARCHITECTURE. 


bearing  an  entablature  of  the  same  part 
of  their  height  as  columns  of  fewer  dia- 
meters are  :  this  absurdity  will  more  rea- 
dily appear,  when  the  parts  of  both  or- 
ders are  made  of  the  same  altitudes. 

The  Corinthian  order  is  appropriate  for 
all  buildings,  in  which  magnificence,  ele- 
gance, and  gaiety,  are  requisite  ;  it  was 
employed  by  the  ancients  in  temples  de- 
dicated to  Venus,  Flora,  Proserpine,  and 
also  to  the  nymphs  of  the  fountains,  be- 
ing the  most  splendid  of  all  the  orders, 
and  bearing  the  most  affinity  to  foliages, 
flowers,  and  volutes,  which  suited  the  de- 
licacy and  elegance  of  these  deities. 

Its  splendor  also  recommends  it  in  the 
decorations  of  palaces,  squares,  galleries, 
theatres,  banqueting  rooms,  and  other 
places  consecrated  to  festive  mirth,  or 
convivial  recreation ;  it  is  likewise  em- 
ployed in  churches  dedicated  to  saint 
,  Mary,  and  other  virgin  saints. 

Tuscan  order.  There  are  no  ancient 
remains  of  any  entire  order  of  this  kind  ; 
the  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antonine,  and 
one  at  Constantinople,  being  defective 
from  the  want  of  their  entablatures.  We 
have  the  description  of  Vitruvius  to  the 
following  purpose  :  the  column  is  seven 
diameters  in  height,  and  is  diminished  at 
the  top  a  fourth  part  of  a  diameter  ;  their 
bases  have  a  circular  plinth,  and  are  in 
height  half  a  diameter,  which  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  giving  one  to  the  altitude 
of  the  plinth,  and  one  to  the  torus.  The 
capital  has  also  half  a  diameter  in  height, 
and  one  in  the  breadth  of  its  abacus.  The 
height  of  the  capital  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  one  of  which  is  given  to  the  plinth 
or  abacus,  one  to  the  echinus,  and  the 
third  to  the  hypotrachelian  with  the  apo- 
phygis  :  the  architrave  is  made  with  its 
vertical  faces  over  the  edge  of  the  co- 
lumn, at  the  neck  of  the  capital,  in  two 
thicknesses,  in  its  horizontal  dimension, 
with  a  space  of  two  digits  or  1^  inch  be- 
tween, for  the  admission  of  air,  to  prevent 
£he  beams  from  rotting,  and  joined  toge- 
ther with  mortise  and  tenon.  Over  the 
beams  and  over  the  walls  the  mutules 
are  projected  a  fourth  part  of  the  height 
of  the  columns,  and  antepagments  are 
fixed  to  their  fronts.  A  correct  specimen 
of  Tuscan  architecture  may  be  seen  in 
St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  the  work  of 
the  most  distinguished  Inigo  Jones.  This 
order  is  proper  for  all  rustic  structures. 

Roman  order.  The  character  of  this  as 
an  order  is  indicated  by  its  capital ;  the 
upper  part  of  which  being  an  entire  Ionic 
capital  of  that  species,  which  fronts  the 
four  sides  of  the  column  alike,  and  the 


lower  part  consisting  of  two  rows  of 
leaves,  as  in  the  Corinthian  capital.  Vi- 
truvius speaks  of  various  capitals  derived 
from  that  of  the  Corinthian ;  but  does  not 
distinguish  columns  with  such  capitals 
supporting  an  entablature  by  the  name  of 
an  order ;  indeed,  he  expressly  says  that 
they  do  not  belong  to  any  species  of  co- 
lumns. Serlio  was  the  first  who  added  * 
fifth  order,  by  compounding  columns  si- 
milar to  that  of  the  Arch  of  Titus,  with 
the  entablature  of  the  uppermost  order  of 
the  Coliseum.  More  recent  authors  have, 
for  the  greater  part,  either  adopted  the 
entablature  of  the  frontispiece  of  Nero, 
which  was  supported  by  Corinthian  co- 
lumns, or  have  brought  in  adventitious 
parts  of  other  orders,  by  introducing  the 
denticulated  band  of  the  Ionic,  with  its 
cymatium  between  the  modillions  and  the 
cymatium  of  the  frize.  It  is  something; 
remarkable,  that  the  columns  of  Roman 
buildings  with  compounded  capitals  sup- 
port, for  the  greater  part,  Corinthian  en- 
tablatures: the  columns  of  the  arches  of 
Septimius  Severus  and  of  the  Goldsmiths 
support  Ionic  entablatures ;  and  those  of 
the  temple  of  Bacchus  even  support  an 
entablature  with  what  we  now  call  a 
Tuscan  cornice.  In  short,  Rome  affords 
no  example  of  a  composite  order,  with  a 
similar  cornice  to  any  one  found  in  the 
works  of  any  distinguished  modern  au- 
thor, except  Vignola,  who  crowns  his  en- 
tablature with  a  bold  Ionic  cornice.  The 
capital  of  this  order  is  more  bold  and 
massive  in  its  parts  than  that  of  the  Co- 
rinthian; the  proportion  of  the  other  mem- 
bers should  be  corresponding  thereto, 
and  therefore  more  appropriate  cornice 
than  that  of  the  frontispiece  of  Nero  can 
hardly  be  applied :  the  modillions  are 
very  characteristic,  but  the  denticulated 
band,  shewn  in  a  modern  work,  should  be 
omitted  :  and  for  this  reason  also  the  shaft 
of  the  columns  should  be  a  medium  be- 
tween those  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian, 
though  the  very  reverse  has  been  assign- 
ed to  it. 

The  medallions  employed  in  this  order 
differ  from  the  Corinthian;  they  are  more 
massy,  being  composed  of  two  faces,  and 
a  cymatium  like  an  architrave.  The  Ro- 
mans decorated  their  composite  capitals 
with  acanthus  leaves,  and  the  same  prac- 
tice is  followed  by  the  moderns.  The  pro- 
portions will  be  fully  understood  in  those 
of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Romans  employed  the 
Composite  order  in  their  triumphal  arch- 
es, and  other  buildings,  to  commemorate 
their  victories,  and  to  shew  their  domi  • 


ARCHITECTURE. 


nion  over  those  whom  they  conquered ; 
and  for  this  purpose  also  it  may  be  em- 
ployed in  modern  structures,  to  celebrate 
the  achievements  of  conquerors  and  vir- 
tues of  legislators. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    BUILDING, 

Are  those  parts  of  geometry,  mechanics, 
mensuration,  and  chemistry,  which  shew 
how  to  design  and  construct  the  parts  of 
a  building1,  so  as  to  be  the  most  durable, 
the  destination,  situation,  and  other  fixed 
data  of  the  intended  structure,  being 
known.  These  parts  of  the  sciences  are 
the  foundation  of  the  art  of  construction. 

Construction  may  in  general  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  science  of  masonry, 
and  that  of  carpentry ;  though  there  are 
other  branches,  as  slatery,  plumbery,  &c. 
sometimes  also  employed  as  constituent 
parts ;  but  these  may  be  considered  as  ra- 
ther adventitious. 

The  science  of  masonry  shews  how  to 
construct  walls  and  vaults.  A  wall  should 
be  built  so  as  to  resist  a  given  force,  either 
acting  uniformly  over  the  whole,  or  par- 
tially upon  the  surface  :  such  as  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  vaults  or  roofs  unrestrain- 
ed from  the  want  of  tie  beams,  acting 
along  one  continued  butment,  as  in  plain 
vaulting;  or  to  resist  different  forces, 
acting  at  intermitted  points,  as  in  groin 
vaulting ;  or  to  resist  the  force  of  the 
wind,  acting  uniformly  over  the  whole 
surface.  An  arch  should  be  so  construct- 
ed as  to  balance  itself  equally  on  all  parts 
of  the  intrados,  whether  it  be  of  uniform 
thickness,  or  to  support  a  given  load. 

The  science  of  carpentry  comprehends 
the  sizing,  cutting,  disposition,  and  join- 
ing of  timbers.  By  chemistry  we  are  en- 
abled to  judge  of  the  quality  of  materials, 
such  as  stone,  mortar,  wood,  iron,  slate, 
lead,  &c. 

Taste.  Taste  consists  in  introducing 
such  forms  in  the  construction  and  em- 
bellishments, as  appear  agreeable  to  the 
eye  of  the  beholder.  The  arrangement 
of  the  plan,  figure  of  rooms,  and  contour 
of  the  whole  building,  and  character,  as 
to  its  destined  purpose,  depend  much  on 
taste. 

Invention.  Invention  is  the  art  of  com- 
bining or  arranging  the  various  apart- 
ments in  the  most  convenient  order. 

JJasements.  A  basement  is  the  lower 
story  of  a  building  on  which  an  order  is 
placed  ;  its  height  will  therefore  be  varia- 
ble, according  as  it  is  the  cellar  story  or 
the  ground  story ;  or,  when  it  is  the 
ground  story,  according  as  there  are  prin- 
cipal rooms  in  both  stories,  or  only  in  one 


of  them.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  make 
the  basement  no  higher  than  the  order  of 
the  next  story ;  for  this  would  be  making 
the  base  more  principal  in  the  composi- 
tion than  the  body  to  be  supported.  If 
the  cellar  story  is  the  basement,  and  if 
the  height  does  not  exceed  five  or  six 
feet  at  the  most,  it  may  be  plain,  or  with 
rustics,  or  formed  into  a  continued  pedes- 
tal ;  but  if  the  basement  is  on  the  ground 
story,  the  usual  manner  of  decorating  it  is 
with  rustics  supported  on  a  base,  and  sur- 
mounted with  a  crowning  string-course  : 
the  base  may  be  either  a  plinth  alone,  or 
with  mouldings  over  it:  in  like  manner 
the  string-course  may  either  be  a  plat- 
band, or  with  mouldings  under  it;  or  it 
mayform  a  cornice.  The  rustics  are  either 
made  of  a  rectangular  or  triangular  sec- 
tion, by  imagining  one  of  the  sides  of 
these  sections  to  be  a  line  extending 
across  the  front  of  the  joint.  The  joints 
of  the  rustics  may  be  from  an  eighth  to  a 
tenth  part  of  their  height.  The  depth  of 
the  joint  of  the  triangular  rustic  may  be 
half  of  its  breadth,  that  is,  making  the  two 
planes  by  which  it  is  formed  a  right  an- 
gle, and  the  depth  of  the  rectangular  sec- 
tioned rustics  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
third  of  their  breadth.  The  ancients  al- 
ways marked  both  directions  of  the  joints 
the  rustics;  whereas  the  moderns  not 
only  employ  the  ancient  manner,  but  they 
sometimes  make  them  with  horizontal 
joints  alone.  Those  with  horizontal  joints 
represent  rather  a  boarded  surface  than 
that  of  a  stone  wall,  which  must  have  two 
directions  of  joints.  The  height  of  the 
string-course  should  not  exceed  the 
height  of  a  rustic  with  its  joint  :  the 
plinth,  or  zocholo,  ought  not  to  be  less 
than  the  height  of  the  string-course. 
When  the  basement  is  perforated  with 
arcades,  the  imposts  of  the  arches  maybe 
a  platband,  which  may  be  equal  to  the 
height  of  a  rustic,  exclusive  of  the  joint. 
When  the  string-course  is  a  cornice,  the 
base  may  be  moulded,  and  the  projection 
of  the  cornice  may  be  two-thirds  of  its 
height,  so  as  to  be  less  prominent  than 
that  which  finishes  the  building".  The 
height  of  the  cornice  may  be  about  one- 
eighteenth  part  of  the  height  of  the  base- 
ment, and  that  of  the  base  about  twice  as 
much,  divided  into  six  parts,  of  which 
the  lower  five-sixths  form  the  plinth,  and 
the  upper  sixth  the  mouldings. 

Pedestals.  A  pedestal  is  a  part  of  some 
buildings,  with  a  base,  surmounted  with 
a  rectangular  prismatic  solid,  called  the 
die,  and  this  die  again  crowned  with  a 
cornice,  for  supporting  a  colonade,  or 
pilastrade,  or  sometimes  for  supporting* 


ARCHITECTURE. 


the  upper  part  of  a  building  as  a  base- 
ment. In  the  buildings  of  the  Greeks 
pedestals  never  obtained :  the  columns  of 
their  temples  generally  stood  on  the  up- 
permost of  three  steps;  indeed,  there  is 
no  existing  example  with  any  other  num- 
ber than  three,  except  the  temple  of 
Theseus  at  Athens,  which  had  only  two, 
and  was  supposed  to  have  been  erected 
to  an  inferior  deity  :  whatever  innovations 
took  place  were  after  Greece  lost  its  in- 
dependence. The  Romans,  in  many  of 
their  temples  and  other  edifices,  raised 
the  floors  so  very  high,  that  they  were 
under  the  necessity  of  discontinuing  the 
front  stairs,  which  otherwise  would  have 
been  found  inconvenient,  in  occupying 
too  much  ground  around  the  edifice  ;  and 
of  adopting  a  pedestal,  or  podium,  as  a 
basement ;  which  was  raised  as  high  as 
the  stair,  arid  projected  to  the  front  of 
the  steps  which  profiled  on  the  sides  of 
the  pedestal. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  Vitruvius,  in  treat- 
ing of  the  Doric,  Corinthian,  and  Tuscan 
orders,  never  mentions  a  pedestal :  and  in 
treating  of  the  Ionic,  he  only  speaks  of  it 
as  a  necessary  part  of  the  construction, 
and  not  as  part  of  the  order  :  several 
modern  writers  are  also  of  this  opinion. 

It  must  be  confessed,  wherever  pedes- 
tals are  introduced,  the  grandeur  of  the 
order  is  diminished,  as  all  the  parts  are 
proportionably  less  ;  however,  there  are 
some  situations,  in  which  they  are  indis- 
pensably necessary,  as  in  the  interior  of 
churches,  where,  if  they  were  omitted, 
the  beauty  of  the  columns  would  be  en- 
tirely lost,  as  so  great  a  portion  of  them 
would  be  concealed  by  the  pews.  The 
proportions  of  pedestals  in  the  ancient  Ro- 
man buildings  are  very  variable  ;  modern 
authors,  however,  have  thought  proper 
to  bring  them  to  a  standard  ratio,  which 
Vignola  makes  one-third  of  the  height  of 
the  column  ;  but  as  this  proportion  ap- 
peared to  make  them  too  high,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Chambers  reduced  it  to  three-tenths ; 
these  ratios,  however,  might  vary  as  par- 
ticular circumstances  might  require.  The 
parts  of  pedestals  may  be  thus  propor- 
tioned :  divide  the  height  into  nine  equal 
parts,  give  one  to  the  cornice,  two  to  the 
base,  and  six  to  the  die.  The  plan  of  the 
die  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  plinth  of  the 
column :  the  projection  of  the  cornice 
maybe  equal  to  its  height:  the  base  may 
be  divided  into  three  parts,  giving  two  to 
the  plinth,  and  one  to  the  mouldings, 
which  in  most  cases  may  project  equal  to 
their  height.  These  proportions  are  com- 
mon to  all  pedestals.  It  is  sometimes 
customary  to  adorn  the  dies  of  pedestals 


with  sunk  pannels,  surrounded  with 
mouldings  :  the  pannels  are  frequently 
charged  with  bas  reliefs  or  inscriptions. 
Projecting  tablets  should  never  be  ad- 
mitted, as  they  are  not  only  clumsy,  but 
confuse  the  contour.  The  dies  of  the  pe- 
destals of  the  arches  of  Septimius  Severus 
and  Constantine  have  straight-headed 
niches,  with  statues.  Pedestals  should 
never  be  insulated,  though  the  columns 
which  stand  upon  them  were  insulated. 
In  the  theatres  and  amphitheatres  of  the 
ancients,  pedestals  were  used  in  all  the 
superior  orders,  while  the  inferior  order 
stood  upon  steps.  They  were  employed 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  parapet  for 
the  spectators  to  lean  over,  and  for  rais- 
ingthe  base  of  the  superior  order  so  high, 
as  to  be  seen  upon  a  near  approach  to  the 
building.  In  these  situations  the  pedes- 
tals were  made  no  higher  than  to  prevent 
accidents.  When  pedestals  are  continued 
with  breaks  under  the  columns,  or  pilas- 
ters in  ancient  buildings,  the  breaks  were 
called  stylobatse ;  and  the  recess  between 
every  two  stylobatae,  the  podium,  which 
had  the  same  parts  disposed  at  the  same 
levels  as  the  stylobatae. 

Arcades.  An  arcade  is  an  aperture  in  a 
wall  with  an  arched  head  ;  which  term  is 
also  sometimes  applied  in  the  plural 
number  to  a  range  of  apertures  with 
arched  heads.  When  an  aperture  is  so 
large  that  it  cannot  be  lintelled,  it  then 
becomes  necessary  to  arch  it  over.  Ar- 
cades are  not  so  magnificent  as  colonades, 
but  they  are  stronger,  more  solid,  and 
less  expensive.  In  arcades,  the  utmost 
care  should  be  taken  of  the  piers,  that 
they  be  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  the  arches,  particularly  those 
at  the  extremrs  The  Romans  employed 
them  in  their  triumphal  arches,  and  many 
other  buildings.  Arcades  may  be  used 
with  propriety  in  the  gates  of  cities,  of 
palaces,  of  gardens,  and  of  parks  ;  they 
are  much  employed  in  the  piazzas  or 
squares  of  Italian  cities;  and,  in  general, 
are  of  great  use,  in  affording  both  shade 
and  shelter  in  hot  and  rainy  climates ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  they  are  a  great  nuisance 
to  the  inhabitants,  as  they  darken  their 
apartments;  and  serve  to  harbour  idle 
and  noisy  vagabonds.  Lofty  arcades  may 
be  employed  with  great  propriety  in  the 
courts  of  palaces,  and  noblemen's  houses. 
There  are  various  ways  of  decorating  the 
piers  of  arcades,  as  with  rustics,  columns, 
pilasters,  caryatides,  persians,  or  terms 
surmounted  with  appropriate  entabla- 
tures ;  and  sometimes  the  piers  are  even 
so  broad  as  to  admit  of  niches.  The  arch 
is  either  surrounded  with  rustic  work,  or 


ARCHITECTURE. 


with  an  archivolt ;  sometimes  interrupted 
at  the  summit  with  a  key-stone,  in  the 
form  of  a  console,  or  marsh,  or  some 
other  appropriate  sculptured  ornament. 
The  archivolt  rises  sometimes  from  a  plat- 
band, or  impost,  placed  on  the  top  of  the 


less  than  one  quarter,  nor  more  thanon*- 
third  of  the  breadth  of  the  arcade.  When, 
the  arcades  form  blank  recesses,  the 
backs  of  which  are  pierced  with  doors  or 
windows,  or  recessed  with  niches,  the 
recesses  should  be  at  least  so  deep,  as  to 


iJulKi     Or  llllJjU&t.    IJlo-^CU.  uii    LIU-   *-*-*JtJ  VA     LUI^     -    i  \.  v^v-jo^j   0u\s*«.ix*   u\,    «,».   iwew*   uw   viv^py  «»j    w 

Piers  -and at  other  times  from  an  enta-T'keep  the  most  prominent  parts  of  the 
f  1  •  ..  •  1  •..  1     "  j  1  «  t* 


blature,  supported  by  columns  on  each 
side  of  the  arch.  In  some  instances  the 
arches  of  arcades  are  supported  entirely 


dressings  entirely  within  their  surface. 
In  the  upper  stories  of  the  theatres  and 
amphitheatres  of  the  Romans,  the  arcades 


by  single  or  coupled  columns,  without  stood  upon  the  podia,  or  inner-pedestals, 
the  entablature ;  as  in  the  temple  of 
Faunus  at  Rome.  This  form  is  far  trom 
being  agreeable  to  the  eye ;  it  wants  sta- 
bility, as  the  columns  would  be  incapable 
of  resisting  the  lateral  pressure  of  the 
arches,  were  they  not  placed  within  an- 
other walled  inciosure,  or  in  a  circular 
colonade.  In  large  arches  the  key-stones 
should  never  be  omitted,  and  should  be 
carried  to  the  soffit  of  the  architrave, 
where  they  will  be  useful  in  supporting 
the  middle  of  the  entablature,  which 
otherwise  would  have  too  great  a  bear- 


ing. 

When  columns  are  detached,  as  in  the 
triumphal  arches  of  Septimius  Severus 
and  Constantino,  at  Rome,  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary to  break  the  entablature,  making 
its  projection  over  the  intercolumns  the 
same  as  if  pilasters  had  been  used  instead 
of  columns:  or  so  much  as  is  just  suffi- 
cient to  relieve  it  from  the  nakedness  of 
the  wall.  This  is  necessary  in  all  inter- 
columns  of  great  width,  but  should  be 
practised  as  little  as  possible,  as  it  des- 
troys the  genuine  use  of  the  entablature. 
WThen  columns  are  without  pedestals, 
they  should  stand  upon  a  plinth,  in  order 
to  keep  the  bases  dry  and  clean,  and  pre- 
vent them  from  being  broken. 

Arcades  should  never  be  much  more, 
nor  much  less,  than  double  their  breadth. 
The  breadth  of  the  pier  should  seldom 
exceed  two-thirds,  nor  be  less  than  one- 
third,  of  that  of  the  arcade  ;  and  the  an- 
gular pier  should  have  an  addition  of  a 
third,  or  a  half,  as  the  nature  of  the  de- 
sign may  require.  The  impost  should 
not  be  more  than  one-seventh,  nor  less 
than  a  ninth,  of  the  breadth  of  the  arch  ; 
and  the  archivolt  not  more  than  one- 
eighth,  nor  less  than  one-tenth,  of  that 
breadth.  The  breadth  of  the  bottom  of 
the  key-stone  should  be  equal  to  that  of 
the  archivolt ;  and  its  length  not  less  than 
one  and  a  half  of  its  bottom  breadth,  nor 
more  than  double.  In  groined  porticos, 
the  thickness  of  the  piers  depends  on  the 
width  of  the  portico,  and  the  superincum- 
bent building  ;  but  with  respect  to  the 
beauty  of  the  building-,  it  should  not  be 


of  the  columns  :  perhaps  as  much  for  the 
purpose  of  proportioning  the  apertures, 
as  to  form  a  proper  parapet  for  leaning 
over. 

Colonades.  A  colonade  is  a  range  of 
attached  or  insulated  columns,  supporting1 
an  entablature.  The  interval  between 
the  columns,  measured  by  the  inferior 
diameter  of  the  column,  is  called  the  in- 
tercolumniation  ;  and  the  whole,  area  be- 
tween every  two  columns  is  called  an  in- 
tercolumn.  When  the  intercolumniation 
is  one  diameter  and  a  half,  it  is  called 
pycnostile,  or  columns  thick  set ;  when 
two  diameters,  systyle  ;  when  two  and  a 
quarter,  custyle  ;  when  three,  diastyle  ; 
and  when  four,  araeostyle,  or  columns  thin 
set.  A  colonade  is  also  named  according 
to  the  number  of  columns  which  support 
the  entablature,  or  fastigium:when  there 
are  four  columns,  it  is  called  tetrastyle ; 
when  six,  hexastyle  ;  when  eight,  octo- 
style ;  and  when  ten,  decastyle.  The 
intercolumniations  of  the  Doric  order  are 
regulated  by  the  number  of  triglyphs, 
placing  one  over  every  intermediate  co- 
lumn :  when  there  is  one  triglyph  over 
the  interval,  it  is  called  monotriglyph  ; 
when  there  are  two,  it  is  called  ditri- 
glyph ;  and  so  on,  according  to  the  pro- 
gressive order  of  the  Greek  numerals. 
The  intercolumniation  of  the  Grecian  Do- 
ric is  almost  constantly  the  monotriglyph; 
from  this  practice  there  are  only  two  de- 
viations to  be  met  with  at  Athens,  the  one 
in  the  Doric  Portico,  and  the  other  in  the 
Propyl;ea;  but  these  intervals  only  be- 
long to  the  middle  intercolumniations, 
which  are  both  ditriglyph,  and  became 
necessary,  on  account  of  their  being  op- 
posite to  the  principal  entrances.  As  the 
character  of  the  Grecian  Doric  is  more 
massy  and  dignified  than  that  of  the  Ro- 
man, the  monotriglyphic  succeeds  best; 
but  in  the  Roman  it  is  not  so  convenient, 
for  the  passage  through  the  intercolumns 
would  be  too  narrow,  particularly  in  small 
buildings,  the  ditriglyph  is  therefore 
more  generally  adopted.  The  arxostyle 
is  only  applied  to  rustic  structures  of 
Tuscan  intercolumniations,  where  th,o 


ARCHITECTURE. 


columns  are  lintelled  with  wooden  archi- 
traves. 

When  the  solid  part  of  the  masonry  of 
a  range  of  arcades  are  decorated  with  the 
orders,  the  intercolumns  become  neces- 
sarily wide ;  and  the  intercolumniation  is 
regulated  by  the  breadth  of  the  arcades, 
and  that  of  the  piers. 

It  does  not  appear  that  coupled,  group- 
ed, or  clustered  columns  ever  obtained 
in  the  works  of  the  ancients ;  though,  on 
many  occasions,  they  would  have  been 
much  more  useful:  we  indeed  find,  in  the 
temple  of  Bacchus  at  Rome,  columns 
standing  as  it  were  in  pairs  ;  but  as  each 
pair  is  only  placed  in  the  thickness  of  the 
wall,  and  not  in  the  front,  they  may  ra- 
ther be  said  to  be  two  rows  of  columns, 
one  almost  immediately  behind  the  other. 
In  the  baths  of  Dioclesian,  and  in  the 
temple  of  Peace  at  Rome,  we  find  groin- 
ed ceilings,  sustained  by  single  Corinthian 
columns;  a  support  both  meagre  and  in- 
adequate. Vignola  uses  the  same  inter- 
columniation in  all  his  orders  :  this  prac- 
tice, though  condemned  by  some,  is 
founded  upon  a  good  principle  ;  it  pre- 
serves a  constant  ratio  between  the  co- 
lumns and  the  intervals. 

Of  all  the  kinds  of  intercolumniation, 
the  custyle  was  in  the  most  general  re- 
quest  among  the  ancients  :  and  though  in 
modern  architecture  both  the  custyle  and 
diastyle  are  employed,  yet  the  former  of 
these  is  still  preferred  in  most  cases  :  as 
to  the  pycnostile  interval,  it  is  frequently 
rejected  for  want  of  room,  and  the  araeo- 
style,  for  want  of  giving  sufficient  sup- 
port to  the  entablature. 

The  modernsseldom  employ  more  than 
one  row  of  columns,  either  in  external  or 
internal  colonades ;  for  the  back  range 
destroys  the  perspective  regularity  of  the 
front  range  :  the  visual  rays,  coming  from 
both  ranges,  produce  nothing  but  confu- 
sion in  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  This 
confusion,  in  a  certain  degree,  also  attends 
pilasters  placed  behind  a  row  of  insulated 
columns  ;  but  in  this  the  relief  is  strong- 
er, owing  to  the  rotundity  of  the  column, 
and  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  pilasters. 
When  buildings  are  executed  on  a  small 
scale,  as  is  frequently  the  case  of  temples, 
and  of  other  inventions  used  for  the  orna- 
ments of  gardens,  it  will  be  found  neces- 
sary to  make  the  intercolumniations,  or 
at  least  the  central  one,  broader  than 
usual,  in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of 
the  columns  ;  for,  when  the  columns  are 
placed  nearer  each  other  than  three  feet, 
the  space  becomes  too  narrow  to  admit 
persons  of  a  corpulent  habit. 


Pilasters  and  Ante,  f  ilasters  are  rec- 
tangular prismatic  projections,  advancing 
from  the  naked  part  of  a  wall,  with  bases 
and  capitals  like  columns,  and  with  an 
entablature  supported  by  the  columns; 
hence  they  differ  from  columns  in  their 
horizontal  sections  being  rectangles, 
whereas  those  of  columns  are  circles,  or 
the  segments  of  circles,  equal  to,  or 
greater,  than  semicircles. 

It  is  probable  that  pilasters  are  of  a 
Roman  invention,  since  there  are  but  few 
instances  in  Grecian  buildings  where  they 
are  repeated  at  equal  or  regular  intervals, 
and  these  only  in  the  latterages  of  Greece, 
as  in  the  monument  of  Philopapus,  (un- 
less in  that  of  Thrasyllus  ;)  but  of  their 
application  in  Roman  works  there  are 
numberless  instances :  Vitruvius  calls 
them  parastatse.  The  Greeks  used  a  kind 
of  square  pillars  only  upon  the  ends  of 
their  walls,  which  they  called  antae,  which 
antse  projected  sometimes  to  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  wall  of  the  princi- 
pal front,  and  formed  the  pronaos  or 
vestibulum.  The  breadth  of  the  antae  on 
the  flanks  of  the  temples  was  always  con- 
siderably less  than  on  the  front :  these 
antae  had  sometimes  columns  between 
them,  and  when  this  was  the  case,  the 
return  within  the  pronaos  was  of  equal 
breadth  to  the  front.  The  capitals  of  the 
antae  never  correspond  with  those  of  co- 
lumns, though  there  are  always  some 
characteristic  marks,  by  which  the  order 
may  be  distinguished. 

Pilasters,  or  parastatae,  when  ranged 
with  columns  under  the  same  entablature, 
or  placed  behind  a  row  of  columns,  have 
their  bases  and  capitals  like  those  of  the 
columns,  with  the  corresponding  parts  at 
the  same  heights,  and  when  placed  upon 
the  angles  of  buildings,  the  breadth  of  the 
returns  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  front. 
The  trunks  of  pilasters  have  frequently 
the  same  diminution  as  the  shafts  of  the 
columns,  such  as  in  the  arches  of  Septi- 
mius  Severus  and  Constantine,  and  in  the 
frontispiece  of  Nero,  and  the  temple  of 
Mars  the  Avenger,  at  Rome  ;  in  this  case, 
the  top  of  the  trunks  of  the  pilasters  is 
equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  soffit  of  the 
architrave,  and  the  upright  face  of  the 
architrave  resting  on  the  capital,  in  the 
same  perpendicular  as  the  top  of  the  pi- 
laster. When  the  pilasters  are  undimi- 
nished,  and  of  the  same  breadth  as  the 
columns  at  the  bottom,  the  face  of  the 
architrave  resting  on  the  capital  retreats 
within  the  top  of  the  trunk,  as  in  the  Pan- 
theon of  Agrippa. 

Pilasters  are  either  plain  or  fluted.    In 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ancient  edifices  this  was  not  always  regu- 
lated by  the  columns,  but  perhaps  de- 
pended on  the  taste  of  the  architects,  or 
destination  of  the  edifice.  The  columns 
are  plane  on  the  portico  of  the  Pantheon, 
while  the  pilasters  are  fluted ;  and  the 
contrary,  on  the  portico  of  Septimius  Se- 
verus.  When  pilasters  are  fluted,  the 
angles  or  quoins  are  frequently  beaded, 
such  as  those  of  the  Pantheon,  in  order 
to  strengthen  the  angles,  and  the  flutes 
are  generally  of  a  semicircular  section. 
The  faces  of  pilasters  are  sometimes  sunk 
within  a  margin,  and  the  pannels  charged 
with  foliage,  arabesque  or  grotesque  or- 
naments, or  instruments  of  music  and 
war,  or  sometimes  these  compounded,  ac- 
cording to  the  destined  purpose  of  the 
place  in  which  they  are  employed. 

The  pannels  of  the  pilasters,  in  the 
Arch  of  the  Goldsmiths  at  Rome,  are 
charged  with  winding  foliage  and  trophies 
of  war.  Pilasters,  when  placed  on  the 
front  or  outside  of  a  building,  should  pro- 
ject one  quarter  of  their  breadth  at  the 
bottom  ;  but  when  placed  behind  a  range 
of  columns,  or  in  the  interior  of  a  build- 
ing, should  not  project  more  than  the 
eighth  part  of  the  same  breadth. 

In  a  large  recess,  when  two  or  any  even 
number  of  insulated  columns  support  an 
entablature,  which  terminates  at  each  end 
upon  a  wall  or  pier,  a  pilaster  is  most 
commonly  placed  against  each  wall  or 
pier,  to  support  the  extremities  of  the 
architrave.  When  the  entablature  over 
the  columns  is  recessed  within  the  sur- 
face of  the  wall  or  pier  at  each  end,  the 
pilaster  projects  towards  the  column,  its 
thickness  is  shewn  on  the  front,  and  its 
breadth  faces  the  void  or  adjacent  co- 
lumn :  in  this  case  the  architrave  may 
either  profile  against  the  sides  of  the  aper- 
ture or  recess.;  or  it  may  return  at  each 
interior  angle,  and  then  again  at  the  ex- 
terior angles,  and  proceed  along  each 
wall  or  pier. 

If  the  intermediate  columns  and  ex- 
treme pilasters  are  so  ranged  as  to  pro- 
ject a  small  distance  beyond  the  face  of 
the  wall  at  each  end,  the  pilasters  shew 
the  same  breadth  towards  the  front  as  to- 
wards the  void,  and  the  entablature  may 
be  continued  unbroken,  as  in  the  chapels 
of  the  Pantheon ;  and  if  it  breaks,  it  must 
be  at  the  extreme  or  most  distant  angles. 
Pilasters  are  of  great  strength  to  a  wall, 
as  well  as  ornamental  to  the  building ; 
they  are  less  expensive  than  columns,  and 
in  situations  where  they  are  either  placed 
behind  a  range  of  columns,  or  support 
the  extremes  of  an  entablature  across  an 


opening,  they  are  more  concordant  witk 
the  walls  to  which  they  are  attached. 

Clustered  pilasters,  or  those  which  have 
both  exterior  and  interior  angles,  and  the 
planes  of  those  angles  parallel  and  per- 
pendicular to  the  front,  may  be  executed 
with  good  effect,  when  the  order  is  plain, 
as  in  the  Tuscan  :  but  in  the  three  Gre- 
cian and  Composite  orders,  this  junction 
should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
because  the  triglyphs  and  capitals  of  these 
orders  always  meet  imperfectly  in  the  in- 
terior angles.  The  same  may  also  be 
said  of  Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals  of 
half  pilasters,  meeting  each  other  in  the 
interior  angles  of  rooms.  In  the  Ionic 
order  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  a  dif- 
ference between  the  capitals  of  pilasters 
and  those  of  columns ;  for  in  the  capitals 
of  the  columns  the  projection  of  the  ovo- 
lo  is  greater  than  that  of  the  volutes;  but 
as  the  horizontal  section  of  the  ovolo  is 
circular,  the  ovolo  itself  is  bent  behind 
the  hem  or  border  of  the  volutes :  now 
supposing  a  vertical  section  through  the 
axis  of  the  column  to  be  perpendicular  to 
the  face,  and  another  through  the  middle 
of  the  breadth  of  the  pilaster,  and  that 
the  corresponding  mouldings  are  equal 
and  similar  in  both  sections ;  then,  be- 
cause the  horizontal  section,  through 
the  ovolo,  is  rectangular,  as  in  the  trunk, 
the  ovolo  would,  if  continued,  pass  over 
the  volutes,  or  must  terminate  abruptly, 
and  shew  the  profile  of  the  moulding, 
which  is  a  palpable  defect.  This  there- 
fore renders  it  necessary  to  give  the  ovolo 
so  much  convexity  on  the  front,  as  to 
make  its  extremes  retire,  and  pass  be- 
hind the  back  of  the  border  of  the  vo- 
lutes ;  or  to  make  the  ovolo  of  small  pro- 
jection :  or  to  twist  the  volutes  from  a 
plain  surface,  which  the  ancient  Ionic  has, 
and  make  every  part  of  the  spirals  pro- 
ject more  and  more  towards  the  eye  ;  or, 
lastly,  to  project  the  whole  abacus,  with 
the  volutes,  beyond  the  projection  of  the 
ovolo.  The  same  thing  is  also  to  be  ob- 
served with  regard  to  the  Corinthian  and 
Composite  capitals,  where  the  upper  part 
of  the  vase  projects  beyond  the  middle  of 
the  abacus,  and  would,  in  the  pilaster 
capitals,  pass  over  the  face  of  the  spirals 
or  volutes. 

Persians  and  Caryatides.  Instead  of 
columns,  or  pilasters,  it  is  sometimes  cus- 
tomary to  support  the  entablature  by  hu- 
man figures ;  the  males  of  which  are  call- 
ed Persians,  Talamones,  or  Atlantides ; 
and  the  females,  Carians,  or  Caryatides. 
The  history  of  these  Vitruvius  relates  as 
follows  :  "  Caria,  a  cityjof  Peloponnesus, 


ARCHITECTURE. 


having  joined  with  the  Persians  against 
the  Grecian  states,  and  the  Greeks  having 
put  an  end  to  the  war  by  a  glorious  vic- 
tory, with  one  consent  declared  war 
against  the  Caryatides.  They  took  the 
c'ity,  destroyed  it,  slew  the  men,  and  led 
the  matrons  into  captivity,  not  permitting 
them  to  wear  the  habits  and  ornaments 
of  their  sex;  and  they  were  not  only  led 
in  triumph,  but  were  loaded  with  scorn, 
and  kept  in  continual  servitude  ;  thus  suf- 
fering for  the  crimes  of  their  city.  The 
architects  therefore  of  those  days  intro- 
duced their  effigies  sustaining  weights,  in 
the  pnblic  buildings,  that  the  remem- 
brance of  the  crime  of  the  Caryatides 
might  be  transmitted  to  posterity.  The 
Lacedaemonians,  likewise,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Pausanias,  the  son  of  Cleombro- 
tus,  having  at  the  battle  of  Platea,  with  a 
small  number,  vanquished  a  numerous  ar- 
my of  Persians,  to  solemnize  the  triumph, 
erected  with  the  spoils  and  plunder  the 
Persian  Portico,  as  a  trophy,  to  transmit  to 
posterity  the  valour  and  honour  of  the 
citizens  ;  introducing  therein  the  statues 
of  the  captives,  adorned  with  habits  in 
the  barbarian  manner,  supporting  the 
roof." 

There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  hu- 
man figures,  and  those  of  inferior  animals, 
had  a  very  early  introduction  in  architec- 
ture, and  are  of  more  remote  antiquity 
than  that  assigned  by  Vitruvius  ;  for  we 
are  informed  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  that  in 
the  sepulchre  of  Osymanduas  there  was 
a  stone  hall  four  hundred  feet  square,  the 
roof  of  which  was  supported  by  animals 
instead  of  pillars :  the  number  of  these 
supports  is  not  mentioned.  The  roofs  of 
several  Indian  buildings,  supposed  of  the 
most  remote  antiquity,  are  sustained  in 
the  same  manner.  In  Denon's  travels  in 
Egypt,  among  other  fragments,  are  repre- 
sented five  insulated  pilasters  or  pillars, 
bearing  an  entablature  :  the  fronts  of  the 
pillars  are  decorated  with  priests  or  di- 
vinities. The  molten  sea,  recorded  in 
Holy  Writ,  was  supported  by  twelve 
bulls.  In  the  Odyssey  of  Homer,  tranla- 
ted  by  Pope  (book  vii.  ver.  118,)  we  find 
the  effigies  of  animals,  both  rational  and 
irrational,  employed  as  decorations,  which 
appears  by  the  following  extract. 

Two  rows  of  stately  dogs,  on  either 

hand, 
In  sculptur'd  gold  and  labour'd  silver 

stand. 
These  Vulcan  forni'd  with  art  divine  to 

wait, 
Immortal  guardians,  at  Alcinous'  gate, 


Alive  each  animated  frame  appears, 

And  still  to  live  beyond  the  power  of 
years. 

Fair  thrones  within  from  space  to  space 
were  rais'd, 

Where  various  carpets  with  embroid- 
ery blaz'd, 

The  work  of  matrons  :  these  the  prin- 
cess prest, 

Day  followed  day,  a  long  continued 
feast, 

Refulgent  pedestals  the  walls  surround, 

Which  boys  of  gold  with  flaming  torches 
crown'd. 

However,  these  representations  of  ani- 
mals were  not  employed  as  columns  to 
support  an  entablature,  but  merely  as  or- 
naments. 

In  Stewart's  antiquities  of  Athens,  we 
find  a  most  beautiful  specimen  of  Caryatic 
figures  supporting  an  entablature,  con- 
sisting of  an  architrave  cornice  of  a  very 
elegant  profile.  Among  the  Roman  an- 
tiquities, there  are  likewise  to  be  found 
various  fragments  of  male  figures,  which 
may  be  conjectured,  from  their  attitudes 
and  ornaments,  to  have  been  the  supports 
of  the  entablatures  of  buildings. 

Besides  Persians  and  Caryatides,  it  is 
sometimes  customary  to  support  the  en- 
tablatures with  figures,  of  which  the  up- 
per part  is  the  head  and  breast  of  the  hu- 
man body,  and  the  lower  part  an  invert- 
ed frustrum  of  a  square  pyramid,  with  the 
feet  sometimes  projecting  out  below,  as 
if  the  body  had  been  partly  cased :  figures 
of  this  form  are  called  terms  or  termini, 
which  owe  their  origin  to  the  stones  used 
by  the  ancients  in  marking  out  the  limits 
of  property  belonging  to  individuals.  Nu- 
ma  Pompilius,  in  order  to  render  these 
boundaries  sacred,  converted  the  Termi- 
nus into  a  deity,  and  built  a  temple  on  the 
Taipei  an  Mount,  which  was  dedicated  to 
him,  whom  he  represented  by  a  stone, 
which,  in  course  of  time,  was  sculptured 
into  the  form  of  ahuman  head  and  should- 
ers, and  other  parts,  as  has  already  been 
defined.  He  was  on  particular  occasions 
adorned  with  garlands,  with  which  he  ap- 
peared of  a  very  pleasant  figure.  Persian 
figures  are  generally  charged  with  a  Do- 
ric entablature  ;  Caryatic  figures  with 
Ionic  or  Corinthian,  or  with  an  Ionic  archi- 
trave cornice ;  and  the  Termini  with  an 
entablature  of  any  of  the  three  Grecian 
orders  according  as  they  themselves  are 
decorated.  Male  figures  may  be  intro- 
duced with  propriety  in  arsenals  or  galle- 
ries of  armour,  in  guard  rooms,  and  other 
military  places,  where  they  might  repre- 


ARCHITECTURE. 


sent  the  figures  of  captives,  or  else  of 
martial  virtues,  such  as  Strength,  Valour, 
Wisdom,  Prudence,  Fortitude,  and  the 
like.  As  these  figures  should  be  of  a 
striking  character,  they  may  be  of  any  co- 
lossal size  that  will  agree  with  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  other  parts  of  the  buildings. 
In  composing  Caryatides,  the  most  grace- 
ful attitudes  and  pleasant  features  should 
be  chosen :  and,  to  prevent  stiffness,  their 
drapery  and  features  should  be  varied 
from  each  other,  in  the  different  figures 
of  the  range ;  yet  a  general  form  of  figure 
should  be  preserved  throughout  the 
whole  of  them. 

Caryatides  should  always  be  of  a  mode- 
rate size,  otherwise  they  might  appear  hi- 
deous to  the  fair  sex,  and  destroy  those 
endearments  so  fascinating  in  the  sex  re- 
presented by  them.  They  may  be  em- 
ployed, as  Le  Clerc  observes,  to  sustain 
the  covering  of  a  throne,  and  represented 
under  the  figures  and  symbols  of  heroic 
virtues:  if  to  adorn  a  sacred  building, 
they  must  have  an  affinity  to  religion ;  and, 
when  placed  in  banqueting  rooms,  ball 
rooms,  or  other  apartments  of  recreation, 
they  should  be  of  kinds  proper  to  inspire 
mirth  and  promote  festivity.  As  Termini 
are  susceptible  of  a  variety  of  decorations, 
they  may  be  employed  as  embellishments 
for  gardens  and  fields,  representing  Jupi- 
ter as  protector  of  boundaries,  or  some 
of  the  rural  deities,  as  Pan,  Flora,  Pomo- 
na, Vertumnus,  Ceres,  Priapus,  Faunus, 
Sylvanus,  Nymphs,  and  Satyrs. 

'They  are  also  much  employed  in  chim- 
ney-pieces, and  other  interior  composi- 
tions. 

Orders  above  Orders.  When  two  or  more 
orders  are  placed  one  above  the  other, 
the  laws  of  solidity  require  that  the 
strongest  should  be  placed  lowermost;  and 
also,  that  their  axes  should  be  in  the  same 
vertical  lines.  When  the  columns  of 
the  orders  are  of  the  same  diameter, 
their  altitudes  increase  from  the  Tuscan, 
Doric,  and  Ionic,  to  the  Corinthian  ;  and, 
consequently,  in  this  progression,  the  Tus- 
can is  stronger  than  the  Doric,  the  Doric 
stronger  than  the  Ionic,  and  the  Ionic 
stronger  than  the  Corinthian :  therefore,  if 
the  Doric  be  the  lowest  order,  the  Ionic 

the  succeeding  order  ;  and  if  there  be 

third  order,  the  Corinthian  is  in  conse- 
quence the  next.  But  since  the  different 
stones  of  a  building  should  rather  be  of  a 
decreasing  progression  upwards,  than 
even  of  an  equal  altitude  to  each  other,  it 
follows  that  the  superior  columns  should 
not  only  be  diminished,  in  order  to  lessen 
'the  insisting  weight  from  the  inferior,  but 

VOL.  I. 


also  to  accommodate  the  heights  of  win- 
dows. 

The  rule  given  by  Vitruvius  (b.  v.  c.  7.) 
for  placing  one  order  above  another,  is, 
to  make  the  columns  of  the  superior  or- 
der a  fourth  part  less  in  height  than  those 
of  the  inferior. 

Scamozzi's  rule  is,  to  make  the  diame- 
ter at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  of  the  supe- 
rior order  equal  to  the  upper  diameter 
of  the  inferior  order. 

Let  us  now  suppose  that  the  Ionic  of 
nine  diameters  is  to  be  raised  upon  the 
Doric  of  eight  diameters,  as  in  the  Roman 
Doric ;  according  to  the  rule  given  by  Vi- 
truvius, the  bottom  diameter  of  the  Ionic 
will  be  two-thirds  of  that  of  the  Doric,  a 
quantity  much  less  than  is  to  be  found  in 
any  ancient  or  modern  examples  of  the 
diminution  of  the  Doric  shaft ;  which  di- 
minution is  the  lower  diameter  of  the  su- 
perior order,  by  Schamozzi's  ruTe. 

In  insulated  columns,  when  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  superior  order  is  very  great, 
the  intercolumn  becomes  so  wide,  and  the 
entablature  so  small,  and  consequently 
weaker,  that  it  is  in  clanger  of  breaking ; 
and  if  a  third  range  is  added,  this  defect 
must  be  increased  The  Vitruvian  rule  is 
therefore  not  so  applicable  as  the  Scamoz- 
zian,  which,  for  the  above  reasons,  is  uni- 
versally esteemed  'he  best,  and  is  the 
same  as  if  the  several  shafts  had  been  cut 
out  from  one  long  tapering  tree  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  when  the  diminution  of  the 
inferior  diameter  of  the  superior  order  is 
too  little,  or  nothing,  the  columns  will  not 
only  be  too  high  for  the  windows,  but  the 
lower  order  will  be  loaded  with  unneces- 
sary weight.  Let  the  stronger  order  be 
made  the  superior ;  for  example,  let  the 
Doric  be  placed  upon  the  Ionic,  and  al- 
lowing the  shaft  of  it  to  diminish  five- 
sixths  of  its  bottom  diameter,  the  height 
of  the  Doric  column  will  be  only  6  2-3ds 
diameters  of  the  Ionic  below  :  this  would 
not  only  make  a  complete  Attic  of  the 
Doric,  but  would  render  the  application 
of  the  orders  in  this  inverted  way  use'ess, 
as  they  could  not  be  made  to  accommodate 
the  stories  of  the  building,  nor  could  the 
upper  ranges  support  their  own  entabla- 
tures, which  must  be  the  consequence 
in  insulated  columns. 

When  the  front  of  a  building  is  to  have 
two  or  more  orders  in  the  altitude,  the  suc- 
cession ought  to  be  complete,  otherwise 
the  harmony  will  be  destroyed  by  the  vio- 
lent contrast  of  the  parts.  When  columns 
are  attached,  a  recedure  of  the  superior 
order  will  not  offend  the  eye  in  any  great 
degree,  nor  will  the  solidity  of  the  struc- 

Tt 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ture  be  Impaired;  this  is  to  he  seen  in  the 
theatre  of  Marcellus  ;  but  when  the  sto- 
ries of  orders  are  insulated,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  ax  s  of  the  superior  and  inferior 
columns  shou  Id  be  in  the  same  vertical 
lines.  If  the  upper  order  only  insists  in 
the  middle  of  that  below  in  two  equidis- 
tant parts  from  the  middle,  the  portions 
of  the  entablature  of  the  lower  order,  in 
which  there  is  no  superior  order,  are 
generally  finished  with  a  balustrade, 
level  with  the  sills  of  the  windows. 

In  England  we  have  few  examples  of 
more  than  two  ranges  of  columns  in  the 
same  front ;  for  when  there  are  three,  it  is 
difficult  to  preserve  the  character  of  each 
order  in  the  intcrcolumnial  decorations, 
without  some  striking  defects.  The  first 
and  second  orders  should  stand  upon  a 
plinth,  and  the  third  also,  when  there  is 
one,  the  point  of  view  regulating  the  two 
upper  plinths.  In  this  case  pedestals 
should  be  omitted  in  the  upper  orders, 
and  if  there  is  one,  or  a  balustrade  under 
the  windows,  the  base  and  cornice  should 
have  but  a  small  projection,  and  should 
be  continued  to  profile  upon  the  sides  of 
the  columns.  In  raising  the  stories  of  ar- 
cades upon  each  other,  with  orders  deco- 
rating the  piers,  the  inferior  columns 
should  be  placed  upon  a  plinth,  and  the  su- 
perior ones  upon  a  pedestal,  in  order  that 
the  arches  may  obtain  a  just  proportion. 

Pediments.  A  pediment  is  a  part  of  a 
building  having  a  horizontal  cornice  be- 
low, and  two  equally  inclined  ones,  or  an 
arched  cornice  above,  joined  at  the  ex- 
tremities  of  the  horizontal  one  ;  the  cor- 
nices including  a  plain  surface  within, 
called  the  tympanum,  which  is  therefore 
either  a  triangle  or  the  segment  of  a  circle. 

This  definition  does  not  comprehend 
every  species  of  pediments  which  have 
been  absurdly  introduced  ;  but  it  may  be 
said  to  be  the  only  genuine  one,  as  pedi- 
ments represent  the  ends  of  roofs,  and 
were  originaMy  intended  to  discharge  the 
rain  from  the  middle  of  the  building,  by 
compelling  it  to  descend  and  fall  over  the 
flanks  or  extremes,  and  not  over  the  front, 
which  must  be  the  case  with  every  other 
figure  that  can  be  introduced,  except 
those  of  a  polygonal  form,  which  present 
their  interior  angles  to  the  horizontal 
cornice,  or  the  exterior  ones  upwards. 
To  find  the  pitch  of  the  pediment  Vitru- 
vius  directs  as  follows:  divide  between 
the  extremities  of  the  cymatium  of  the 
corona  into  nine  equal  parts,  and  one 
makes  the  height  of  the  tympanum  ;  but 
this  rule  is  not  correct,  as  the  tympanum 
will  vary  its  angles  according  as  there 


are  more  or  less  mouldings  of  the  inclined 
cornices  within  the  extremities  of  the  cy- 
matium of  the  corona;  for  since  the  mid- 
dle part  by  this  rule  is  invariable,  and  the 
broader  the  parts  are  of  the  inclined  cor- 
nices within  each  extremity  of  the  cyma- 
tium of  the  corona,  or  rather  within  the 
under  edge  of  the  fillet  of  the  syma  upon 
each  inclined  cornice,  the  less  is  the  base  of 
the  tympanum,  and  consequently  the  ver- 
tical angle  less  obtuse,  and  the  base  angles 
less  acute  ;  but  if  this  height  extended  to 
the  meeting  of  the  two  under  sides  of  the 
fillets  of  the  syma,  or  crowning  moulding, 
then  the  figure  of  the  tympanum  would  be 
invariable.  The  Vitruvian  rule  has  been 
thought  by  many  to  be  too  low;  but  it  is  to 
be  recollected,  that  that  of  the  Parthenon 
at  Athens,  which  has  an  octostyle  portico,, 
is  nearly  of  this  proportion  ;  that  of  the 
temple  of  Theseus,  which  has  an  hexa- 
style  portico,  is  about  one-eighth  ;  that  of 
the  Ionic  temple  on  the  Ilissus,  and  of 
the  Doric  portico,  which  are  both  tetra- 
style,  are  about  one-seventh  ;  the  tympa- 
num of  the  pediment  of  the  door  on  the 
Tower  of  the  Winds  is  about  one-fifth  of 
the  span.  The  edifices  here  mentioned 
are  all  Athenian  buildings.  From  this 
comparison  it  would  appear,  that  a  kind 
of  reciprocal  ratio  subsists  between  the 
extension  of  the  base  of  the  tympanum 
and  its  height.  Indeed,  if  a  fixed  ratio 
were  applied  to  windows,  the  pediment 
would  frequently  consist  of  a  cornice, 
without  the  tympanum.  It  is  therefore 
with  great  reason  that  we  often  make  the 
pitch  of  pediments  of  windows  more  than 
those  which  crown  porticos,  or  the  fronts 
of  buildings.  The  plinths  by  which  pedi- 
ments are  sometimes  decorated  are  call- 
ed acroterions,  or  acroters :  the  two 
which  present  triangular  faces  at  the  ex- 
tremes have  their  heights,  according  to 
Vitruvius,  half  of  that  of  the  tympanum, 
and  the  middle  one  saddled  on  the  sum- 
mit is  one-eighth  part  higher  than  those 
at  the  extremes.  Pediments  owe  their 
origin  most  probably  to  the  inclined  roofs 
of  primitive  huts.  Among  the  Romans 
they  were  only  ased  as  coverings  to  their 
sacred  buildings,  till  Caesar  obtained  leave 
to  cover  his  house  with  a  pointed  roof, 
after  the  manner  of  temples.  In  Gre- 
cian antiquity  we  meet  only  with  tri- 
angular pediments,  and  \\\  Roman  build- 
ings we  meet  with  both  the  triangular  and 
circular,  [n  rows  of  openings,  or  niches, 
both  kinds  of  pediments  were  emploved 
in  the  same  range,  and  disposed  in  alter- 
nate succession.  The  horizontal  cornices 
of  pediments  should  never  be  discontinu- 


ARCHITECTURE, 


fcdjj  as  may  be  seen  in  many  of  the  street 
houses  of  London,  in  order  to  give  room 
for  a  fan  light,  and  to  lessen  the  expenses 
of  the  frontispiece,  by  introducing  short- 
er columns  and  a  less  massy  entablature  : 
for  since  the  horizontal  cornice  represents 
the  tie-beam,  and  the  inclined  ones  the 
rafters,  the  columns  will  appear  to  have  a 
tottering  effect,  by  spreading  them  out  at 
the  top  beyond  the  extremities  of  their 
bases. 

Vitruvius  observes,  that  the  Greeks 
never  used  mutules,  modillions,  or  den- 
tils, in  the  front,  in  which  the  end  of  the 
roof,  or  fastigium,  appears,  because  that 
the  ends  of  the  rafters  and  the  ends  of 
the  laths  which  support  the  tiles  only 
appear  at  the  eaves  of  the  building. 
Now,  as  mutules  and  dentils  originated 
from  the  projecting  ends  of  the  rafters 
and  laths,  following  the  course  of  nature, 
it  would  have  been  absurd  to  introduce 
them  into  the  pediment. 

However  just  this  reasoning  appears, 
we  find,  from  the  remains  of  Grecian  an- 
tiquity, this  assertion  only  verified  in  the 
-inclined  cornices  of  the  pediment :  for 
mutules  are  constantly  employed  in  the 
horizontal  cornice  ;  but  neither  mutules, 
modillions,  nor  dentils,  on  the  sloping 
sides :  at  least,  when  any  of  the  edifices 
in  Greece  appear  with  those  innovations, 
they  are  introduced  during  the  time  it 
was  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire.  Of 
this  practice  at  Rome,  the  Pantheon  and 
the  frontispiece  of  Nero  are  examples  of 
modillions;  and  the  temple  of  Fortune 
one  where  dentils  are  used.  In  the  in- 
clined cornices  of  pediments  the  sides  of 
the  modillions  and  dentils  are  planes, 
perpendicular  to  the  horizon  and  to  the 
front  of  the  edifice  ;  and  in  the  same  ver- 
tical planes  with  those  of  the  modillions 
or  dentils  of  the  horizontal  cornice. 

balustrades.  A  balustrade  is  a  range  of 
small  columns,  called  ballusters,  support- 
ing a  cornice,  used  as  a  parapet,  or  as  a 
screen  to  conceal  the  whole  or  a  part  of 
the  roof:  it  is  also  sometimes  used  as  a 
decoration  for  terminating  the  building. 
Balustrades  are  employed  in  parapets  on 
the  margins  of  stairs,  or  before  windows, 
or  to  inclose  terraces  or  other  elevated 
places  of  resort,  or  on  the  sides  of  the 
passage  way  of  bridges.  It  is  remarkable, 
that  there  are  no  remains  of  balusters  to 
be  seen  in  any  ancient  building1.  In  the 
theatres  and  amphitheatres  of  the  Ro- 
mans, the  pedestals  of  the  upper  orders 
were  always  continued  through  the  ar- 
cades, to  serve  as  a  parapet  for  the  spec- 
tutors  to  lean  over.  The  lowermost  seats 


next  to  the  arena  in  the  ampitheatres,  and 
those  next  to  the  orchestra  in  the  thea- 
tres, were  guarded  by  a  parapet,  or  po- 
dium. The  walls  of  ancient  buildings  ge- 
nerally terminated  with  the  cornice  itself, 
or  with  a  blocking  course,  or  with  an 
Attic.  In  the  monument  of  Lysicrates  at 
Athens,  which  is  a  small  beautiful  build- 
ing, the  top  is  finished  with  fynials,  com- 
posed of  honeysuckles,  solid  behind,  and 
open  between  each  pair  of  fynials:  each 
plant  or  fynial  is  bordered  with  a  curved 
head,  and  the  bottom  of  each  interval 
witli  an  inverted  curve.  Perhaps  termi- 
nations of  this  nature  might  have  been 
employed  in  many  other  Grecian  build- 
ings, as  some  coins  seem  to  indicate ;  but 
this  is  the  only  existing  example  of  the 
kind.  The  temples  in  Greece  are  mostly 
finished  with  the  cornice  itself.  This  was 
also  the  case  with  many  of  the  Roman 
temples ;  but  as  there  are  no  remains  of 
balustrades  in  ancient  buildings,  their  an- 
tiquity may  be  doubted :  they  are,  how- 
ever, represented  in  the  works  of  the 
earliest  Italian  writers,  who  perhaps  may 
have  seen  them  in  the  ruins  of  Roman 
edifices.  When  a  balustrade  finishes  a 
building,  and  crowns  an  order,  its  height 
should  be  proportioned  to  the  architec- 
ture it  accompanies,  making  it  never  more 
than  four-fifths,  nor  less  than  two-thirds, 
of  the  height  of  the  order,  without  reck- 
oning the  zocholo,  or  plinth,  on  which  it 
is  raised,  as  the  balustrade  itself  should^ 
be  completely  seen  at  a  proper  point  of 
view.  Balustrades  that  are  designed  for 
use  should  always  be  of  the  height  of 
parapet  walls,  as  they  answer  the  same 
purpose,  being  nothing  else  than  an  or- 
namental parapet.  This  height  should  not 
exceed  three  feet  and  a  half,  nor  be  less 
than  three  feet.  In  the  balusters,  the 
plinth  of  the  base,  the  most  prominent 
part  of  the  swell,  and  the  abacus  of  their 
capital,  are  generally  in  the  same  straight 
line;  their  distance  should  not  exceed 
half  the  breadth  of  the  abacus  or  plinths, 
nor  be  less  than  one-third  of  this  mea- 
sure. On  stairs  or  inclined  planes  the 
same  proportions  are  to  be  observed  as 
on  horizontal  ones.  It  was  formerly  cus- 
tomary to  make  the  mouldings  of  the  ba- 
lusters follow  the  inclination  of  the  plane; 
but  this  is  difficult  to  execute,  and,  when 
done,  not  very  pleasant  to  the  eye: 
though  in  ornamental  iron  work,  where  it 
is  confined  to  a  general  surface,  passing 
perpendicularly  by  the  ends  of  the  steps, 
it  has  a  very  handsome  appearance.  The 
breadth  of  pedestals,  when  placed  over 
an  order,  is  regulated  by  tke  top  of  the 


ARCHITECTURE, 


:,hatt»,  the  die  being  always  equal  thereto. 
When  balustrades  are  placed  upon  the 
entablature  of  an  order,  over  the  inter- 
columns  or  interpilasters,  and  the  base 
and  cornice  of  the  balustrade  continued, 
so  as  to  break  out  and  form  pedestals  over 
the  columns  or  pilasters,  the  breadth  of 
the  die  of  the  pedestals  should  be  equal 
to  the  breadth  of  the  top  of  the  shafts ; 
and  where  there  is  no  order,  the  breadth 
of  the  die  is  never  more  than  its  height, 
and  very  seldom  narrower;  and  the  dies 
of  the  pedestals  are  frequently  flanked 
with  half  dies,  particularly  when  the  range 
of  balusters  is  long.  This  is  not  only  ap- 
parently necessary,  but  is  in  reality  use- 
ful in  shortening  the  range,  and  forming 
:i  better  support  for  the  ends  of  the  rail. 

Mtics.  An  Attic  is  a  part  of  a  building 
standing  on  the  cornice,  similar  in  form  to 
that  of  a  pedestal;  and  is  either  broken 
or  continued.  The  use  of  an  attic  is  to 
conceal  the  roof,  and  to  give  greater  dig- 
nity to  the  design.  The  Romans  employ- 
ed attics  in  their  edifices,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  remains  of  the  triumphal  arches, 
:uid  piazza  of  Nerva.  In  the  arch  of  Con- 
stantine,  pedestals  are  raised  over  the  co- 
lumns as  high  as  the  base  of  the  attic, 
and  these  pedestals  are  again  surmounted 
uith  insulated  statues.  In  the  ruins  of 
Athens  there  are  no  attics  to  be  found  : 
4 here  is  one,  however,  over  a  Corinthian 
colonade  at  Thessalonica,  with  breaks 
forming  dwarf  pilasters  over  the  columns ; 
and  with  statues  placed  in  front  of  the 
pilasters,  as  in  the  arch  of  Constantine. 
The  attic  carried  round  the  two  courts  of 
the  great  temple  of  Balbec  is  also  broken 
into  dwarf  pilasters  over  the  columns  and 

Eilasters  of  the  order ;  and  the  dwarf  pi- 
isters  have  blocking  courses  over  them, 
on  which  statues  are  supposed  to  have 
been  placed.  Attics  are  very  dispropor- 
tional  in  the  ruins  of  these  ancient  edi- 
fices, some  of  them  being  nearly  one-half 
of  the  height  of  the  order.  The  moderns 
make  their  height  equal  to  that  of  the 
entablature  ;  as  to  the  proportion  of  the 
height  of  the  members  it  may  be  the  same 
as  that  for  pedestals. 

Doors.  Doors  are  apertures  in  exterior 
trails,  used  for  passage  into  public  and 
private  buildings;  and  in  the  interior,  for 
communication  from  one  apartment  to 
another.  In  the  fourth  book  of  Vitruvius 
rules  are  laid  down  for  Doric,  Ionic,  and 
Attic  doors,  all  of  which  have  apertures 
narrower  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom. 
These  trapuzoidal  closures  of  apertures 
have  the  pr<  perty  of  shutting  themselves, 
which,  perl  aj-?,  might  have  occasioned 


the  introduction  of  this  form,  and  are  use  * 
ful  in  modern  times  for  raising  the  door 
above  the  floor  in  the  act  of  opening,  in 
order  to  keep  it  clear  of  the  carpet.  Ex- 
amples of  them  are  to  be  found  among 
the  ruins  of  ancient  edifices  ;  they  have 
also  been  introduced  by  a  few  modern 
architects.  The  apertures  of  doors  of 
small  dimensions  are  most  commonly 
closed  with  lintels.  Doors,  in  general, 
are  regulated  in  their  apertures  by  the 
size  of  a  man,  so  as  never  to  be  smaller 
than  that  he  might  pass  freely  through 
them  ;  they  are  seldom  less  than  two  feet 
nine  inches  in  width,  by  six  feet  six  inches 
in  height,  except  in  confined  situations, 
and  where  utility  is  beyond  any  other 
consideration. 

Doors  of  entrance  vary  in  their  dimen- 
sions, according  to  the  height  of  the  story, 
or  magnitude  of  the  building,  in  which 
they  are  placed.  In  small  private  houses 
four  feet  may  be  the  greatest  width,  and 
in  most  cases  three  feet  six  inches  will 
be  sufficient.  The  lintels  of  doors  should 
range  with  those  of  the  windows;  and  the 
width  of  their  aperture  should  not  be  less 
than  that  of  the  windows.  A  good  pro- 
portion of  doors  is  that  where  its  dimen- 
sions has  the  ratio  of  three  to  seven ; 
their  height  should  never  be  less  than 
twice,  nor  more  than  twice  and  a  half, 
their  breadth.  In  the  entrance  doors  of 
public  edifices,  where  there  is  a  frequent 
ingress  and  egress  of  people,  and  often 
crowded,  their  width  may  be  from  six  to 
ten  feet.  Inside  doors,  or  doors  of  com- 
munication, should  be  in  some  measure 
proportioned  to  the  height  ot'.fche  stories ; 
however,  there  is  a  certain  limit  for  the 
dimensions  of  their  apertures,  which  they 
should  not  exceed ;  for  the  difficulty  of 
shutting  the  door  will  be  increased  by  its 
magnitude ;  therefore  the  apertures  of 
doors,  which  are  intended  to  shut  in  one 
breadth,  should  never  exceed  three  feet 
six  inches.  In  palaces  and  in  noblemen's 
houses,  where  much  company  resort,  and 
in  state  apartments,  all  the  doors  are  fre- 
quently thrown  open ;  they  are  made 
much  larger  than  other  doors,  being  from 
four  to  six  feet  in  width,  with  folding 
leaves.  The  proportion  of  the  apertures 
of  such  doors  will  often  be  of  a  less  height 
than  that  of  twice  the  breadth,  as  all  the 
rooms  in  the  same  story  have  a  communi- 
cation with  one  another,  the  whole  of  the 
doors  in  that  story  will  have  one  common 
height. 

The  apertures  of  exterior  doors  placed 
in  blank  arcades  are  regulated  by  the 
imposts,  the  top  of  the  aperture  being 


ARCHITECTURE. 


s 

V 

! 


.generally  made  level  with  the  springing 
of  the  arch  ;  or  if  the  door  has  dressing's 
which  include  a  cornice,  the  top  of  the 
cornice  ought  to  be  on  the  same  level 
with  the  springing-  of  the  arch.  With  re- 
gard to  the  situation  of  the  principal  en- 
trance, it  is  evident  that  the  door  should 
be  in  the  middle,  as  it  is  not  only  more 
symmetrical,  but  will  communicate  more 
easily  with  all  the  parts  of  the  building*. 
In  principal  rooms,  doors  of  communica- 
tion should  at  least  be  two  feet  distant 
from  the  walls,  if  possible,  that  furniture 
may  be  placed  close  to  the  door-side  of 
the  room.  The  most  common  method  of 
adorning  doors  is  with  an  architrave  sur- 
rounding the  sides  of  the  aperture,  or 
with  the  architrave  surmounted  with  a 
cornice,  forming  an  architrave  cornice,  or 
with  the  architrave,frize  and  cornice  form- 
ing a  complete  entablature.  Sometimes 
the  ends  of  the  cornice  are  supported 
with  consoles,  placed  one  on  each  side  of 
the  architrave  ;  and  each  console  is  most 
commonly  attached  to  the  head  of  a  pi- 
laster ;  sometimes  the  surrounding  archi- 
trave is  flanked  with  pilasters  of  the  or- 
ders, or  of  some  other  analogical  form. 
In  this  case,  the  projections  of  their  bases 
and  capitals  are  always  within  that  of  the 
architrave  :  the  architrave  over  the  capi- 
tals of  the  pilasters  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  head  of  the  door,  and  the  parts  ex- 
actly of  the  same  height,  and  projections 
profiling  upon  the  sides  of  the  surround- 
ing architrave.  Sometimes,  either  with 
or  without  these  dressings,  the  door  is 
also  adorned  with  one  of  the  five  orders, 
or  with  columns  supporting  a  regular  en- 
tablature, frequently  surmounted  with  a 
pediment.  Doors  are  also  sometimes 
adorned  with  rustics,  which  may  either 
be  smooth,  hatched,  frosted,  orvermicu- 
lated ;  but  their  outline  must  be  sharp. 
The  rustics  are  disposed  in  contiguity  with 
each  other,  or  are  repeated  by  equal  in- 
tervals :  as  to  the  shafts  of  columns,  the 
rustic  cinctures  may  either  be  cylindrical 
or  with  rectangular  faces.  In  doors  with 
rectangular  apertures  and  rusticated 
leads,  the  rustics  are  drawn  from  the 
vertex  of  an  equilateral  triangle  within 
the  aperture.  The  entrance  doors  of 
grand  houses  are  often  adorned  with  por- 
ticos,  frequently  in  the  manner  of  Grecian 
temples;  sometimes  the  plan  of  the  por- 
tico may  be  circular,  which  should  never 
have  less  than  three  intercolumniations, 
as  the  entablature  would  appear  to  over- 
hang its  base,  in  such  a  degree  as  to  of- 
fend the  eye  of  a  beholder. 

A  window  is  an  aperture  in 


a  wall  for  the  admission  of  light.  The 
size  of  windows  depends  on  the  climate,, 
the  aspect,  the  cubature,  the  proportion, 
the  desi nation  and  the  thickness  of  the 
walls  of  the  place  to  be  lighted;  as  also 
on  the  number  and  distribution  of  win- 
dows in  that  place.  It  is  not  very  easy, 
even  with  these  data,  to  determine,  with 
mathematical  exactness,  the  necessary 
quantity  of  light ;  but  in  private  houses, 
where  beauty  and  proportion  are  requir- 
ed, the  width  of  the  windows  depends  on 
the  height  of  the  principal  story  ;  other- 
wise the  apertures  will  be  disproportion- 
ate figures  of  themselves,  and  also  to 
the  whole  facade  in  which  they  are 
placed. 

The  apertures  of  windows  should  not 
only  be  of  shapely  figures,  and  propor- 
tioned to  the  building,  but  the  piers  also 
should,  in  some  measure,  be  regulated 
by  the  breadth  of  the  apertures;  at  least, 
certain  proportionable  limits  of  this 
breadth  ought  to  be  assigned  to  that  of  the 
piers,  so  as  not  to  ofifend  the  eye  by  their 
being  too  clumsy  or  too  small,  and  at  the 
same  time  permit  a  less  or  greater  quan- 
tity of  light,  fora  greater  or  less  depth 
of  rooms.  As  to  the  size  of  the  piers, 
considerable  latitude  may  be  taken  ;  but, 
in  general,  they  should  not  be  of  less 
breadth  than  the  apertures,  nor  more  than 
twice  that  breadth.  In  a  small  building, 
with  only  three  rooms  and  three  windows 
in  the  length,  the  piers  will  necessarily 
be  large. 

In  buildings  with  a  great  number  of 
windows  in  the  length,  where  there  are 
at  least  three  windows  in  one  or  more 
principal  rooms,  and  where  there  are  no 
breaks,  the  breadths  of  the  piers  may  be 
from  once  the  breadth  of  the  window  to 
once  and  a  half  that  breadth  ;  but  if  there 
are  columns,  pilasters,  or  breaks,  the 
breadth  of  the  pier  may  be  from  once  to 
twice  that  of  the  apertures,  according  an 
the  breadth  of  the  pilasters  or  columns 
may  require,  so  as  to  leave  a  proper  re- 
pose of  walls  upon  the  sides. 

The  sills  of  windows  should  be  from 
three  feet  to  three  feet  six  inches  distant 
from  the  level  of  the  floor,  forming  a  pa- 
rapet for  leaning  upon  :  these  limits  are 
the  natural  heights  of  the  breasts  of  win- 
dows ;  but  it  is  now  common,  even  in  or- 
dinary buildings,  to  make  them  from  two 
feet  to  two  feet  six  inches  high  only.  In 
noblemen's  houses  the  sills  are  frequent- 
ly upon  the  same  level  with  the  floor,  and 
sometimes  rise  a  step  or  two  higher. 
These  circumstances  will  alter  the  pro- 
portion of  the  windows,  and  make  them 


ARCHITECTURE, 


unich  higher  llian  the  double  square. 
The  width  of  all  the  windows  must  be  the 
^same  in  the  facade  ;  but  the  different 
heights  of  the  stories  will  require  differ- 
ent heights  of  windows.  Were  it  requir- 
ed to  find  the  quantity  of  light  for  a  room 
of  given  dimensions,  it  is  evident  that 
this  will  depend  upon  the  area  of  the 
inlet  and  the  cubature  of  the  room  ;  there- 
fore, supposing  that  an  aperture  con- 
taining twenty  square  feet  is  sufficient  for 
a  room  twelve  feet  square  and  ten  feet 
high,  that  is  1400  cubic  feet,  the  quantity 
of  light  will  easily  be  ascertained  for  a 
room  of  any  other  given  dimensions.  Let 
n  room  be  supposed  25  feet  long,  20  feet 
broad,  and  14  feet  high,  the  cubature  will 
be  seven  thousand  feet;  then,  because 
the  cubature  of  rooms  should  be  as  the 
area  of  the  inlets,  the  proportion  will 
stand  thus  : 


1440 


7000 
20 


20 


_ 

1440)  140000  (97  the  area  of  the 
12960          inlet  required. 
1U400 
10080 
320 


Or,  instead  of  working  the  proposition, 
divide  the  cubature  of  the  room  by  72, 
Thus :  * 

72)  7000  (97  as  before. 
648 
520 
504 
16 

This  quotient,  divided  into  three  parts, 
gives  nearly  32  feet  for  each  window, 
which  is  very  sufficient  for  light ;  and  af- 
ter deducting  12  feet,  the  breadth  of 
three  windows,  13  feet  will  remain  for  the 
four  piers,  which  is  a  very  good  propor- 
tion :  there  is  also  abundant  room  left  for 
any  kind  of  furnishing  above  the  win- 
dows. 

An  odd  number  of  windows,  either  in 
the  same  length  of  front,  or  in  the  same 
length  of  principal  rooms,  is  always  to  be 
preferred  to  an  even  number  ;  for,  since 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  door  in  the 
middle  of  the  front,  an  even  number  of 
windows  would  occasion  a  pier  to  be  above 
the  opening  of  the  door,  contrary  either 
',o  regularity  or  to  the  laws  of  solidity; 
and  in  rooms  nothing  is  more  gloomy 
than  a  pier  opposite  to  the  centre  of  the 
floor.  Windows  placed  in  bla'nk  arcades 
should  have  the  under  sides  of  their  lin- 


tels in  the  same  horizontal  plane  with  the 
springing  of  the  arch;  or,  if  the  windows 
have  a  cornice,  the  springing  of  the  arch 
ought  to  be  carried  as  high  as  the  top  of 
the  cornice. 

The  aperture  of  the  windows  may  be 
from  two-fifths  to  three-fourths  of  the 
breadth  of  the  arcade.  In  the  principal 
floor,  the  windows  are  generally  orna- 
mented ;  the  most  simple  kind  of  which 
is,  that  with  an  architrave,  surrounding 
the  jambs  and  lintels  of  the  aperture,  and 
crowned  with  a  frize  and  cornice.  In 
cases  where  the  aperture  is  high,  in  order 
to  make  the  dressing  of  a  good  composi- 
tion, the  sides  of  the  architrave  are  fre- 
quently Hanked  with  pilasters  or  consoles, 
or  with  both  ;  and  sometimes  with  co- 
lumns, when  there  is  a  set-oft*  or  proper 
base,  so  as  not  to  have  a  false  bearing. 
When  the  principal  rooms  are  in  the  one 
pair  of  stairs,  the  windows  of  the  ground 
floor  are  sometimes  left  entirely  plain,  and 
at  other  times  they  are  surrounded  with 
an  architrave  ;  or  the  rusticated  base- 
ment, where  there  is  one,  terminates  up- 
on their  margins  without  any  other  finish. 
The  windows  in  the  third  story  are  fre- 
quently plain,  and  sometimes  surrounded 
with  an  architrave.  When  the  windows 
in  the  principal  story  have  pediments,  the 
windows  of  the  story  immediately  above 
have  frequently  their  surrounding  archi- 
traves crowned  with  a  frize  and  cornice. 
The  sills  of  all  the  windows  in  the  same 
floor  should  be  upon  the  same  level.  The 
sills  of  the  windows  in  the  ground  story 
should  be  elevated  5  or  6  feet  at  the  least 
above  the  pavement.  In  the  exterior  of 
every  building  the  same  kind  of  finish  or 
character  ought  to  be  preserved  through- 
out the  same  story.  Mixtures  of  windows 
should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible  ; 
or,  where  there  is  a  necessity  for  intro- 
ducing Venetian  windows,  they  ought  to 
stand  by  themselves  as  in  breaks. 

Gates.  A  gate  is  an  aperture  in  a  wall, 
which  serves  for  the  passage  of  horse- 
men and  carriages.  They  are  employed 
as  inlets  to  cities,  fortresses,  parks,  gar- 
dens, palaces*  and  all  places  to  which 
there  is  a  frequent  resort  of  carriages. 
In  gates  which  ai  e  closed  at  the  top,  the 
apertures  being  always  wide,  are  gener- 
ally made  with  arched  heads:  the  usual 
proportion  of  the  arcade  is  that  which  has 
its  height  double  to  its  breadth,  or  a  tri- 
fle more. 

The  usual  ornaments  of  gates  are  rus- 
tics of  several  kinds,  such  as  columns,  pi- 
lasters, entablatures,  pediments,  attics, 
blocking  course",  imposts,  archivolts. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


consoles,  marks,  niches,  &c.  In  gates 
which  are  not  closed  at  the  top,  the 
breadth  of  the  piers  may  be  from  two- 
fifths  to  a  quarter  of  their  height,  reckon- 
ing-from  the  bottom  of  the  plinth  to  the 
top  of  the  cornice. 

The  rustics  may  either  be  plain,  frost- 
ed, or  vermiculate  '  The  smallest  width 
that  can  be  given  to  the  aperture  of  a  gate 
is  nine  feet,  which  is  buijust  sufficient 
for  the  free  passage  of  coaches  :  but  if 
waggons  and  loaded  carts  are  to  pass,  it 
must  not  be  less  than  ten  or  eleven  feet; 
and  if  the  gate  is  for  the  entrance  of  a 
city,  it  should  not  be  of  a  less  width  than 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet.  The  composi- 
tion of  gates  should  be  characteristic  of 
the  place  to  which  they  are  to  open. 
Gates  of  cities  and  fortresses  should  have 
the  appearance  of  strength  and  majesty; 
their  parts  should  be  large,  few  in  num- 
ber, and  of  bold  relief.  The  same  ought 
likewise  to  be  observed  in  the  gates  of 
parks,  public  walks,  or  gardens;  these  suc- 
ceed better  when  composed  of  rustic  work 
and  of  the  massive  orders,  than  when 
they  are  enriched  with  nice  ornaments 
or  delicate  profiles.  However,  triumphal 
arches,  entrances  to  palaces,  to  magnifi- 
cent villas,  towns  or  country  houses,|might 
with  propriety  be  composed  of  the  more 
delicate  orders,  and  be  adorned  in  the 
highest  degree. 

The  gates  of  parks  and  gardens  are 
commonly  shut  with  iron  folding  grates, 
either  plane  or  adorned  :  those  of  palaces 
should  likewise  be  so,  or  else  be  left  open 
all  the  day. 

Mches.  A  niche  is  a  recess  in  a  wall, 
for  the  purpose  of  enshrining  a  statue  or 
some  other  ornament,  or  as  an  ornament 
to  the  wall  itself.  Among  the  works  of 
the  Romans,  niches  have  either  that  of  a 
circular  or  rectangular  plan:  the  heads 
of  those  which  have  circular  plans  are  al- 
most always  spherical.  In  the  middle  of 
the  attic  of  the  piazza  of  Nerva,  at  Rome 
there  is  a  niche,  with  a  rectangular  eleva- 
tion, and  a  cylindrical  back  and  head: 
those  upon  elliptic  plans  were  not  much 
used  by  the  ancients.  In  Wood's  Ruins 
of  Palmyra  there  are,  however,  two  ex- 
hibited, with  elliptic  heads  within  the  en- 
trance portico  of  the  temple  of  the  Sun; 
but  no  plan  is  shewn.  Niches  upon  rec- 
tangular plans  have  most  frequently 
horizontal  heads :  there  are  a  few  to  be 
found  with  cylindrical  heads :  those  upon 
circular  and  rectangular  plans  are,  for  the 
most  part,  placed  alternately,  for  the  sake 
of  variety.  The  plans  of  niches  with  cy- 
lindrical backs  should  be  semicircula'r, 
'when  the  thickness  of  walls  will  admit  of 


it ;  and  the  depth  of  those  upon  rectangti  • 
lar  plans  should  be  the  half  of  their 
breadth,  or  as  deep  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  statues  they  are  to  contain  ;  theiV 
heights  depend  upon  the  character  of  the 
statues,  or  on  the  general  forms  of  groups 
introduced;  seldom  exceeding  twice  and 
a  half  of  their  width,  nor  less  than  twice. 
Niches  for  busts  should  have  nearly  the 
same  proportion  with  regard  to  one  ano- 
ther :  their  heights,  in  some  cases,  may 
be  something  more  than  their  breadth. 
Some  niches  may  be  formed  with  cy- 
lindrical backs  and  spherical  heads;  some 
of  them  may  be  entirely  formed  with 
hemispherical  backs  ;  others  of  spheroi- 
dal backs,  with  the  transverse  or  conju- 
gate axis  of  the  ellipsis  vertical,  as  may 
be  most  suitable  to  the  character  of  the 
thing  to  be  enshrined  ;  those  with  sphe- 
roidal backs  may  have  their  horizontal 
sections  all  circles  of  different  diameters, 
and,  consequently,  their  sections  through 
the  vertical  axes  all  equal  semi-ellipses, 
similar  to  each  other;  or  all  their  horizon- 
tal sections  may  be  similar  ellipses,  and 
the  sections  through  the  vertical  axis  of 
the  niche  will  be  dissimilar  ellipses  of 
equal  heights,  at  least  for  one  half  of  the 
niche  ;  but  spheroidal  niches  with  such 
sections  are  difficult  to  execute,  and  not 
so  agreeable  to  the  eye  as  those  with  cir- 
cular horizontal  sections.  Niches  for 
busts  may  be  of  any  of  these  last  forms, 
or  of  any  other  form  used  by  the  an- 
cients. 

Niches  are  susceptible  of  the  same  de- 
corations as  windows ;  and  whether  their 
heads  be  horizontal,  cylindrical,  or  spheri- 
cal, the  inclosure  may  be  rectangular.  In 
the  ruined  edifices  of  antiquity,  taber- 
nacles are  a  very  frequent  ornament,  and 
these  often  disposed  with  triangular  and 
arched  pediments  alternately  :  the  cha- 
racter of  the  architecture  should  be  the 
same  as  that  which  is  to  be  placed  in  the 
same  range  with  them.  Niches  are  some- 
times disposed  between  columns  and  pi- 
lasters, and  sometimes  ranged  alternately 
in  the  same  levels  with  windows ;  in  either 
case  they  should  be  ornamented  or  plain, 
as  the  space  will  admit. 

If  the  intervals  between  the  columns  or 
pilasters  be  very  narrow,  the  niches  will 
be  much  better  omitted,  tlian  to  make 
them  either  diminutive,  or  of  a  dispro- 
portionate figure.  When  they  are  rang- 
ed with  windows,  their  dimensions  should 
be  the  same  as  the  aperture  of  the  win- 
dows. Niches  being  intended  as  reposi- 
tories for  statues,  vases,  or  other  works  of 
sculpture,  must  be  contrived  to  set  off 
the  things  they  are  to  contain  to  the  best 


ARCHITECTURE. 


advantage,  and  therefore  no  ornaments 
whatever  should  be  introduced  :  the  bo- 
dy and  head  of  the  niche  being1  as  plain  as 
possible,  every  kind  of  ornament,  whe- 
ther mouldings  or  sculpture,  tends  to  con- 
fuse the  outline. 

Statues.  Besides  decorations  of  mould- 
ings, columns,  and  pilasters,  architecture 
is  indebted  to  sculpture  for  a  great  part 
of  its  magnificence  ;  and  as  the  human 
body  is  justly  esteemed  the  most  perfect 
original,  it  has  been  customary,  in  every 
period,  to  enrich  different  parts  of  build- 
ings with  representations  thereof.  Thus 
the  ancients  adorned  their  temples,  basi- 
licos,  baths,  theatres,  and  other  public 
structures,  with  statues  of  their  deities, 
philosophers,  heroes,  orators,  and  legis- 
lators; and  the  moderns  still  preserve  the 
same  custom,  placing  in  their  churches, 
palaces,  houses,  squares,  gardens,  and 
public  walks,  the  busts  and  statues  of  il- 
lustrious personages;  or  bas  reliefs  and 
groaps,  composed  of  various  figures,  re- 

E resenting  memorable  occurrences,  col- 
jctedfrom  the  histories,  fables,  or  tra- 
ditk.ns  of  particular  times.  Sometimes 
the  statues  or  groups  are  detached,  and 
raised  on  pedestals,  and  placedcontiguous 
to  the  wails  of  buildings,  by  flights  of 
steps  or  stairs,  at  the  angles  of  terraces  in 
the  middle  of  rooms,  or  of  courts,  and 
public  squares,  but  most  frequently  they 
are  oiaced  in  niches.  The  size  of  the  sta- 
tue depends  upon  the  dimensions  of  the 
niche;  it  should  neither  be  so  large  as  to 
seem  crammed  into  it,  nor  so  small  as  to 
be  lost  in  it.  The  distance,  between  the 
outline  of  the  statue  and  the  sides  of  the 
niche,  should  never  be  less  than  one-third 
of  a  head,  nor  more  than  the  half,  whe- 
ther the  niche  be  square  or  arched  ;  and 
when  it  is  a  square,  the  distance  from  the 
top  of  the  head  to  the  soffit  of  the  niche 
should  not  exceed  the  distance  left  on  the 
sides.  The  statues  are  generally  raised 
on  a  plinth,  the  height  of  which  may  be 
from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  head  ; 
and  sometimes,  where  the  niches  are  ve- 
ry large,  in  proportion  to  the  architec- 
ture they  accompany,  as  may  be  the  case 
where  an  order  comprehends  but  one 
story.  The  statues  may  be  raised  on 
small  pedestals  to  a  proper  height,  and 
by  this  means  the  figure  will  not  only 
have  a  better  proportion  to  the  niche  but 
also  to  the  order,  to  which  it  would  other- 
wise appear  too  trifling.  Statues  are  not 
only  placed  in  niches,  but  they  are  also 
placed  on  the  tops  of  walls,  and  before  the 
dwarf  pilasters  of  attics,  as  in  the  arch  of 
Constuntine,  and  the  Corinthian  colonade 
at  Thessalonica. 


If  there  are  two  rows  of  niches  in  the 
same  building,  care  must  be  taken  to 
keep  the  statues  of  their  proper  attitudes. 
The  character  of  the  statue  should  always 
correspond  to  the  architecture  with  which 
it  is  surrounded.  Thus,  if  the  order  be 
Doric,  Jupiter,  Hercules,  Pluto,  Neptune, 
Mars,  Esculapius,  or  any  male  figures, 
representing  beings  of  a  robust  and  grave 
nature,  may  be  introduced.  If  Ionic,  then 
Apollo,  Bacchus,  Ceres,  Minerva,  Mer- 
cury :  and  if  Corinthian,  Venus  and  the 
Graces,  Flora,  or  others  of  a  delicate  kind 
and  slender  make,  may  very  properly 
have  place. 

Proportions  of  rooms.  The  proportions 
of  rooms  depend  much  on  their  use  and 
dimensions  ;  but  with  regard  to  the  beau- 
ty, all  figures,  from  the  square  to  a  sesqui- 
lateral,  may  be  employed:  some  have 
even  extended  the  length  of  the  plan  to 
double  its  breadth,  but  this  disparity  of 
dimensions  renders  it  impossible  to  pro- 
portion the  height  to  both  length  and 
breadth,  though  galleries  are  frequently 
three,  four,  or  even  five  squares  in  length; 
but  as  the  eye  only  takes  in  a  portion  of 
this  length,  the  comparison  is  merely 
made  in  respect  of  the  breadth.  The 
height  of  rooms  depends  upon  the  dimen- 
sions of  their  plans  and  the  form  of  the 
ceilings.  In  rooms  with  flat  ceilings,  if 
their  plan  be  a  square,  their  heights 
may  be  from  two-thirds  to  five-sixths  of 
the  side  ;  and  if  an  oblong,  it  may  be  equal 
to  the  width.  In  covered  rooms,  if  the  plan 
be  a  square,  the  height  may  be  equal  to 
the  side  ;  if  oblong,  it  may  be  equal  to 
the  breadth  only ;  or  with  a  fifth,  a  quar- 
ter, or  a  third,  of  the  difference  of  the 
length  and  breadth.  In  galleries,  the 
height  may  be  from  one  and  a-third  to 
one  and  three-fifths  of  the  breadth.  These 
are  the  general  relative  dimensions  of 
rooms ;  but  good  proportions  are  not  al- 
ways attainable,  particularly  in  houses  of 
great  magnitude  ;  since  the  same  com- 
mon height  is  that  of  all  the  rooms,  what- 
ever be  the  difference  of  their  plans  with 
regard  to  their  size  ;  however,  to  keep 
the  best  possible  proportions,  the  princi- 
pal rooms  may  have  flat  ceilings,  and  the 
middle-sized  ones  may  be  reduced  by 
coving  the  ceilings  with  a  flat  in  the  mid- 
dle ;  or  by  groins,  or  domes,  as  may  an- 
swer the  heights :  but  if  the  loftiest  of 
these  coved  figures  leaves  still  too  great 
a  height,  recourse  must  be  had  to  mez- 
zanines ;  which  are  not  only  necessary 
for  this  purpose,  but  may  always  be  em- 
ployed with  advantage,  as  they  afford  ser- 
vant's lodgings,  baths,  powdering-rooms, 
wardrobes,  and  other  conveniences.  All 


ARCHITECTURE. 


i 

CO 

ar 

I 


i-ooms  of  inferior  classes  may  have  mez- 
zanines or  intersoles. 

In  buildings,  where  beauty  and  magnifi- 
cence are  preferred  to  economy,  the  halls 
and  galleries  may  be  raised,  making  them 
occupy  two  stories.  Saloons  are  frequent- 
ly raised  three  stories,  or  the  whole  height 
of  the  building,  and  have  galleries  around 
their  interior  at  the  height  of  the  floors, 
for  communicating  with  the  various  parts 
of  the  building. 

When  rooms  are  adorned  with  an  en- 
tire order,  the  entablature  may  occupy 
in  height  from  one-sixth  to  one-seventh  of 
that  of  the  room  ;  if  the  entablature  be 
without  columns,  it  may  have  from  one- 
seventh  to  one  eighth.  If  a  cornice,  frize, 
and  astragal,  are  executed,  its  height  may 
be  equal  to  a  tenth  ;  and  if  only  a  cornice, 
its  height  may  be  from  a  twentieth  to  a 
thirtieth  part  of  that  of  the  room.  In 
general,  all  interior  proportions  and  deco- 
rations must  be  less,  and  more  delicate 
than  those  of  the  exterior.  Architraves, 
in  most  cases,  should  not  be  above  one- 
seventh  of  the  width. 

Ceilings.  The  figures  of  ceilings  are 
either  flat  or  coved  :  coved  ceilings  either 
have  a  concavity  around  the  margins,  and 
are  flat  in  the  middle,  or  have  a  vaulted 
surface.  (See  VAULTS).  Ceilings,  that 
are  coved  and  flat,  may  occupy  from 
one-fifth  to  a  fourth  part  of  the  height 
of  the  room  :  the  principal  sections  of 
vaulted  ceilings  may  be  of  various  seg- 
ments, equal  to,  or  less  than  semicircles, 
as  may  be  most  suitable  to  the  height  of 
the  room.  Flat  ceilings  are  adorned  with 
large  compartments,  or  foliages,  and  other 
ornaments,  or  with  both.  Compartment 
ceilings  are  either  formed  by  raising 
mouldings  on  the  surface,  or  by  depress- 
ing the  pannels  within  the  moulded  inclo- 
sure,  which  may  be  partly  raised  upon, 
and  partly  recessed  within  the  framing, 
or  entirely  recessed  :  the  figures  of  the 

nnels  may  either  be  polygonal,  circular, 

elliptical.  The  ceilings  of  the  porti- 
cos and  of  the  interior  of  ancient  temples 
are  comparted,  and  the  pannels  deeply 
recessed ;  the  prominent  parts  between 
them  representing  the  ancient  manner  of 
framing  the  beams  of  wood  which  com- 
posed the  floors  ;  the  mouldings  on  the 
sides  of  the  pannels  are  sunk,  by  one, 
two,  or  several  degrees,  like  inverted 
steps,  and  the  bottoms  of  pannels  are  most 
frequently  decorated  with  roses  ;  the 
figures  of  these  compartments  are  mostly 
equilateral,  and  equiangular.  Triangles 
were  seldom  used,  but  we  find  squares, 
hexagons,  and  octagons,  in  great  abund- 
ance. The  framing  around  the  pannels 

VOL,  I. 


in  R-  'iiia; i  antiquity  is  constantly  parallel, 
or  of  equal  breadth,  therefore,  when 
squares  are  introduced,  there  is  no  other 
variety  ;  but  hexagons  will  join  in  conti- 
guity with  one  another,  or  form  the  in- 
terstices into  lozenges,  or  equilateral  tri- 
angles. Octagons  naturally  form  two  va<- 
rieties,  viz,  that  of  their  own  figure,  and 
squares  in  the  interstices  :  this  kind  of 
compartment  is  called  coffering,  and  the 
recessed  parts  coffers,  which  are  used  not 
only  in  plain  ceilings,  but  also  in  cylindri- 
cal vaults.  The  borders  of  the  coffer- 
ing are  generally  terminated  with  belts, 
charged  most  frequently  with  foliage  ; 
and  sometimes  again  the  foliage  is  bor- 
dered with  guillochis,  as  in  the  temple  of 
Peace  at  Rome.  In  the  ceiling  of  the 
entire  temple  at  Balbec,  coffers  are  dis- 
posed around  the  cylindrical  vault,  in  one 
row  rising  over  each  intercolumn  ;  and 
between  every  row  of  coffers  is  a  project- 
ing belt,  ornamented  with  a  guillorhi, 
corresponding  with  two  semi-attached  co- 
lumns in  the  same  vertical  plane,  one  co- 
lumn supporting  each  springing  of  the 
belt.  The  moderns  also  follow  the  same 
practice  in  their  cupolas  and  cradle 
vaults,  ornamenting  them  with  coffers 
and  belts  :  the  belts  are  ornamented  with 
frets,  guillochis,  or  foliages  ;  small  pan- 
nels are  ornamented  with  roses,  and 
large  ones  with  foliage,  or  historical  sub- 
jects, in  a  variety  of  different  manners. 

The  grounds  may  be  gilt,  and  the  or- 
naments white,  partly  coloured,  or  streak- 
ed with  gold  ;  or  the  ornaments  may  be 
gilt,  and  the  grounds  white,  pearl,  straw- 
colour,  light  blue,  or  any  tint  that  may 
agree  best  with  the  ornaments.  Some 
ceilings  are  painted  either  wholly,  or  in 
various  compartments  only:  when  a  ceil- 
ing is  painted  in  representation  of  a  sky, 
it  ought  either  to  be  upon  a  plane  or 
spheric  surface.  A  ceiling  coved  and 
flat,  with  the  plane  painted  to  represent 
the  sky,  is  extremely  improper,  as  the 
cove  represents  the  half  of  an  arch  upon 
every  side  of  the  room,  it  will  seem  as  if 
falling,  from  the  want  of  an  apparent  sup- 
port in  the  middle,  unless  the  ceiling  rise 
from  a  circular  plan.  Ceilings  coved  and 
flat  are  much  employed  in  modern  apart- 
ments :  they  seem  to  be  a  kind  of  medi- 
um between  the  horizontal  and  the  vari- 
ous arched  forms  practised  by  the  an- 
cients :  they  do  not  require  so  much 
height  as  the  latter,  but  they  are  neither 
so  graceful  nor  so  grand.  Vaulted  ceil- 
ings are  more  expensive  than  plane  ones, 
but  they  are  also  susceptible  of  a  greater 
variety  of  embellishments. 

Chimnies.    A  Qbijwney  is   an  opening. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


through  a  wall  upwards,  beginning  at  one 
side  of  a  room,  and  ending  at  the  top  of 
a  wall :  its  use  is  to  warm  the  room,  and 
give  passage  to  the  smoke.  That  part  of 
the  opening  which  faces  the  room  is  the 
place  where  the  fire  is  put,  and  conse- 
quently is  called  the  fire-place  :  the  tube 
or  hollow  proceeding  from  the  fire-place 
upwards,  for  giving  vent  to  smoke,  is  call- 
ed the  funnel,  or  flue  :  the  stone  or  mar- 
ble laid  level  with  the  floor  immediately 
before  the  fire-place  is  called  the  hearth 
or  slab  ;  and  the  one  under  the  fire-place 
the  back  or  inside  hearth.  The  project- 
ing parts  of  the  walls  on  each  side  of  the 
fire-place,  forming  also  parts  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  room,  and  standing  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  hearth,  are  called  jambs : 
the  head  of  the  fire-place  in  the  surface 
of  a  room,  resting  upon  the  jambs,  is  called 
the  mantle  :  the  mantle,  and  that  part  of 
the  chimney  resting  upon  it,  forming  a 
part  of  the  side  of  the  room,  and  also  the 
whole  side  of  the  flue  to  the  top,  is  called 
the  breast ;  the  side  of  the  flue  opposite 
to  the  breast  is  called  the  back  ;  and  the 
sides  of  the  fire-place  contained  between 
the  jambs  and  the  back  are  called  covings. 
When  there  are  two  or  more  chimnies  in 
the  sume  wall,  the  flues  of  which  approach 
very  near  to  each  other,  the  thin  division 
which  separates  one  flue  from  another  is 
either  called  a  partition,  or  a  with  ;  that 
part  of  the  opening  or  horizontal  section 
opposite  to  the  mantle  of  a  fire-place  is 
called  the  throat  ;  and  that  turret  above 
the  roof  of  a  house,  containing  one  ormore 
flues,  is  called  the  shaft. 

In  stone  walls,  the  most  common  dimen- 
sions of  the  sections  of  flues  are  from  12 
to  13  inches  square,  for  fire-places  about 
03  feet  wide  in  front ;  and  those  in  brick 
walls  14  inches  by  9  inches.  The  area  of 
the  section  of  the  flue  should  always  be 
proportioned  to  the  area  of  the  fire  usual- 
ly put  in  the  fire  place,  that  is,  nearly 
equal  to  the  area  of  the  horizontal  section 
of  the  fire  itself,  excepting  at  the  throat. 
The  throat  should  be  immediately  over  the 
fire,  and  its  horizontal  dimensions  in  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  should  not  exceed 
4£,  or  5  inches  at  most.  The  fuel  grate, 
or  stove-,  should  be  brought  as  near  to  the 
throat  AS  conveniency  may  require.  The 
coving  should  be  placed  bevelling  nearer 
together  at  the  back  than  at  the  jambs, 
making  an  exterior  nngle  with  the  front 
of  the  jambs,  and  an  interior  angle  with 
the  back,  of  135  degrees  each.  The 
back  and  covings  forming  the  sides  of  the 
firt '-place  should  be  of  white  materials, 
such  as  white  stone,  or  brick  covered 
with  plaster,  which  are  most  convenient- 


ly  put  up  after  the  house  is  built.  Most 
metals  are  unfavourable  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  top  of  the  throat  should  be 
quite  level,  forming  an  abrupt  plane. 
Some  of  the  principles  in  the  construction 
of  chimnies  are  very  well  ascertained, 
others  are  not  easily  discovered  till  tried. 
The  more  the  air  that  goes  into  the  flue 
is  rarefied,  with  the  more  force  it  will 
ascend,  and  the  higher  the  flue  the  great- 
er also  will  this  force  be  ;  therefore  the 
fire  should  have  as  little  vacancy  on  either 
side  as  possible,  and  the  flue,  when  con- 
venient, should  be  carried  as  high  as  pos- 
sible, and  not  have  too  wide  an  aperture 
at  the  top.  The  situation  -of  doors  in  a 
room,  the  grate  being  placed  too  low,  and 
other  things,  often  occasion  smoke ;  but 
whatever  be  the  cause  of  it,  if  once  dis- 
covered, the  evil  may  easily  be  remedied. 
Circular  flues  are  more  favourable  for 
venting  than  those  whose  sections  are  rec- 
tangular. 

Vaults.  A  vault  is  an  interior  roof  over 
an  apartment,  rising  in  a  concave  direc- 
tion from  the  walls  which  support  it, 
eitker  meeting  the  vertex  in  a  point  or 
line,  as  when  the  section  of  the  arch  is 
Gothic  ;  or  one  continued  arch  from  the 
one  abutment  to  the  other,  as  when  the 
section  is  a  simicircle,  or  a  segment  less 
than  a  semicircle. 

The  vertical  sections  of  the  intradoes 
of  vaults  may  be  formed  by  an  infinite  va- 
riety of  curves;  but  the  most  elegant 
forms  are  either  circular  or  elliptic ;  which 
forms  of  sections  have  been  generally 
adopted  by  the  ancients  of  remote  antiqui- 
ty, by  our  ancestors  throughout  the  mid- 
dle ages,  and  by  European  nations  at  the 
present  day.  We  shall  therefore  confine 
ourselves  to  those  vaults  which  have  their 
extradoes  of  circular  and  elliptic  sections. 
A  cylindrical  vault  is  a  plain  vault,  the 
figure  of  the  extradoes  of  which  is  a  por- 
tion of  a  cylindric  surface,  terminating  on 
the  top  of  the  walls  which  support  it  in  a 
horizontal  plane,  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  cylinder.  This  is  also  called  a  cradle 
vault. 

A  cylindroidal  vault  is  a  plain  vault,  the 
figure  of  the  extradoes  of  which  springs 
from  a  horizontal  plane;  its  section  per- 
pendicular to  those  lines  is  every  where  a 
semi-ellipsis,  equal  and  similar  through- 
out, and  its  base  is  that  of  either  axis  ;  or 
it  is  sometimes  a  segment  of  an  ellipsis, 
less  than  a  semi-ellipsis,  having  an  ordi- 
nate  parallel  to  the  axis  for  its  base. 

A  dome  may  be  defined  to  be  a  vault 
rising  from  a  circular,  elliptical,  or  pe- 
lygonal  plan  or  base,  such  that  all  hori- 
zontal sections  of  the  intradoes  are  similar 


ARCHITECTURE. 


figures,  having  their  centres  in  the  same 
vertical  line  or  axis,  and  such  that  the 
plans  of  any  two  sections  may  have  the 
sides  of  similar  inscribed  figures  parallel 
to  each  other,  or  that  the  figures  of  these 
plans  may  be  concentric.  If  the  dome  is  a 
portion  of  a  sphere,  that  is,  if  its  base  be  a 
circle,  and  its  vertical  section  through  the 
centre  of  its  base  the  segment  of  a  circle, 
then  it  is  called  a  cupola. 

When  the  portion  of  a  sphere,  or  cupo- 
la, springs  from  a  wall  on  a  polygonal  plan, 
and  the  vertical  axis  of  the  sphere  passes 
through  the  middle  of  the  plan,  then  the 
spandrels,  or  triangular  spheric  portions, 
comprehended  between  the  springing 
lines  and  a  horizontal  plane  passing 
through  the  different  summits  of  the  walls, 
are  called  pendentives. 

When  two  or  more  plain  vaults  pene- 
trate or  intersect  each  other,  the  figure 
of  the  intradoes  formed  by  the  several 
branches  is  called  a  gvoin,  or  cross  vault. 
When  two  opposite  equal  branches 
meet  other  two  opposite  equal  branches 
in  two  intersecting  vertical  planes,  pass- 
ing through  the  diagonal  lines,  joining 
the  four  exterior  angles  of  the  plane,  the 
groin  may  be  called  an  equal  pitched  qua- 
drilateral groin. 

If  two  opposite  branches  of  an  equal 
pitched  groin  have  cylindrical  intradoes, 
and  their  plan  of  less  breadth  than  that 
of  the  other  two  branches,  the  groin  may 
be  called  cylindro-cylindroidal,  or  cylin- 
droido  cylindric  groin,  according  as  the 
cylindric  branches  or  the  other  two  are 
of  the  greatest  breadth. 

When  a  groin  consisting  of  four  bran- 
ches is  made  by  two  equal  portions  of 
cylindric  surfaces,  with  the  axis  of  the  one 
cutting  that  of  the  other,  it  is  called  an 
equal  pitched  cylindric  groin. 

When  two  opposite  branches  of  a  cylin- 
dric groin  are  of  less  breadth  than  the 
other  two,  it  may  be  called  an  unequal 
pitched  cylindric  groin.  This  is  called  by 
workmen  a  Welch  groin. 

When  the  branches  of  a  cylindric  groin 
are  of  equal  breadth  in  the  plan,  the  groin 
may  be  called  an  equilateral  cylindric 
groin. 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  a  geometrical  de- 
finition that  will  extend  to  all  properties 
of  vaulting,  called,  by  writers  of  the  first 
eminence,  groins.  The  first  given  is  al- 
most universal.  It  applies  not  only  to 
plain  vaults  intersecting  each  other,  but 
also  to  those  that  are  annular,  or  in  the 
form  of  semi-cylindric  rings,  intersected 
by  cylindric  or  cylindroidal  plain  vaults, 
the  axis  of  which  tends  to  that  of  the  an- 


nulus.  It  does  not,  however,  comprehend 
that  species  used  in  King  Henry  VII's 
chapel,  Westminster,  and  King's  College 
chapel,  Cambridge. 

This  species  of  groins,  instead  of  the 
horizontal  sections  of  the  curved  surfaces 
presenting  exterior  right  angles,  as  is  ge- 
nerally the  case,  present  convex  arches 
of  circles.  There  is  yet  one  property 
that  is  common  to  every  species  of  groins, 
that  is,  the  several  branches  intersect  and 
form  arches  upon  each  inclosing  wall, 
and  the  perpendicular  surface  of  the  wall 
upon  each  side  is  continued  till  it  is  inter- 
cepted by  the  intradoes  of  the  arches; 
consequently  the  upright  of  each  wall  is 
equal  in  height  to  the  summit  of  the  arch- 
es. Hence  the  difference  between  groins 
and  domes.  A  groin  is  a  branched  vault, 
and  each  branch  terminates  against  the 
enclosing  walls ;  whereas  a-  dome  is  a 
vault  without  branches,  and  the  curves 
spring  from  the  wall,  or  walls,  from  all 
points  around  its  bottom  circumference, 
whether  the  walls  stand  upon  a  polygonal, 
circulaF,  or  elliptic  plan. 

The  Greeks,  it  would  appear,  had  few 
or  no  arches  or  vaults  much  prior  to  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  from  which  time  they 
sometimes  employed  plain  vaults  with 
cylindrical  intradoes  ;  we  also  find  that 
they  used  quadrilateral,  equal  pitched 

froined  vaults,  with  cylindrical  or   cylin- 
roidal  intradoes,  or  mixed  of  both,  over 
the   passages  of  the  theatres  and  gym- 
nasia. 

The  Romans,  as  would  appear  also, 
did  not  employ  vaults  mor6  early  than  the 
Greeks.  The  Pantheon,  one  of  the  earli- 
est remaining  structures  with  arches,  was 
probably  built  by  Agrippa,  the  son-in-law 
of  Augustus,  though  some  maintain  that 
he  only  added  the  portico ;  but  of  this 
there  is  no  proof,  as  no  mention  is  made 
of  this  celebrated  building  before  his  time. 
We  find  from  Vitruvius  (lib.  iii.c.  5,)  that 
the  floors  of  temples  were  frequently  sup- 
ported by  vaults,  and  (lib.  v.  c.  1,)  that 
the  roofs  of  basilicas  were  vaulted  of  the 
tortoise  form,  which  he  distinguishes  by 
the  name  of  testudo.  This  form  of  vault- 
ing is  very  flat,  with  four  curved  sides 
springing  from  each  of  the  four  walls,  and 
it  approaches  nearly  to  that  of  a  flat  dome 
upon  a  rectangular  plan. 

We  also  find,  from  the  remains  of  Ro- 
man buildings,  the  ceilings  of  their  apart- 
ments vaulted.  The  side  apartments,  or 
chapels,  of  the  Temple  of  Peace,  and  of 
the  baths  of  Dioclesian,  have  vaults  with, 
cylindrical  intradoes,  while  the  great  rec- 
tangular apartment  in  each  of  these  edifl- 


ARC 


ARC 


ces  is  vaulted  in  the  groined  form ;  and 
it  is  remarkable  that  the  groins  are  not 
formed  by  the  intradoes  of  the  vaults  in 
the  chapels,  for  the  summits  of  the  vaults 
in  these  rise  but  a  small  distance  above 
the  springings  of  the  middle  groins.  It 
may  also  be  remarked,  that  the  piers  be- 
tween the  chapels  have  small  arcades, 
the  summits  of  which  are  considerably 
below  the  cylindrical  intradoes  of  the 
side  vaults.  This  circumstance  is  not 
peculiar  to  these  buildings,  as  is  to  be 
fouml  in  many  others.  This  is  to  be  seen 
distinctly  in  the  plates  of  the  Temple  of 
Peace,  by  Desgodetz.  The  Romans  em- 
ployed annular  vaults,  as  in  the  temple 
of  Bacchus ;  and  in  this,  as  in  the  temple 
of  Peace,  and  the  baths  of  Dioclesian,  the 
summits  of  the  arcades  supporting  the 
cylindric  wall  and  dome  of  the  central 
apartments  do  not  intersect  the  annular 
intradoes,  but  the  convex  side  of  the  cy- 
lindric wall  which  supports  this  annular 
intrados,  and  consequently  do  not  form 
groins.  The  intradoes  of  the  Roman 
domes  are  of  a  semi-circular  section,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  Pantheon,  the  temple 
of  Bacchus  at  Rome,  the  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter, and  vestibule  of  the  palace  of  Diocle- 
sian, at  Spalatro,  in  Dalmatia,  while  the 
vertical  section  of  the  extradoes  through 
the  axis  is  a  much  less  segment,  as  the 
Pantheon  at  Rome,  and  the  vestibule  and 
palace  of  Dioclesian,  exhibit.  We  have 
no  instances  among  the  Roman  or  Grecian 
buildings  of  pendentives  or  spandrels, 
which  are  supported  by  four  pillars,  or 
by  quadrangular  or  polygonal  walls,  and 
which  support  themselves  on  a  spheric 
dome  or  cylindrical  wall.  Pendentives  ris- 
ing from  four  pillars,  and  a  dome  from 
the  top  of  the  pendentives,  were  first  put 
in  practice,  it  is  said,  in  the  celebrated 
church  of  Sancta  Sophia  at  Constantino- 
pie. 

In  the  rectangular  buildings  of  the  mid- 
dle ages,  quadrangular,  equal  pitched 
groins  were  generally  used ;  and  in  cir- 
cular buildings  we  have  annular  groins, 
as  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
at  Cambridge,  and  Temple  Church,  Lon- 
don. We  have  also  mentioned  those  cu- 
rious groins  which  are  exhibited  in  the 
ceilings  of  King's  College  Chapel,  Cam- 
bridge ;  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor; 
and  King  Henry  the  Seventh's  Chapel, 
Westminster,  of  moderm  invention. 

In  the  present  day,  every  species  of 
vaulting,  that  were  either  used  by  the  an- 
cients or  throughout  the  middle  ages,  are 
employed,  both  for  the  sake  of  variety, 
tnd  for  elegance. 


It  does  not  appear  that  the  ancients 
were  acquainted  with  cylindrical,  unequal 
pitched  groins,  at  least  by  way  of  orna- 
ment ;  this  form  is,  however,  very  beauti- 
ful, as  the  arcades  above  the  passage 
through  the  front  of  Somerset-House 
clearly  exhibit. 

AIICHYTAS,  of  Tarentum,  in  biogra- 
phy, a  celebrated  mathematician,  cosmo- 
grapher,  and  Pythagorean  philosopher,  of 
whom  Horace  says, 

Jllaris  ac  terne,  mimeroque  caren- 

tis  arenas 
Men&orem  cohibent,  Jlrchyta,  &?c. 

He  flourished  about  four  hundred  years 
before  Christ,  and  was  the  master  of  Pla- 
to, Eudoxus,  and  Philolaus.  He  gave  a 
method  of  finding  two  mean  proportion- 
als between  two  given  lines,  and  thence 
the  duplication  of  the  cube,  by  means  of 
the  conic  sections.  His  skill  in  mecha- 
nics was  such,  that  he  was  said  to  be  the 
inventor  of  the  crane  and  the  screw  ;  and 
he  made  a  wooden  pigeon  that  could  fly 
about,  when  it  was  once  set  oflf;  but  it 
could  not  rise  again  of  itself,  after  it 
rested.  He  wrote  several  works,  though 
none  of  them  are  now  extant,  particularly 
a  treatise  Tie  pi  TX  iWfo,  De  Universe, 
cited  by  Simplicius  in  Arist.  Categ.  It 
is  said  he  invented  the  ten  categories. 
He  acquired  great  reputation  both  in  his 
legislative  and  military  capacity  ;  having 
commanded  an  army  seven  times  without 
ever  being  defeated.  He  was  at  last  ship- 
wrecked, and  drowned  in  the  Adriatic  sea. 

Archytas  was  distinguished  through 
life  by  modesty  and  self-command.  He 
maintained,  that  virtue  was  to  be  pursued 
for  its  own  sake  in  every  condition  of  life  ; 
that  all  excess  is  inconsistent  with  virtue; 
that  the  mind  is  more  injured  by  prospe- 
rity than  by  adversity  ;  that  there  is  no 
pestilence  so  pernicious  to  human  happi- 
ness as  pleasure;  and  that  the  love  of  it 
is  a  disease  destructive  to  the  human, 
mind. 

ARCTIC,  in  astronomy,  an  epithet  giv- 
en to  the  north  pole,  and  likewise  to  a  cir- 
cle of  the  sphere  parallel  to  the  equator, 
and  23  degrees  30  minutes  distant  from 
the  north  pole. 

ARCT1UM,  the  Burdock,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  Syngenesia  Polygamia  Equa- 
lis  class  of  plants  ;  the  common  calyx  of 
which  is  globose  and  imbricated  ;  the 
compound  flower  is  tubulated  and  uni- 
form, with  equal  hermaphrodite  corollulae: 
the  proper  flower  is  monopetalous  and 
tubulous,  with  a  slender  and  very  long 


ARCTOMYS. 


tube  ;  there  is  no  pericarpium ;  the  cup  is 
connive nt  and  the  seed  single,  vertically 
pyramidical,  and  crowned  with  a  simple 
down,  shorter  than  the  seed.  There  are 
two  species;  viz.  the  Laffa  and  Bar- 
dana. 

ARCTOMYS,    the   marmot,    in   natural 
history,  a  genus  of  the    Mammalia  class 
of  animals,  of  which  the  generic  charac- 
ter is,  front  teeth  two  in  each  jaw,  strong, 
sharp,  and  cuneated ;    grinders  in  the  up- 
per jaw,  five  on  each  side,  in  the  lower 
jaw  four ;  clavicles  or  collar  bones  per- 
fect.   This  genus  differs  but  little  from 
the   Mus  tribe,  so  that  naturalists   have 
sometimes  doubted  whether  they  should 
be  separated  into  distinct  genera.    Tljjey 
are  diurnal  animals ;  feed  on  roots,  grain, 
and   fruits,  which   they  often  collect  in 
heaps.     They    reside    in    subterraneous 
holes,  and  become  torpid  in  the  winter. 
The   head  is  gibbous,  or  rounded,  with 
short  ears,  or    none;    body  thick;    tail 
short ;  hairy  ;   fore  feet  four-toed,  with  a 
very  short  thumb  ;    hind  feet  five-toed ; 
coecum  large.    There  are  eleven  species, 
of  which  we  shall  notice  the  following : 
1.  Arctomys  marmota,  or  Alpine  marmot : 
ears  short,  round  ;   body  brown,  beneath 
reddish.     It  inhabits  dry  open  places,  on 
the  summits  of  the   Alps  and  Pyrenees  ; 
feeds   naturally  on  roots,  herbs,  and  in- 
sects ;  when  tamed,  it  will  eat  any  thing 
that  is  offered  ;  drinks  little  ;  basks  in  the 
sun  ;  lives  among  small  tribes,  with  a  cen- 
tinel   placed,  to  give  notice   of  danger, 
which  is  done  with  a  hiss ;  forms  a  bur- 
row, with  many  chambers  and  entrances, 
for  the  summer  ;  another  lined  with  soft 
grass,  in  which  it  remains  torpid  during 
winter.;  it  eats  with  its  fore  paws;  walks 
on  its  heels,  often  erect ;  is  easily  caught 
when  out  of  its  burrow  ;  in  a  tame  state 
very  destructive  of  food,  cloaths,  and  fur- 
niture ;    hardly   kept   awake   in    winter, 
even   in  warm  chambers ;    gravid  seven 
weeks,  and  brings  from  two  to  four  at  a 
time.     These  animals  make  no  provision 
for  the  winter,  but  as  soon  as  the  frosts 
set  in  they  carefully  stop  up  the  entrances 
to  their  mansions,  and  gradually  fall  into 
a  state  of  torpidity,  in  which  they  con- 
tinue till  the   beginning  of  spring,  when 
they  awake  and  commence  their  excur- 
sions.    Before  they  retire  to  winter  quar- 
ters they  grow  excessively  fat,  and  appear 
very  emaciated  on  first   emerging  from 
them.    If  carefully  dug  up  during  the 
winter  they   may  be  conveyed  away  in 
their  sleeping  state,  and  when   brought 
into  a  wnru»  chani^  >•  gj  aduallj  :*.v.  \k»  n. 
A.  Empetra,or  Quebec  marmot, is  raiher 


larger  than  a  rabbit,  with  short'ears  and  a 
round  head.  It  inhabits  Hudson's  Bay  and 
Canada.     A.  monax,    or   ground-hog,    is 
found  in  various  parts  of  North  America, 
and  in  its  habits  and  manners  is  very  like 
that  already  noticed.     The  marmot,  when 
taken  young,  may  be  easily  domesticated, 
and  taught  to  perform  various  gesticula- 
tions,  such  as  holding  a  stick,  dancing, 
&c.     See  Plate  II.  Mammalia,  in  which 
will  be  seen   the  hamster  and  lemming, 
sometimes  called  the   Lapland  marmot ; 
descriptions  of  these  will  be  found  in  the 
article  Mus.     A  bobac,  or  grey  marmot, 
is  a  native  of  the  high,  but  milder  and 
sunny    sides   of   mountainous   countries, 
which  abound  with  free-stone  rocks, where 
it  is  found  in  dry  situations.     It  frequents 
Poland  and  Russia,  among  the  Carpathian 
hills  :  it  swarms  in  the  Ukraine,  about  the 
Boristhenes,  and  between  this,  river  and 
the    Don,   and  along  the  range  of  hills 
which  extend  to  the  Wolga.     It  is  found 
about  the  Yaik,  and  inhabits  the  southern 
desert  in  Great  Tartary.    It  is  not  to  be 
seen  in  Siberia,  on  account  of  its  northern 
situation,  and  rarely  reaches  in  Kamschat- 
ka  as   high  as  55°.     The  colour  is  grey 
above,  with  the  throat,  inside  of  the  limbs, 
and  under  parts  of  the  body,  fulvous  or 
ferruginous  ;  the  tail  is  short,  rather  slen- 
der, and  full  of  hair.     Its  manner  of  life 
resembles  the  Alpine  marmot.    The  holes 
of  these  animals  are  lined  with  the  finest 
hay,  and  in  such  quantities,  that,  it  is  said, 
enough  has  been  found  in  a  single  recep- 
tacle to  feed  a  horse  for  a  night.     A.  ci- 
tillus,  or  variegated  marmot,  is  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  the    species :    in  size  it 
differs  very  much  :    some  are  as  large  as 
the  Alpine  marmot,  and  others  not^larger 
than  a  common  water  rat.     The  variega- 
ted marmot  inhabits  Bohemia  and  other 
parts  of  Germany,  from  the  banks  of  the 
Wolga  to  India  and  Persia,  through  Sibe- 
ria and  Great  Tartary  to  Kamschatka,  and 
even  the  continent  of  America.     It  is  not 
certain  that  these  sleep  in  the  winter  like 
others    of   the    Arctomys  genus.     They 
breed  in  the  spring,  and  produce  from, 
five  to  eight  at  a  time.     They  are  said  to 
be    irascible    and     quarrelsome    among 
themselves,  and  their  bite  is  very  severe. 
They  feed  not  only  on  animal  food,  but 
on  small  birds  and  other  animals,  which 
they  will  kill.  They  are  easily  tamed,  and 
will  grow  familiar  in   a  few  days.     They 
are  extremely  clean,  and  after  feeding  ge- 
nerally wash  their  faces,  and  clean  their 
fur.     Like  other  domestic  animals,  they 
are  fond  of  being  caressed,  and  will  feed 
from  the  hand.    Their  sleep  is  profound 


ARD 


ARD 


during  the  whole  night,  and  in  cold  and 
rainy  weather  through  the  greater  part  of 
the  <ia\  See  Plate  II.  Mammalia,  fig.  1, 
2,  and  5. 

ARCTOPUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Polygamia  Dioecia  class  of  plants,  the 
general  umbel  of  which  is  long  and  une- 
qual ;  the  partial  umbel  is  shorter;  the 
invpluera  consists  of  five  leaves;  the  co- 
rolla of  five  petals  ;  the  fruit  is  single  and 
bilocular,  and  stands  under  the  recepta- 
cle of  the  floscule ;  the  seed  is  single, 
cordated,  and  acuminated.  There  is 
but  one  species. 

ARCTOTHECA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  Syngenesia  Necessaria ;  receptacle 
cellular  and  chaffy  ;  calyx  imbricate. 
There  is  but  one  species. 

ARCTOTIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Syngenesia  Necessaria  class  of  plants, 
the  common  calyx  of  which  is  roundish 
and  imbricated;  the  compound  flower  is 
radiated ;  the  hermaphrodite  corollulse 
are  tubulous  and  numerous  in  the  disk : 
the  proper  hermaphrodite  flowers  are 
funnel-shaped;  there  is  no  pericarpium; 
the  seed  is  single,  roundish  and  hairy. 
This  genus  is  separated  into  the  following 
divisions:  A.  receptacle  villous,  31  spe- 
cies; B.  receptacle  chaffy,  11  species; 
C.  doubtful,  18  species. 

ARCTURUS,  a  fixed  star  of  the  first 
magnitude,  in  the  skirt  of  Bootes,  so 
called  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being 
near  the  tail  of  the  Bear.  It  has  been 
thought  to  be  the  nearest  fixed  star  to 
our  system  visible  in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere, because  the  variation  of  its  place, 
in  consequence  of  a  proper  motion  of  its 
own,  is  more  remarkable  than  that  of  any 
other  of  the  stars;  and  by  comparing  a 
variety  of  observations  respecting  the 
quantity  and  direction  of  the  motion  of 
this  star,  he  infers,  that  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic  decreases  at  the  rate  of  58" 
in  100  years,  a  quantity  that  nearly  cor- 
responds to  the  mean  of  the  computations 
framed  by  the  celebrated  Euler  and  La- 
lande  upon  the  more  unerring  principles 
of  attraction. 

ARCTUS,  in  astronomy,  the  Greek 
name  for  the  Ursa  Major  and  Minor. 

ARDEA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  order  of  Grallae.  The  cha- 
racters of  this  genus  are,  a  long,  strong, 
sharp-pointed  bill ;  nostrils  linear  ;  tongue 
pointed  ;  toes  connected  by  a  membrane 
as  far  as  the  first  joint ;  the  middle  claw 
of  some  of  the  species,  of  which  there 
are  79,  pectinated.  This  genus  is  sepa- 
rated into  five  divisions,  viz.  A.  crested  ; 
bill  hardly  longer  than  the  head  ;  B. 


cranes,  bald;    C.  storks,  orbits   naked; 

D.  herons,  middle  cJaw  serrate  inwardly ; 

E.  bill  gaping  in  the  middle. 

Some  ornithologists  have  seperated  the 
herons  from  the  storks  and  cranes  ;  others, 
preferring  the  Linnxan  system,  class  the 
whole  under  one  germs,  which,  according 
to  Gmelin,  consists  of  nearly  100  species, 
though  Latham  enumerated"  but  79.  They 
are  widely  distributed  over  various  parts 
of  the  globe,  differing  in  sfze,  figure,  and 
plumage,  and  with  talons  adapted  to  their 
various  places  of  residence,  or  their  pecu- 
liar pursuits.  But,  notwithstanding  the 
variety  in  their  bills  and  plumage,  the 
manners  of  all  are  nearly  the  same,  so 
also  is  their  character,  which  is  stigmatiz- 
ed with  cowardice  and  rapacity,  indo- 
lence, and  yet  insatiable  hunger;  and  it 
has  been  observed,  that,  from  the  meagre- 
looking  form  of  their  bodies,  one  would 
suppose  the  greatest  abundance  almost 
insufficient  for  their  support. 

Ardea  pavonia.  This  is  as  large  as  the 
common  heron  ;  the  length  two  feet  nine 
inches ;  the  bill  is  two  inches  and  a  half 
long,  straight,  and  of  a  brownish  colour ; 
irides  grey ;  the  crown  of  the  head  covered 
with  soft  black  feathers  like  velvet;  on  the 
hind  part  is  a  tuft  composed  of  hair,  or 
rather  bristles,  arising  near  each  other  at 
the  base,  and  spreading  out  on  all  sides  in  a 
globular  form;  this  is  four  inches  in  length, 
and  of  a  reddish  brown  colour ;  the  sides  of 
the  head  are  bare  of  feathers,  being  cover- 
ed only  by  a  fleshy  membrane  of  a  reddish 
colour  at  the  lower  part,  and  in  shape  not 
unlike  a  kidney  ;  on  each  side  of  the  throat 
hangs  a  kind  of  wattle  ;  the  general  colour 
of  the  bird  bluish-ash  ;  the  feathers  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  neck  are  very  long,  and 
hang  over  the  breast ;  wing  coverts  white  ; 
the  greater  ones  incline  to  rufous,and  those 
farthest  from  the  body  to  black;  the  greater 
quills  and  tail  are  black,  and  the  seconda- 
ries chesnuts  ;  the  legs  and  the  bare  part 
above  the  knee  are  dusky.  The  female 
is  black  where  the  male  is  blue-ash  ;  and 
the  wattles  on  the  throat  are  wanting ;  the 
long  feathers  on  the  breast  are  also  less 
conspicuous.  This  beautiful  species  is  an 
inhabitant  of  Africa,  particularly  the  coast 
of  Guinea,  as  far  as  Cape  Verd ;  at  this 
last  place  they  are  said  to  be  wonderfully 
tame,  and  will  often  come  into  the  court- 
yards to  feed  with  the  poultry.  Why  the 
name  of  Balearic  crane  has  been  given  to 
this  bird  is  not  well  ascertained,  as  it  is 
certainly  not  met  with  in  the  Balearic 
Islands  at  this  day.  These  birds  are  often 
kept  in  our  menageries,  and  with  shelter 
at  night  often  live  a  good  while.  Their 


ARDEA. 


chief  food  is  supposed  to  be  worms,  and 
such  other  things  as  the  heron  tribe  usual- 
ly feed  on;  also  vegetables  of  ull  kinds.  It 
often  sleeps  on  one  leg,  runs  very  fast, 
and  is  said  not  only  to  fly  well,  but  to 
sustain  it  for  a  long  time  together.  The 
flesh  of  this  bird  is  said  to  be  very  tough. 
Ardea  virgo,  or  the  Numidian  crane. 
Size  of  the  crane  ;  length  three  feet  three 
inches  :  the  bill  straight,  two  inches  and  a 
half  long,  greenish  at  the  base,  then  yel- 
lowish, with  the  tip  red  ;  irides  crimson. 
The  crown  of  the  head  is  ash-colour ;  the 
rest  of  the  head,  the  upper  part  of  the 
neck  behind,  and  all  the  under  parts  to 
the  breast  black  ;  on  the  last,  the  feathers 
are  long  and  hang  downwards  ;  the  back, 
rump,  and  tail,  and  all  the  under  part 
from  the  breast,  are  of  a  bluish  ash-colour; 
behind  each  eye  springs  a  tuft  of  long 
white  feathers,  which  decline  downwards, 
and  hang  in  an  elegant  manner ;  the  quills 
and  tail  are  black  at  the  ends ;  the  legs 
are  black.  This  species  is  found  in  many 

Earts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  In  the  first,  it  has 
een  met  with  on  the  coast  of  Guinea ; 
but  is  most  plentiful  about  Bildulgerid, 
(the  ancient  Numidia,)  and  Tripoli ;  from 
thence  along  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  and  pretty  common  in  Egypt. 
They  are  also  at  Aleppo,  and  in  the 
southern  plain  about  the  black  and  Cas- 
pian Seas;  and  are  seen  frequently  be- 
yond Lake  Baikal,  about  the  rivers  Se- 
lenga  and  Argun,  but  never  venture  to 
the  northward.  In  all  places  they  prefer 
marshes  and  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers, 
as  their  food  is  fish,  like  most  of  the  heron 
genus.  It  is  frequently  kept  in  menage- 
ries, being  endowed  with  great  gentle- 
ness of  manners,  added  to  its  being  an 
elegant  bird.  At  various  times  it  puts 
itself  into  strange  and  uncouth  attitudes, 
and  especially  those  which  imitate  danc- 
ing :  and  Keysler  mentions  one  in  the 
Great  Duke's  Gallery  at  Florence,  which 
had  been  taught  to  dance  to  a  certain 
tune  when  played  or  sung  to  it.  The 
name  this  bird  is  known  by  in  the  east 
is  Kurki,  or  Querky.  See  Plate  II.  Aves, 
fig.  7. 

Ardea  grus.  This  is  a  large  bird,  not 
unfrequently  weighing  ten  pounds,  and 
measures  more  than  five  feet  in  length. 
This  species  seems  far  spread,  being  met 
with  in  great  flocks  throughout  northern 
Europe  and  Asia,  in  Sweden,  Russia 
throughout,  and  Siberia  as  far  as  the  river 
Anadyr,  migrating  even  to  the  Arctic  Cir- 
cle. In  Kamtschatka  only  seen  on  the 
southern  promontory  ;  are  migratory,  re- 
turning northward  to  breed  in  the  spring, 
and  generally  choosing  the  same  places 
•which  had  been  occupied  by  them  the 


season  before.  In  the  winter  they  inhabit 
the  warmer  regions,  such  as  Egypt,  Alep- 
po, India,  Sec  they  are  also  met  with  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  changing  place 
with  the  season.  In  their  migrations  fre- 
quently fly  so  high  as  not  to  be  visible, 
their  passage  only  being  known  by  the 
noise  they  make,  being  louder  than  that 
of  any  other  bird.  In  France  they  are 
seen  in  spring  and  autumn ;  but  for  the 
most  part  are  mere  passengers  We  are 
told  that  they  frequented  the  marshes  of 
Lincolnshire"  and  Cambridgeshire,  in  vast 
flocks,  formerly  ;  but  the  case  is  altered, 
as  of  late  none  have  been  met  with,  ex- 
cept, a  few  years  since,  a  single  bird  shot 
near  Cambridge.  We  are  told  that  they 
make  their  nests  in  marshes,  and  lay  two 
bluish  eggs.  The  young  birds  are  thought 
very  good  food.  They  feed  on  reptiles  of 
all  kinds,  and,  in  turn,  on  green  corn ;  of 
which  last  they  are  said  to  make  so  great 
havoc,  as  to  ruin  the  farmers  wherever 
the  flocks  of  these  depredators  alight. 

Ardea  ciconia,  or  white  stork,  is  the 
size  of  a  turkey,  inhabits  in  turns  the 
various  parts  of  the  old  continent,  avoid- 
ing alike  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold, 
being  never  met  with  between  the  tro- 
pics, nor  scarcely  ever  seen  more  north 
than  Sweden,  or  in  Russia  beyond  50°. 
It  never  frequents  Siberia,  though  it  is 
sometimes  found  in  Bucharia,  where  it 
makes  its  nest,  tending  towards  the  south 
in  autumn,  to  winter  in  Egypt.  It  is  rare- 
ly met  with  in  England,  though  well 
known  in  France  and  Holland.  They 
every  where  build  on  the  tops  of  houses, 
and  the  good  natured  inhabitants  provide 
boxes  for  them  to  make  their  nests  in ; 
they  not  only  do  this,  but  are  particularly 
careful  that  the  birds  suffer  no  injury,  re- 
senting it  as  done  to  themselves.  'At  Bag- 
dad they  are  to  be  seen  on  every  house, 
wall,  and  tree,  quite  tame.  At  Persepolis 
the  remains  of  the  pillars  serve  them  to 
build  on,  every  pillar  having  a  nest.  They 
are  thought  to  have  two  broods  in  a  year, 
the  first  towards  the  north,  the  latter  in 
warmer  places ;  and  are  seen  in  vast 
flocks  during  their  migrations.  The  fe- 
male makes  a  large  nest,  and  lays  from 
two  to  four  eggs.  The  young  are  hatch- 
ed in  a  month  ;  the  male  and  female  watch 
them  by  turns  till  they  can  provide  for 
themselves.  The  stork  sleeps  on  one  leg, 
and  snaps  with  its  bill  in  a  singular  man- 
ner. Its  food  consists  in  snakes  and  other 
reptiles ;  hence  the  veneration  of  all  per- 
sons for  this  bird,  which  frees  them  from 
such  pests. 

Ardea  stellaris,  or  bittern.  This  is  an 
elegant  species,  and  is  somewhat  less  than 
the  heron ;  length  two  feet  six  inches ; 


ARE 


ARE 


the  bill  brown,  beneath  inclining  to  green; 
iricles  yellow  ;  the  head  feathers  are  long1, 
and  those  of  the  neck  loose  and  waving; 
the  crown  of  the  head  black;  the  lower 
jaw  on  each  side  dusky;  the  plumage 
in  general  is  beautifully  variegated;  the 
ground  A  ferruginous  yellow,  palest  be- 
neath, marked  with  numerous  bars, 
streaks,  and  zigzag  lines  of  black;  the  legs 
are  pale  green  ;  claws  long  and  slender  ; 
and  the  inner  edge  on  the  middle  claw 
serrated.  The  female  is  less,  darker  co- 
loured, and  the  feathers  on  the  head  and 
neck  less  flowing  than  in  the  male.  This 
is  a  common  bird,  we  believe,  in  most  of 
the  temperate  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe ;  in  some  of  the  colder,  migrato- 
ry ;  with  us  it  remains  the  whole  year ; 
frequents  marshy  places,  and  especially 
where  reeds  grow,  among  which  it  makes 
its  nest  in  April,  which  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  a  bed  of  rushes,  Sec.  The  female 
lays  four  or  five  eggs,  of  a  pale  greenish 
ash  colour ;  the  young  are  hatched  in 
twenty-five  days.  It  is  an  indolent  bird, 
stirring  very  little  in  the  day  unless  dis- 
turbed ;  though  if  once  roused  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  shoot,  as  it  flies  heavily.  In  the 
evening,  after  sun-set,  it  is  seen  to  soar 
aloft  in  a  spiral  ascent,  till  quite  out  of 
sight,  and  this  chiefly  in  autumn,  making 
a  singular  kind  of  noise  ;  it  has  also  ano- 
ther noise,  like  that  of  a  bellowing  bull, 
beginning  in  February,  and  ceasing  after 
"breeding-time;  but  this  is  done  while  on 
the  ground.  If  attacked  by  dogs  or  men, 
it  defends  itself  well ;  and  is  said  to  strike 
at  the  eyes  of  the  enemy.  The  food  is 
frogs,  mice,  and  other  reptiles,  which  it 
swallows  whole,  as  well  as  fish.  Latham 
remembers  to  have  found  two  middle- 
sized  trouts  in  the  stomach  of  one,  per- 
fectly whole.  It  is  reckoned  pretty  good 
eating.  See  Plate  III.  Aves,  fig.  7.  and 
Plate  IV.  fig.  1. 

ARDISIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Pentandria  Monogynia  class  and  order. 
Calyx  five-leaved ;  corol.  salver-shaped, 
with  the  border  reflected;  antheras  large, 
erect;  stigma  simple;  drupe  superior: 
one-seeded.  There  are  nine  species. 

ARDUINA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
Pentandria  Monogynia  class  and  order. 
Corol.  one-petalled  ;  stigma  bifid  ;  berry 
two-celled ;  seeds  solitary ;  a  shrub  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope 

ARE,  in  French  measure,  is  a  superfi- 
cial unit,  or  a  square,  the  side  of  which  is 
100  metres  in  length,  or  10,000  square 
metres ;  the  rectilineal  metre  being  3.281 


feet,  the  are  will  be  1076.49  square  feet.. 
The  tenth  of  an  are,  called  deciare,  is  a 
superficies  100  metres  long,  and  10 
broad  ;  or  1000  square  metres  =  1076.49; 
and  the  centiare,  equal  to  100  square  me- 
tres, is  1076.49  square  feet.  See  MEA- 
SURE. 

AREA,  in  geometry,  denotes  the  super- 
ficial content  of  any  figure ;  thus,  if  we 
suppose  a  parallelogram  six  inches  long, 
and  four  broad,  its  Area  will  be  6  X  4  =24 
square  inches. 

ARECA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
the  characters  of  which  are  not  perfectly 
ascertained ;  the  calyx  of  the  male  flower 
is  a  bivalve  spatha,  the  spadix  is  ramose ; 
the  corolla  consists  of  three  acuminated 
petals  ;  the  stamina  are  nine  filaments,  of 
which  the  three  exterior  ones  are  the 
longest;  the  female  flowers  are  in  the 
same  spadix  and  spatha;  the  corolla  is 
like  the  male  corolla ;  the  fruit  is  a  sub- 
oval  fibrose  drupe,  surrounded  at  the  base 
with  an  imbricated  calyx,  and  containing 
an  oval  seed. 

There  are  three  species,  of  which  the 
oryzseformis  is  the  cabbage-tree  of  the 
East  Indies.  The  oleracea  is  found  in  the 
West  Indies,  the  green  tops  of  which  are 
cut  and  eaten  as  a  cabbage. 

ARENARIA,  sand-ivort,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  Decandria  Trigynia.  Calyx 
fi verleaved,  spreading ;  petals  five,  en- 
tire ;  capsule  superior,  one-celled,  many- 
seeded.  There  are  36  species. 

AREXARIUS,  the  name  of  a  book  of 
Archimedes,  in  which  is  demonstrated, 
that  not  only  the  sands  of  the  earth,  but 
even  a  greater  quantity  of  particles  than 
could  be  obtained  in  the  immense  sphere 
of  the  fixed  stars,  might  be  expressed  by 
numbers,  in  a  way  invented  and  described 
by  himself. 

AREOMETER,  an  instrument  by  which 
the  density  and  gravity  of  fluids  are  mea- 
sured. The  invention  of  this  instrument 
is  ascribed  to  Hypatia,  the  daughter  of 
Theo,  in  the  fourth  century.  It  is  usually 
made  of  glass,  consisting  of  a  round  hol- 
low ball,  which  terminates  in  a  long  slen- 
der neck,  hermetically  sealed  at  top, 
there  being  first  as  much  running  mer- 
cury put  into  it  as  will  serve  to  balance, 
or  keep  it  in  an  erect  position.  The  neck 
or  stem  is  divided  into  degrees,  and  by 
,the  depth  of  its  descent  into  any  liquor 
the  lightness  of  that  liquor  is  estimated, 
for  the  fluid  in  which  it  sinks  least  is  the 
heaviest;  and  that  in  which  it  sinks  lowi 
est  is  lightest.  See  HYDROMETER. 


END  OF  VOL.  I. 


Of  IBB 


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